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A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
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Ci cula ing Spi i s and Dead Bodies
Fune a y T ansna ionalism among Immig an s om Guinea Bissau
in Po ugal
Cla a Sa ai a
cec – Lisbon Uni e si y and c ia – No a Uni e si y o Lisbon
cla asa ai [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
Dea h is he ul ima e i e o passage, one ha no one can a oid, wi h mul iple implica-
ions o heli e o heindi iduals ando he g oupswi hinwhich heymo e.Th ough-
ou his a icle, I in end o show how dea h is a good me apho o hink abou he
p oduc ion o places and spaces o belonging in ansna ional con ex s, and how ci -
cula ion is he key e m o unde s and how such ansna ional ends a e p oduced. I
a gue ha in a ansna ional se ing – in his case o Guinean mig an s in Po ugal –
dea h unc ions as a ue egene a ion sou ce as i shapes he con inui y o he ela-
ionship be ween he mig an and he place o o igin. The ci cula ion o dead bodies,
symbolic uni e ses, spi i ual heale s and spi i s e-shape he ies be ween he wo ld o
he li ing and he wo ld o he dead ac oss con inen s and oceans.
Keywo ds
ansna ