Women’s Experiences of Immigration Detention in Italy: Examining Immigration Procedural Fairness, Human Dignity, and Health
Abstract
Recent decades have witnessed a growing number of states around the world relying on border control measures, such as immigration detention, to govern human mobility and control the movements of those classified as “unauthorised non-citizens.” In response to this, an increasing number of scholars from several disciplines, including psychologists, have begun to examine this phenomenon. In spite of the widespread concerns raised, few studies have been conducted inside immigration detention sites, primarily due to difficulties in gaining access. This body of research becomes even scanter when it comes to the experiences of detained women. This study is the first of its kind to have surveyed 93 women confined in an Italian immigration detention facility. A partial mediation model with latent variables was tested through partial least structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The findings revealed the negative impact that unfair immigration procedures have on detained women’s human dignity, which in turn negatively affects their self-rated physical and mental health. Overall, our study sheds light on the dehumanisation and damage to human dignity that immigration detention entails, as well as its negative impact on the health of those affected. This evidence reinforces the image of these institutions as sites of persistent injustice, while stressing the need to envision alternative justice-oriented forms to address human mobility
Full text
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 12 July 2022
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.798629
Edi ed by:
Lenna Lo ås,
Wes e n No way Uni e si y o Applied
Sciences, No way
Re iewed by:
Amy Ne he y,
Deakin Uni e si y, Aus alia
Aina Helen Løbe g,
Wes e n No way Uni e si y o Applied
Sciences, No way
*Co espondence:
F ancesca Esposi o
.esposi o@wes mins e .ac.uk
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Cul u al Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 20 Oc obe 2021
Accep ed: 30 Ma ch 2022
Published: 12 July 2022
Ci a ion:
Esposi o F, Di Ma ino S,
B iozzo E, A cidiacono C and
O nelas J (2022) Women’s
Expe iences o Immig a ion De en ion
in I aly: Examining Immig a ion
P ocedu al Fai ness, Human Digni y,
and Heal h.
F on . Psychol. 13:798629.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.798629
Women’s Expe iences o Immig a ion
De en ion in I aly: Examining
Immig a ion P ocedu al Fai ness,
Human Digni y, and Heal h
F ancesca Esposi o1,2*, Sal a o e Di Ma ino3, E ica B iozzo4, Ca e ina A cidiacono5and
Jose O nelas4
1School o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Wes mins e , London, Uni ed Kingdom, 2Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais,
Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Po ugal, 3School o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o B ad o d, B ad o d, Uni ed Kingdom,
4Applied Psychology Resea ch Cen e Capabili ies and Inclusion, ISPA-Ins i u o Uni e si á io, Lisbon, Po ugal, 5Depa men
o Humani ies, Uni e si y o Naples Fede ico II, Naples, I aly
Recen decades ha e wi nessed a g owing numbe o s a es a ound he wo ld elying
on bo de con ol measu es, such as immig a ion de en ion, o go e n human mobili y
and con ol he mo emen s o hose classi ied as “unau ho ised non-ci izens.” In
esponse o his, an inc easing numbe o schola s om se e al disciplines, including
psychologis s, ha e begun o examine his phenomenon. In spi e o he widesp ead
conce ns aised, ew s udies ha e been conduc ed inside immig a ion de en ion si es,
p ima ily due o di icul ies in gaining access. This body o esea ch becomes e en
scan e when i comes o he expe iences o de ained women. This s udy is he i s
o i s kind o ha e su eyed 93 women con ined in an I alian immig a ion de en ion
acili y. A pa ial media ion model wi h la en a iables was es ed h ough pa ial leas
s uc u al equa ion modelling (PLS-SEM). The indings e ealed he nega i e impac ha
un ai immig a ion p ocedu es ha e on de ained women’s human digni y, which in u n
nega i ely a ec s hei sel - a ed physical and men al heal h. O e all, ou s udy sheds
ligh on he dehumanisa ion and damage o human digni y ha immig a ion de en ion
en ails, as well as i s nega i e impac on he heal h o hose a ec ed. This e idence
ein o ces he image o hese ins i u ions as si es o pe sis en injus ice, while s essing
he need o en ision al e na i e jus ice-o ien ed o ms o add ess human mobili y.
Keywo ds: immig a ion de en ion, immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, human digni y, heal h, pa ial leas s uc u al
equa ion modelling, women, I alian de en ion sys em
INTRODUCTION
Since he la e 1990s, s a es ac oss he globe ha e inc easingly used bo de con ol measu es such
as immig a ion de en ion o go e n human mobili y and con ine hose deemed “unau ho ised
non-ci izens” (Boswo h and Tu nbull, 2015;Ne he y and Sil e man, 2015;Fu man e al.,
2016;Tu nbull, 2017). These de elopmen s aise u gen conce ns in e ms o social jus ice
and he exclusiona y na u e o ci izenship as a mechanism o pe pe ua e and u he deepen
s uc u al powe di e en ials. Indeed, while people wi h ci izenship s a us can gene ally only be
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Esposi o e al. Women’s Expe ience o Immig a ion De en ion in I aly
inca ce a ed i cha ged o con ic ed o a c iminal o ence, non-
ci izens a e being sys ema ically de ained, some imes e en o
inde ini e pe iods, in he name o immig a ion p ocedu es and
na ional secu i y (Boswo h and Tu nbull, 2015;Cle eland e al.,
2018).
In esponse o hese conce ns, an inc easing numbe o
schola s om se e al disciplines, including psychologis s, ha e
u ned hei e o s owa d s udying his phenomenon. Mos o
he s udies a ailable in he medical and psychological ields ha e
been de o ed o assessing he e ec s o immig a ion de en ion
on hose subjec o his o m o con inemen (see Robjan e al.,
2009a;Boswo h, 2016;Filges e al., 2016; on We he n e al.,
2018).
Despi e he exis ing di e ences ac oss se ings and
ju isdic ions, indings om his body o clinical li e a u e
a e consis en in highligh ing he high human cos s associa ed
wi h immig a ion de en ion measu es. These p oduce a high
nega i e impac on he physical and men al heal h o de ained
adul s, adolescen s, and child en, he majo i y o whom ha e
also endu ed p e ious iolence and abuse (Robjan e al., 2009b;
Boswo h, 2016;Filges e al., 2016). A ecen sys ema ic li e a u e
e iew conduc ed by on We he n e al. (2018) ein o ced hese
indings, showing ha hey also apply o coun ies like Sweden,
whe e de en ion s anda ds a e ega ded as ela i ely benign. This
e idence aises se ious conce ns abou he use o immig a ion
de en ion and i s sho -, medium-, and long- e m impac on
indi iduals, amilies, and communi ies a la ge [on his poin
see also he socie y o communi y esea ch and ac ion (SCRA)
S a emen s by Chicco e al. (2016) and Langhou e al. (2018)].
Whils he alue o his schola ship is undeniable, we
ne e heless no e ha i o en limi s i s analysis o he
consequences o de en ion o diagnosable men al heal h
symp oms (e.g., dep ession, anxie y, and pos - auma ic s ess
diso de ) (Co ey e al., 2010;Esposi o e al., 2015). This
app oach, as i is mainly cen ed on indi idual dimensions,
ca ies he isk o medicalising he li ed expe iences o de ained
people and suppo ing he pe cep ion o men al heal h ca e as
he p ima y solu ion o his phenomenon (McG ego , 2011;
Lykes, 2013). As explained elsewhe e (Esposi o e al., 2015), we
main ain ha he unde s anding o he subjec i e expe ience
o immig a ion de en ion and i s mul idimensional e ec s
equi es a communi y psychology ecological pe spec i e, which
concep ualises heal h and wellbeing as con ex -dependen and
in luenced by social jus ice (see P illel ensky, 2008, 2012). This
a gumen also inds i s oo in p e ious quali a i e indings
(Esposi o e al., 2019a), which highligh ed how, in line wi h
P illel ensky’s heo y o “wellness as ai ness”, de en ion cen es
can be iewed as en i onmen s which pe pe ua e “pe sis ing
condi ions o injus ice” (2012, p. 17).
Re iews o li e a u e in his ield (Boswo h, 2016; on
We he n e al., 2018) ha e also highligh ed ha empi ical
s udies on immig a ion de en ion a e p edominan ly quali a i e
in hei na u e and a ely ocus on he speci ic expe iences o
women (al hough, see Boswo h and Kellezi, 2014;Boswo h
e al., 2016, 2018;Canning, 2017;Esposi o e al., 2019b,
2020a;De Angelis, 2020;Abji and La ios, 2021). One no able
excep ion is ep esen ed by he quan i a i e s udy conduc ed
by Cwikel e al. (2004), which examined he men al heal h
o Russian women de ained in Is ael. The indings how
he emale pa icipan s expe ienced high a es o subs ance
abuse, dep ession, psychosoma ic symp oms, and pos - auma ic
s ess diso de (PTSD) (Cwikel e al., 2004). Howe e , he
in es iga ion did no include a iables associa ed wi h he
de en ion en i onmen and he ea men /expe iences he ein o
assessing women’s men al heal h ou comes.
Despi e his gap, ex an quali a i e esea ch indica es ha
women in de en ion ace pa icula challenges and p esen
gende -speci ic needs, ulne abili ies, and esiliencies (Boswo h
and Kellezi, 2014;Boswo h e al., 2016, 2018). Mos women
also epo expe iences o gende ed iolence, including sexual,
domes ic and/o ep oduc i e iolence (Kal e al., 2013;Esposi o
e al., 2019b). Ye , hese expe iences a e a ely acknowledged
as g ounds o p o ec ion (Esposi o e al., 2019b, 2020a,b). This
body o wo k, which is o en cha ac e ised by a eminis s ance,
sheds ligh on he gende ed aspec s o he li es o women
labelled as “unau ho ised non-ci izens” be o e, du ing and a e
hei con inemen .
Based on he abo e conside a ions, and in o de o ill he
knowledge gaps iden i ied, he p esen s udy is he i s o i s
kind o quan i a i ely analyse he heal h expe iences o 93 women
de ained o mig a ion- ela ed easons. In pa icula , we ocus on
wo key a iables, namely immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and
human digni y, which—as o he schola s ha e highligh ed—play
a key ole on he physical and men al heal h o people con ined
in de en ion acili ies.
Immig a ion P ocedu al Fai ness and
De ained People’s Heal h
Despi e he dea h o quan i a i e s udies on hese ma e s,
se e al quali a i e and heo e ical con ibu ions ha e examined
he ole o immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness on he heal h and
wellbeing o illegalised non-ci izens de ained unde immig a ion
powe s.
In he seminal pape on he “c immig a ion c isis”, S ump
(2006) a gued ha al hough he con e gence o immig a ion
and c iminal jus ice sys ems is inc easingly e iden , he
dis inc ion emains ha “ he cons i u ional igh s o non-
ci izens in immig a ion p oceedings a e a mo e limi ed han
hose o c iminal de endan s” (p. 392). O he schola s, such
as Ma y Boswo h (2014, 2019), ha e con i med S ump ’s
a gumen h ough empi ical esea ch on he ewe p o ec ions
g an ed o de ained non-ci izens. This body o c iminological
and c i ical legal schola ship shows ha he immig a ion
sys em does no o e he same le els o due p ocess and
p ocedu al ai ness as he c iminal jus ice one (on his
poin , see Wilshe , 2011;He nández, 2014;Thwai es, 2014).
This dispa a e ea men “gene a es di e en ial, and mo e
bu densome, ou comes, d awing undamen al p inciples o
equali y [and jus ice] in o ques ion” (Boswo h, 2019, p. 88).
In pa icula , in he li e a u e e iew, Boswo h (2016)
highligh s how a lack o consis en and anspa en in o ma ion
and communica ion abou immig a ion cases/p ocesses has been
iden i ied as a nega i e key ac o o he men al heal h o
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Esposi o e al. Women’s Expe ience o Immig a ion De en ion in I aly
people in de en ion (Boswo h, 2016). O he schola s ha e
also eached simila conclusions h ough empi ical s udies
conduc ed in a ious na ional de en ion se ings. Fo example,
Pu hooppa ambil e al. (2015) highligh “ eeling h ea ened by
he au ho i ies o coope a e wi h depo a ion” as a c ucial s esso
in he expe ience o mig an s in Swedish immig a ion de en ion
cen es. Fu he mo e, he au ho s emphasise how elemen s o
in o ma ional jus ice, such as a lack o clea and consis en
in o ma ion and explana ions abou indi idual cases, esul in
inc eased le els o unce ain y and s ess.
People held in Aus alian immig a ion de en ion cen es
also epo ed se e al ins ances o unjus ea men s (e.g., S eel
e al., 2006;Co ey e al., 2010). In pa icula , he majo i y o
pa icipan s in he s udy conduc ed by Co ey e al. oiced a
sense o unce ain y and ulne abili y o he whims o de en ion
and immig a ion s a , and “a belie ha a bi a iness, a he
han any p inciples o jus ice, go e ned he p ocessing o hei
isa applica ions” (2010, p. 2074). These indings a e echoed
by e idence ound in Canada by Cle eland e al. (2018), which
shows ha de ained people el us a ed and demeaned in
hei in e ac ions wi h immig a ion o ice s, whose decisions
we e pe cei ed as unp edic able, a bi a y, and beyond he
pa icipan s’ con ol.
Finally, in hei quan i a i e s udy on quali y o li e in B i ish
de en ion cen es, Boswo h and Kellezi (2012, 2015) poin o he
lack o p ocedu al ai ness on he pa o immig a ion s a as one
o he mos nega i e aspec s o immig a ion de en ion. Rega dless
o he speci ic acili y hey ound hemsel es in, de ained people
made a clea dis inc ion be ween cus odial s a and immig a ion
o ice s, demons a ing mo e nega i e iews on he la e .
Human Digni y and De ained People’s
Heal h
As in he case o he un ai ness o immig a ion p ocedu es,
mig an people’s accoun s o he lack o human digni y
expe ienced in immig a ion de en ion se ings is a ecu ing opic
in mos quali a i e esea ch in his ield. Fo ins ance, all he
de ained people in e iewed by Co ey e al. (2010) indica ed he
loss o libe y, as well as he s a kness and dep i a ion o he
de en ion en i onmen , as majo causes o psychological ha m.
They also epo ed mul iple ins ances o unjus and inhumane
ea men , such as being handcu ed and s ip-sea ched, which
hey ound c iminalising, puni i e, and humilia ing.
Beyond hese speci ic examples, he o e all dehumanisa ion
pe ading de en ion en i onmen s and cha ac e ising de en ion-
ela ed p ac ices con ibu es o people’s sen imen o a lack
o human digni y. An example o his can be ound in he
p ac ice o calling people by numbe a he han by name, which
has been desc ibed as qui e common ac oss di e en se ings
and ju isdic ions (Co ey e al., 2010; bu also Boswo h, 2014;
Pu hooppa ambil e al., 2015;Esposi o e al., 2019a).
Poo li ing condi ions a e also ecu en ly ci ed as a
majo s esso o de ained people, as epo ed by pa icipan s
in e iewed in Sweden by Pu hooppa ambil e al. (2015), in
addi ion o he people we me in ou quali a i e s udy in he
Rome de en ion cen e (Esposi o e al., 2019a). These condi ions
include a deg aded s a e o acili ies and do mi o ies, lack o
hygiene and inadequa e sani a y acili ies, o e c owding (see
also S eel e al., 2006), lack o i ems, ac i i ies and li ing space,
and poo -quali y ood. Complain s abou ood a e pa icula ly
equen in de en ion, since de ained people ha e e y a ying
die s, which a e also linked o hei di e en cul u al habi s and
eligious belie s. Hence, i is no su p ising ha ood is one o he
main ac o s igge ing p o es s wi hin hese si es (Esposi o e al.,
2020b).
Repo s om people in de en ion also highligh how hey a e
usually subjec o measu es which signal hei social deg ada ion,
and unde line he shock and humilia ion associa ed wi h hem
(Cle eland e al., 2018). These measu es, which make people eel
as i hey a e b anded as “c iminals”, include handcu ing (see also
S eel e al., 2004), anspo in p ison ans, exposu e o sea ches,
and he con isca ion o pe sonal possessions. Pa ly co obo a ing
his e idence, Boswo h and Kellezi (2015) ound ha 41% o
hei pa icipan s conside ed ha hei wo h and humani y we e
no upheld in de en ion. This clea e idence o he lack o human
digni y, as he au ho s no e, “poin s o a sizeable legi imacy de ici
among he con ined” (Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015, p. 5).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Gi en he abo e conside a ions, in his s udy we es ed he
hypo hesis ha he lack o human digni y in immig a ion se ings
media es he ela ionship be ween immig a ion p ocedu al
ai ness and he sel - a ed physical and men al heal h o de ained
women. The ollowing subsec ions will desc ibe he p ocedu es,
ools, and analyses used o es ou hypo hesis.
S udy Con ex
In I aly, he p ac ice o de aining non-ci izens unde immig a ion
powe s began in he 1990s, inally being o malised by he
Consolida ed Immig a ion Ac (Law 40/1998, also known as
he Tu co-Napoli ano Law). Howe e , he I alian de en ion
sys em has been changing o e ime. A he ime o w i ing
(Oc obe 2021), he e a e 10 de en ion cen es in ope a ion,
sca e ed h oughou he coun y—namely in Tu in, Milan,
G adisca d’Isonzo (Go izia), Pon e Gale ia (Rome), T apani-
Milo, Cal anisse a, Ba i, B indisi Res inco, Palazzo San Ge asio
(Po enza), and Macome (Nuo o). People awai ing iden i ica ion
and/o possibly depo a ion, including asylum seeke s, can
be de ained o up o 90 days, which is ex endable o a
u he 30 days (un il Oc obe 2020, he maximum e m o
de en ion was 180 days).
The Pon e Gale ia cen e in Rome was amongs he i s
de en ion cen es o be opened in I aly, and is also he la ges one.
While ini ially i s o icial capaci y was 354 places, a he ime o
w i ing he acili y can hold up o 210 people (130 men and 80
women). No ably, his is he only de en ion cen e in I aly whe e
women can cu en ly be de ained.
Like all I alian de en ion cen es, he managemen o Pon e
Gale ia is en us ed o a p i a e sec o o ganisa ion (cu en ly
Alba os Social Coope a i e), which is cha ged wi h p o iding
de ained people wi h basic assis ance, including psychosocial
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and medical ca e, legal ad ice, and cul u al linguis ic media ion.
The e is an on-si e immig a ion o ice in cha ge o handling
immig a ion cases, main aining ela ionships wi h consula
au ho i ies, and implemen ing depo a ion decisions. Mili a y
pe sonnel pa ol he ou side a eas o he cen e, while an
in e - o ce police uni —composed o policemen, ca abinie i and
inance police—is in cha ge o main aining o de and secu i y
inside he cen e.
Since opening, Pon e Gale ia has been he si e o epo ed
iolence and abuse. Th ee people in pa icula ha e paid he
cos o his sys em wi h hei li es, namely Mohamed Ben Said,
Salah Soudani and Nab uka Mimuni1: he i s wo allegedly died
due o medical negligence, while he la e commi ed suicide,
ollowing he decision in a ou o an imminen depo a ion o
Tunisia (Galieni and Guido, 2019). In addi ion o hese agedies,
o e he yea s he cen e has been he hea e o ecu ing
igh iola ions and injus ices, including he inadequacy o he
law ulness assessmen o de en ion and poo quali y o judges’
and lawye s’ pe o mances; sca ci y o in o ma ion p o ided o
de ained people on hei igh s and he p ocedu es o en o cing
hem; insalub ious li ing condi ions; insu icien heal hca e;
excessi e secu i y es ic ions (e.g., bans on a as numbe o
i ems and possessions); poo quali y o ood; lack o ac i i ies and
aliena ion; neglec o si ua ions o inc eased ulne abili y (such
as people acing men al heal h challenges o wi h expe ience
o o u e and gende ed iolence); and e en episodes o police
iolence (e.g., Medici Pe I Di i i Umani [MEDU], 2012;
Lascia eCIEn a e, 2016;Bo de C iminologies - Landscapes o
Bo de Con ol, 2020).
Pa icipan s
This s udy employed a con enience sample o 93 pa icipan s,
who we e held a Pon e Gale ia de en ion cen e du ing he
pe iod o ou ieldwo k. The main demog aphic cha ac e is ics
o he pa icipan s a e epo ed in Table 1.
As can be seen om he able, he en i e y o ou sample is
cons i u ed by women. This choice is no only jus i ied by he
a gumen s we p esen ed in he in oduc ion o his wo k (i.e.,
he pauci y o esea ch conduc ed wi h his g oup), bu also
by p agma ic easons. In ac , a he ime o ou ieldwo k, he
men’s sec ion was closed ollowing an up ising and subsequen
a son. This esul ed in only se en men pa icipa ing in ou
quan i a i e s udy, a condi ion which would ha e made ou
sample un ep esen a i e o bo h men and women’s de en ion
expe iences. We he e o e op ed o emo e hese cases om
u he analyses. The pa icipan s epo ed a mean age o abou
35 yea s and a s anda d de ia ion o abou 10, which indica es
ha 68% o pa icipan s’ ages anged be ween 25 and 45.
In e ms o educa ional le el, his anged om ha ing no
schooling (31%), o possessing a uni e si y deg ee (30%). The e
was also signi ican a iabili y as o ma i al s a us, wi h being
1While his pape was unde e iew, ano he indi idual agically died, a 26-
yea -old Tunisian man named Wissem Ben Abdella i . On 28 h No embe 2021,
Wissem died a he San Camillo hospi al in Rome a e being ans e ed he e om
Pon e Gale ia de en ion cen e. An in es iga ion is cu en ly unde way o es ablish
whe he he hea a ack ha p o oked his dea h may ha e been caused by he use
o es ain measu es.
TABLE 1 | Demog aphic cha ac e is ics o pa icipan s.
Range Mean (SD)
Age (yea s) 18–62 34.9 (10.9)
Time spen in I aly (mon hs) 11–12,77 24.5 (15.2)
Time spen in de en ion (days) 3–199 31.2 (34.9)
Ma i al s a us
Single 49 (52.7%)
Ma ied/in a ela ionship 19 (20.4%)
Sepa a ed/di o ced/widowed 22 (23.7)
O he 1 (1.1%)
Missing 2 (2.2%)
Child en
Yes 48 (51.6%)
No 45 (48.4%)
Coun y o ci izenship ( op i e)a
Nige ia 39 (41.9%)
China 7 (7.5%)
Uk aine 5 (5.4%)
Romania 4 (4.3%)
B azil 3 (3.2%)
Res o he wo ld 35 (37.6%)
Educa ional le el
None 31 (33.3%)
P ima y school 14 (15.1%)
Middle school/high school 38 (40.9%)
Highe educa ion 9 (9.7%)
Missing 1 (1.1%)
Legal s a us*
Asylum seeke s 57 (61.3%)
T a icking su i o s 1 (1.1%)
Illegalised non-ci izen 27 (29.3%)
Missing 8 (8.6%)
aThe e we e 33 di e en na ionali ies p esen among he people de ained.
*Asylum seeke : a pe son who is seeking in e na ional p o ec ion bu whose claim
has no ye been inally de e mined (ei he because i has ye o be p ocessed o
because he pe son is appealing agains a nega i e decision); T a icking su i o :
a pe son who applied o p o ec ion as a “ ic im o a icking”; Illegalised non-
ci izen: a pe son who does no belong o any o he abo e ca ego ies and does no
possess au ho isa ion o s ay in he coun y. Legal s a us ca ego ies we e based
on pa icipan s’ de ini ions o hei legal si ua ion.
single ep esen ing he mos p e alen condi ion (50%), ollowed
by being ma ied o in a de ac o union (23%), sepa a ed
o di o ced (19%) and widowed (5%). A leas hal o he
sample (52%) had child en. The majo i y o pa icipan s (70%)
did no ha e any amily membe s in I aly. Na ionali y was
as ly he e ogeneous, wi h pa icipan s coming om a leas
34 di e en coun ies ac oss ou con inen s: Eu ope, A ica,
Asia, and Ame ica.
P ocedu es and Measu es
This pape is pa o a la ge esea ch p ojec , which was
de eloped o e a pe iod o nea ly h ee yea s (2014–2017).
In o med by a communi y psychology ecological pe spec i e
(Esposi o e al., 2015), his sus ained engagemen opened up
a space o o ge ela ionships o us and collabo a ion wi h
di e en pa icipan s, including de ained people, s a membe s,
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NGO p ac i ione s and ac i is s. The quali a i e pa o his s udy,
which in ol ed obse a ions and in e iews wi h de ained people
and p ac i ione s, has been published elsewhe e (Esposi o e al.,
2019a). This a icle p esen s he analysis o ou quan i a i e da a,
which we e collec ed ollowing up he quali a i e s udy.
In e ms o da a collec ion, a p o ocol was adminis e ed by wo
esea che s who we e o e all p o icien in se e al languages (i.e.,
I alian, English, Po uguese, Spanish, and F ench). In hose a e
cases whe e esponden s spoke o he languages, such as A abic
and Manda in, we elied on he suppo p o ided by on-si e
olun ee in e p e e s om BeF ee, a local eminis NGO which
p o ides suppo o women de ained in he cen e. This choice
was made o ensu e answe s o he su ey we e accu a e, as well
as he ull pa icipa ion o all de ained women, including hose
wi h a low le el o o mal educa ion and/o poo command o
he I alian language.
Be o e aking pa in he s udy, all pa icipan s we e p o ided
wi h a de ailed explana ion o he s udy’s aims and p ocedu es,
along wi h he oppo uni y o ask ques ions and cla i ica ions.
All pa icipan s we e also asked o sign a consen o m, which
was p o ided in a a ie y o languages (i.e., I alian, English,
Po uguese, F ench, Spanish, A abic, and Manda in). All esea ch
p ocedu es we e app o ed by he ISPA-Uni e si y Ins i u e E hics
Commission, he ins i u ion whe e he i s au ho conduc ed he
doc o al esea ch.
The p o ocol o da a collec ion comp ised an a ay o
measu es aimed a assessing se e al aspec s o women’s de en ion
expe iences om a psychosocial pe spec i e. Amongs hem,
o his s udy we used in o ma ion om he sociodemog aphic
o m, he sel - a ed physical heal h (SRPH) and sel - a ed men al
heal h (SRMH) measu es, and he Measu e o Quali y o Li e in
De en ion (MQLD) (Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015).
The MQLD, inspi ed by he “Measu e o Quali y o P ison
Li e” (MQPL) (Liebling and A nold, 2004), was de eloped
by Boswo h and colleagues wi h he aim o assessing he
expe iences and needs o people held in B i ish immig a ion
de en ion acili ies (Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015;Boswo h,
2015). The in en ion was o c ea e a quan i a i e ool o use
alongside quali a i e me hods such as pa icipan obse a ions
and in-dep h in e iews, o ga he he iewpoin s o a la ge
numbe o pa icipan s. The MQLD is composed o he
ollowing dimensions: Digni y; Sa e y; S a decency; S a help
and assis ance; Dis ess; Heal hca e; Immig a ion o ganisa ion and
consis ency; Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness; Communica ion and
au onomy; Ca e o he mos ulne able; D ugs ( o a desc ip ion
o each dimension, see Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015, pp. 2–3).
The 64 i ems composing he su ey a e measu ed on a 6-poin
Like scale (1 = S ongly disag ee, 5 = S ongly ag ee, and a inal
op ion o “Don’ know/no applicable”). A inal sec ion p o ides
pa icipan s wi h he oppo uni y o o e addi ional commen s
based on hei iews and expe iences.
The MQLD was ansla ed and adap ed o he I alian de en ion
con ex , and he pa icula cen e unde s udy, h ough a
collabo a i e and ecological p ocess, which in ol ed esea che s,
p ac i ione s wo king in he de en ion ield, and people wi h
li ed expe ience o de en ion (Esposi o e al., 2022). The esul ing
su ey— he MQLD-IT—consis s o 71 i ems, which main ained
he same measu emen p ope ies o he o iginal scale, and 13
dimensions: he 11 dimensions o he o iginal MQLD plus wo
new dimensions in oduced as a esul o he adap a ion p ocess
(Secu i y s a decency: he ex en o which he secu i y s a —i.e.,
in e o ce o ice s—a e conside ed easonable and app op ia e;
Con ac wi h he ou side: he pe cep ion o being able o ha e
con ac wi h he ou side, such as wi h amily and iends).
As in he o iginal e sion, he MQLD-IT also included some
s and-alone i ems and wo open-ended ques ions asking he
esponden s o lis he h ee bes and wo s aspec s o hei
li e in de en ion.
Fo he pu pose o his s udy, we ex ac ed wo MQLD-IT
dimensions, namely Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and Digni y.
Howe e , he dimension o Digni y, which was o iginally de ined
by Boswo h and Kellezi as “an en i onmen cha ac e ised
by kind ega d and conce n o he pe son ha ecognises
he alue and humani y o he indi idual” (2015, p. 2), was
enamed as Lack o human digni y. We did ha o wo
easons: he i s is ha mos o he i ems used in he su ey
a e nega i ely amed and he e o e hey ap in o people’s
eeling ha hei digni y wi hin he de en ion en i onmen
is no upheld. Second, we belie e ha i is impo an o
concep ually dis inguish “digni y” as one o he sub-componen s
o p ocedu al ai ness, which e e s o being ea ed wi h digni y
and espec wi h ega d o p ocedu es and decisions (see Tyle ,
2000, 1989), om “human digni y” as a undamen al human
igh , which encompasses elemen s such as digni ied s anda ds
o li ing and no being subjec ed o inhuman o deg ading
ea men , which make someone’s li e alued and wo h li ing
(Schulman, 2008;Nussbaum, 2011). In his s udy, we e e o
he la e concep ualisa ion, which i s he c i e ia o Lack o
human digni y.
I is also impo an o cla i y ha we ea ed he abo e-
men ioned dimensions in a di e en manne o how hey
we e o iginally concep ualised by Boswo h and Kellezi (2015).
In ac , he o iginal measu e ea s bo h dimensions as sub-
dimensions o he quali y o li e in de en ion, and as such
hey a e analysed as co ela ed congene ic a iables. Howe e ,
in his s udy we ake a di e en s ance in e ms o how o
concep ualise he ela ionship be ween immig a ion p ocedu al
ai ness and human digni y. In ac , we ea ed Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness and Lack o human digni y as wo dis inc , ye
ela ed measu es, whe eby he o me is modelled as a p edic o
o he la e . This choice is suppo ed by he e idence p esen ed
in he p e ious sec ions, which sugges s ha immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness migh be a de e minan o human digni y in
de en ion con ex s.
In o de o measu e de ained women’s physical and men al
heal h we elied on he SRPH and he SRMH measu es. These
measu es each include a single i em ha assesses pa icipan s’
pe cep ion o hei physical and men al sel - a ed heal h
espec i ely. Gi en he la ge co ela ion be ween hese wo
mani es a iables ( = 0.51), we decided o combine hem in o
a single componen (Sel - a ed heal h), which would explain bo h
aspec s o pa icipan s’ sel - a ed heal h.
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DATA ANALYSIS
Da a we e analysed wi hin he con ex o pa ial leas s uc u al
equa ion modelling (PLS-SEM) by means o Sma PLS so wa e
e sion 3.3.7 (Ringle e al., 2015). This app oach was p e e ed
o co a iance-based s uc u al equa ion modelling (CB-SEM) o
i s p o en abili y o be e handle complex models wi h se e al
componen s, indica o s, and ela ionships be ween a iables,
whe e he da a a e no no mally dis ibu ed, and he sample size
is ela i ely small (Hai e al., 2017;Rigdon e al., 2017). The
la e case is pa icula ly ele an in his ins ance, since ou es ed
model includes only 93 cases, which would ha e esul ed in an
unde powe ed solu ion using CB-SEM. Con e sely, he in e se
squa e oo me hod (Kock and Hadaya, 2018) e eals ha he
model we es ed needed only 35 cases o each a powe o 0.8
(Cohen, 1988, 1992), he eby a oiding incu ing a Type II e o .
No missing alues we e ound in ou da ase .
Fi s , we es ed a pa ial media ion model in which
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness p edic ed bo h Sel - a ed heal h
and Lack o human digni y, and he la e in u n p edic ed Sel -
a ed heal h. Howe e , he esul s o ou analyses demons a ed
ha he pa h om Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness o Sel - a ed
heal h was no signi ican a he 5% alpha le el, β= -0.19, p= 0.15,
95% BCa CI [-0.10, 0.41], and small e ec size ( 2= 0.02). Based
on hese indings, we es ed a ull media ion model, in which
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness p edic ed only Lack o human
digni y and he la e in u n p edic ed Sel - a ed heal h.
E alua ion o he Re lec i e
Measu emen Model
To assess he measu emen model, we will i s p esen he
esul s o he eliabili y and alidi y assessmen o ou main
e lec i e componen s. These a e based on he p inciple
ha he main componen s examined—namely Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness,Sel - a ed heal h, and Lack o human
digni y—explain he a iabili y in a se ies o mani es congene ic
a iables. The componen s’ eliabili y was assessed h ough
he omega coe icien , ω(McDonald, 1999), whe eas hei
alidi y was es ablished h ough A e age Va iance Ex ac ed
(AVE). Addi ionally, he he e o ai -mono ai a io o
co ela ions (HTMT) (Hensele e al., 2015), was used o
assess disc iminan alidi y.
The i s componen we will examine is Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness, which was de ined by Boswo h and Kellezi
as “ he pe cei ed impa iali y and legi imacy o immig a ion
o ice s” (2015, p. 3). This cons uc builds on some o he
main ene s o p ocedu al jus ice (see Tyle , 1989, 2000), ha
is, he pe cep ion ha immig a ion o ice s: (a) show genuine
conce n and ea de ained people wi h digni y and espec ; (b)
a e us wo hy; and (c) a e ai in applying ea men s and
con eying in o ma ion o all de ained people indisc imina ely.
As we can see in Table 2, all he i ems used o measu e
he componen Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness p esen adequa e
s anda dised ou e loadings, wi h high composi e eliabili y
(ω= 0.84) and AVE = (0.53). Al hough he i ems “Mos o
he immig a ion s a a his Cen e a e good a explaining
he decisions ha conce n my immig a ion/asylum case” and
“Immig a ion s a ea all he de ainees he same in his Cen e”
p esen ela i ely small ou e loadings, hey a e bo h highe han
0.4, which is gene ally ega ded as he h eshold abo e which
an i em can be conside ed as “salien ” in PLS-SEM, and hei
dele ion would no subs an ial al e he alidi y and eliabili y
o hei co esponding componen (see Hai e al., 2021). In
addi ion, hey bo h con ibu e o cap u ing a ele an concep ual
aspec o immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, ha is, impa iali y in
ea men . Based on hese conside a ions, we decided o e ain
he abo e i ems.
On he o he hand, he o iginal s uc u e o he MQLD
(Boswo h and Kellezi, 2015) included ano he i em, namely “I
ha e o be ca e ul abou e e y hing I do in his Cen e, o i
can be used agains me in my immig a ion case”. Howe e , in
ou analyses his i em was dele ed due o a low ou e loading
(-0.31), which educed he componen ’s composi e eliabili y
(omega = 0.76) and b ough con e gen alidi y (AVE = 0.45)
below he ecommended h eshold.
Ha ing assessed he s a is ical p ope ies o Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness, we now u n o examine he emaining
componen s included in his s udy. As we can see in Table 2
below, bo h Sel - a ed heal h and Lack o human digni y show
sa is ac o y eliabili y and con e gen alidi y.
The second componen is based on he dimension o Digni y,
which was o iginally de ined by Boswo h and Kellezi as “an
en i onmen cha ac e ised by kind ega d and conce n o he
pe son ha ecognises he alue and humani y o he indi idual”
(2015, p. 2). As explained ea lie , howe e , in ou s udy we
decided o ename his componen as Lack o human digni y. In
addi ion, i was also necessa y o emo e h ee i ems o iginally
conside ed by Boswo h and Kellezi (2015) as pa o his
componen , namely “The e is no enough o do a his Cen e,”
“This Cen e helps me s ay in con ac wi h my amily,” and “S a
do no make acis commen s in his Cen e.” Thei emo al
was jus i ied by hei ela i ely low ou e loadings, which sligh ly
lowe ed he componen ’s eliabili y (omega = 0.80) and mos o
all i s con e gen alidi y (AVE = 0.37), b inging i below he
ecommended h eshold.
E alua ion o he S uc u al Model
To e alua e he quali y o he s uc u al model, we will i s
p esen he esul s o collinea i y and disc iminan alidi y. No
e iden sign o collinea i y was de ec ed, wi h he cons uc ’s
ole ance (VIF) alues anging om a minim o 1.15 o bo h
Sel - a ed physical heal h and Sel - a ed psychological heal h and
a maximum o 2.43 o he i em “Mos o he immig a ion s a
he e show conce n and unde s anding owa ds me.”
In e ms o disc iminan alidi y, all cases we e below he
ecommended cu -o poin o 0.9 o he HTMT (see Hensele
e al., 2015), wi h alues anging om a minimum o 0.53
be ween Sel - a ed heal h and Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness
and a maximum o 0.78 be ween Lack o human digni y and
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness. Ha ing asce ained he absence
o issues wi h ega d o collinea i y and disc iminan alidi y,
we will now p esen he main esul s o he causal ela ionships
be ween he componen s included in he model.
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TABLE 2 | Reliabili y and con e gen alidi y indexes o Sel - a ed heal h, Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, and Lack o human digni y.
La en a iables Mani es a iables Ou e
loadings*
Composi e
eliabili y (CR)
A e age a iance
ex ac ed (AVE)
Sel - a ed heal h How would you a e you o e all physical heal h (physical heal h) 0.80 0.81 0.68
How would you a e you o e all men al heal h (men al heal h) 0.83
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness Mos o he immig a ion s a he e show conce n and unde s anding
owa d me
0.89 0.84 0.53
Mos immig a ion s a ea me wi h espec 0.82
I us mos o he immig a ion s a in his Cen e 0.84
Mos o he immig a ion s a a his Cen e a e good a explaining
he decisions ha conce n my immig a ion/asylum case
0.50
Immig a ion s a ea all he de ainees he same in his Cen e 0.48
Remo ed mani es a iables
I ha e o be ca e ul abou e e y hing I do in his Cen e, o i can be
used agains me in my immig a ion case
−0.31 0.76 0.45
Lack o human digni y I am no being ea ed as a human being in he e 0.71 0.83 0.55
The quali y o my li ing condi ions in his Cen e is poo 0.70
The ood a his Cen e is good −0.74
In his Cen e hey do no ca e abou me, hey jus wan me o be
depo ed
0.80
Remo ed mani es a iables 0.80 0.37
The e is no enough o do a his Cen e 0.41
This Cen e helps me s ay in con ac wi h my amily −0.44
S a do no make acis commen s in his Cen e −0.54
*All alues a e signi ican a 1% alpha le el.
Ou esul s a e based on s anda dised coe icien s, and
5,000 bias-co ec ed and accele a ed boo s ap (BCa) s a is ical
signi icance se a a minimum o 5% alpha le el (p<0.05)
and con idence in e als (CI). Wi h ega d o he coe icien
o de e mina ion (R2), we ollowed s anda d ecommenda ions,
acco ding o which alues o 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 o he
endogenous la en a iables a e conside ed la ge, mode a e,
and weak, espec i ely (Hai e al., 2013, 2021). As o e ec
size, 2 alues o 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 a e conside ed small,
medium, and la ge espec i ely. Las ly, p edic i e ele ance was
assessed h ough blind olding, wi h S one-Geisse ’s Q2 alues
o 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 being indica i e o small, medium, and
la ge p edic i e ele ance, espec i ely (Geisse , 1974;S one,
1974). Figu e 1 p o ides a g aphical ep esen a ion o he
ela ionship be ween he exogenous and endogenous a iables
included in ou model.
Table 3 o e s a summa y o he main pa hs analysed. As
we can see om bo h Figu e 1 and Table 3, ou model shows
a highly signi ican and s ong nega i e e ec o Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness on Lack o human digni y,β= -0.66, p≤0.001,
95% BCa CI [-0.74, -0.53], wi h close o mode a e coe icien o
de e mina ion (R2= 0.43), la ge e ec size ( 2= 0.77) and la ge
p edic i e ele ance (Q2= 0.21). In u n, Lack o human digni y
exe s a highly signi ican nega i e e ec on Sel - a ed heal h,β= -
0.42, p≤0.001, 95% BCa CI [-0.58, -0.19], wi h a weak coe icien
o de e mina ion (R2= 0.16), medium-la ge e ec size ( 2= 0.21),
and small-medium p edic i e ele ance (Q2= 0.10).
In e ms o indi ec e ec s, we ound ha Immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness has a o al highly signi ican posi i e indi ec
e ec on Sel - a ed heal h h ough Lack o human digni y,
β= 0.27, p≤0.001, 95% CI [0.12, 0.40].
DISCUSSION
The indings p esen ed in his s udy o e some e idence ha
he ela ionship be ween immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and
sel - a ed heal h in immig a ion de en ion is ully media ed
by he lack o human digni y pe pe ua ed in hese con ex s.
Wha eme ges om ou s udy is he nega i e impac ha a
lack o human digni y has on he subjec i e pe cep ion o
physical and men al heal h o women con ined inside Pon e
Gale ia de en ion cen e. Consis en wi h he e idence ga he ed
in p e ious quali a i e s udies, including ou own s udy in he
same de en ion con ex (Esposi o e al., 2019a), ou quan i a i e
indings highligh how people in hese si es o con inemen
eel highly dep i ed o hei alue and sense o humani y. This
dehumanisa ion, as a esul , has a p o ound nega i e e ec on
hei heal h and wellbeing.
These indings o e all demons a e ha immig a ion
de en ion nega i ely a ec s he women subjec o i . Addi ionally,
we ound a highly s a is ically signi ican and s ong nega i e
e ec o Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness on Lack o human
digni y. This e idence esona es wi h s udies highligh ing how
he managemen o immig a ion cases is a undamen al aspec
o de ained people, as i de e mines he e y eason o hei
con inemen as well as he possible de elopmen s and ou comes
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FIGURE 1 | S uc u al model o ela ionship be ween Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness, Lack o human digni y, and Sel - a ed heal h.
TABLE 3 | S uc u al model esul s o di ec and indi ec e ec s.
Pa h S anda dised pa h
coe icien
-Values S a is ical
signi icance (p- alue)
95% boo s apped
con idence in e als
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness—Lack o human digni y −0.66 13.09 <0.001 −0.74, −0.53
Lack o human digni y—Sel - a ed heal h −0.42 4.05 <0.001 −0.58, −0.19
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness—Lack o human
digni y—Sel - a ed heal h
0.27 4.02 <0.001 0.12, 0.40
o hei own si ua ion (i.e., con inued de en ion, depo a ion, o
elease in o he communi y).
This e idence, once again, is consis en wi h indings which
eme ged om he quali a i e componen o ou esea ch
(Esposi o e al., 2019a). The la e desc ibes dehumanisa ion and
depe sonalisa ion as salien p ocesses a play in Pon e Gale ia
de en ion en i onmen , which a e pa icula ly exempli ied
by dehumanizing p ac ices such as calling de ained people
by numbe a he han by name. Ou pa icipan s also
emphasised he lack o in o ma ion and communica ion
expe ienced wi h on-si e immig a ion o ice s whom, on
se e al occasions, hey ne e me . As a esul , de ained
people s uggled o ollow wha was happening wi h hei
immig a ion/asylum cases and expe ienced high le els o
un ai ness and unce ain y.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE
RECOMMENDATIONS
One o he main limi a ions o his s udy is ep esen ed by
he na u e o he sample. Fi s o all, we should be mind ul
ha we adop ed a con enience sample ha was ob ained om
a speci ic immig a ion de en ion cen e in I aly; his means
ha cau ion should be aken in gene alising he esul s o
e e y de en ion cen e in he coun y, and e en mo e o
ex end hem o he es o he wo ld. We sugges ha u u e
s udies should explo e he ela ionship be ween immig a ion
p ocedu al ai ness, human digni y, and heal h/wellbeing in o he
con ex s and wi h mo e ep esen a i e samples, o asce ain
whe he ou indings can be ex ended elsewhe e. We should
also be mind ul ha he a iabili y o pa icipan s in e ms o
coun y o o igins and spoken languages posed an addi ional
challenge o he esea ch. Al hough e e y possible measu e
was aken o make he su ey as accessible as possible,
we canno exclude ha some in o ma ion migh ha e been
los in ansla ion.
Tu ning o ou main indings, we should be mind ul ha
hese a e he esul o a co ela ional s udy and as such no
de ini i e causal ela ion can be asce ained. In addi ion, he
models we es ed in ou s udy, al hough heo e ically sound
and s a is ically adequa e o desc ibe he da a, a e only some
o he possible al e na i es a ailable. O he hypo heses could
be explo ed in u u e esea ch. Fo example, gi en he high
co ela ion and ela i ely low disc iminan alidi y be ween
Immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness and Lack o human digni y, i
could be possible o es he hypo hesis ha hese wo a iables
migh in ac o m a highe -o de cons uc , which in u n
can explain a ia ions in de ained people’s sel - epo ed physical
and men al heal h.
Addi ionally, we should poin ou ha e en when eplica ing
he model used in his s udy, we should conside ha lack
o human digni y canno be ea ed as he only p edic o o
heal h ou comes in immig a ion de en ion cen es. Fu u e s udies
should he e o e include mo e exogenous a iables ha can
explain de ained people’s heal h and wellbeing. In he same
ein, a iables o he han immig a ion p ocedu al ai ness can
be esponsible o he lack o human digni y pe pe ua ed in
de en ion con ex s, and as such u u e s udies should explo e
o he possible de e minan s.
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Esposi o e al. Women’s Expe ience o Immig a ion De en ion in I aly
CONCLUSION
We lose ou digni y in he e. (Fela)
S a es a ound he globe a e implemen ing inc easingly
s ingen policies in o de o de e , so and con ol hose
en e ing and li ing in hei e i o ies. These policies, which can
be ega ded as a o m o s uc u al iolence agains pa icula
g oups o non-ci izens, p ima ily acialised people om low-
income coun ies (Cle eland e al., 2018), ha e also in ol ed a
g owing use o o icial and uno icial o ms o mig a ion- ela ed
inca ce a ion. No ably, he li es o hese people a e cons an ly
jeopa dised by he isk o a es , de en ion, and depo a ion.
O e all, his e idence shows a di e en ace o social jus ice
and ci izenship. In ac , he exclusiona y na u e o ci izenship
u ns his s a us in o a powe ool, which is used o egula e
and disc imina e access o igh s and eedoms—sys ema ically
p ecluded o some g oups. In his con ex , ci izenship, which
is usually ega ded as a “posi i e” and “desi able” o m o
inclusion in o socie y, becomes a means o pe pe ua e injus ice,
dispossession, and ma ginalisa ion (Tambakaki, 2015;Cook and
Seglow, 2016).
In his global scena io, I aly is no excep ion, as ecen
legisla ions ha e inc eased he numbe o de en ion acili ies and
he people con ined he ein, as well as allowed o he de en ion
o people seeking asylum (Bo de C iminologies - Landscapes
o Bo de Con ol, 2020). These es ic i e measu es, as ou
s udy clea ly highligh s, ake a huge human oll, conside ing he
damaging impac hey ha e on human digni y, which in u n
nega i ely impac s people’s heal h and wellbeing. This e idence
ein o ce he image o immig a ion de en ion cen es as si es
ha pe pe ua e “pe sis ing condi ions o injus ice” (P illel ensky,
2012, p. 17).
We belie e ha he indings p esen ed in his a icle a e
o u mos social and poli ical impo ance, and al hough hey
highligh he nega i e e ec o un ai immig a ion p ocedu es
on de ained women’s human digni y and heal h, hey should
no be in e p e ed as an in i a ion o simply p o ide ai e
immig a ion p ocedu es in hese con ex s. In his a icle, indeed,
we align ou a gumen wi h decades o esea ch, ac i ism,
and legal challenges, which ha e ad oca ed o a adical
ans o ma ion o he immig a ion and de en ion sys ems (e.g.,
Acca do and Guido, 2016;Lascia eCIEn a e, 2016;Ga cía
He nández, 2017;Boochani, 2018;Boochani e al., 2020;Bo de
C iminologies - Landscapes o Bo de Con ol, 2020). In ha
ega d, ou indings ein o ce he message ha immig a ion
de en ion causes unnecessa y and ha m ul impac s on hose
con ined, who, i is impo an o ei e a e, a e de ained only
o hei s a us as unau ho ised, o a he illegalised, non-
ci izens. The e o e, we ad oca e o al e na i e amewo ks
and s a egies o concep ualise and app oach human mobili y,
all based on he p inciples o social jus ice, digni y, and
indi idual/communal wellness.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be
made a ailable upon eques , wi hou undue ese a ion.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The s udies in ol ing human pa icipan s we e e iewed and
app o ed by E hics Commi ee o he ISPA–Uni e si y Ins i u e.
The pa ien s/pa icipan s p o ided hei w i en in o med
consen o pa icipa e in his s udy.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
FE led he design o he s udy and da a collec ion, and w o e mos
sec ions o he a icle. SD led he analysis and au ho ed he da a
analysis and limi a ions and u u e ecommenda ions sec ions as
well as ela ed ables and igu es, and con ibu ed h oughou .
EB was esponsible o da a en y and con ibu ed o se e al
sec ions o his a icle, including he ma e ials and me hods and
s udy con ex . JO and CA p o ided supe ision o he s udy and
comp ehensi e eedback on his a icle. All au ho s con ibu ed
o he in ellec ual con en and app o ed he inal e sion o he
manusc ip o be published and ag eed o be accoun able o all
aspec s o he wo k.
FUNDING
FE’s doc o al esea ch, on which his a icle elies,
was suppo ed by he Po uguese Founda ion o
Science and Technology (SFRH/BD/87854/2012), and
he subsequen wo k was suppo ed by he Po uguese
Founda ion o Science and Technology (g an numbe :
CEECIND/00924/2018/CP1541/CT0004).
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F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 9July 2022 | Volume 13 | A icle 798629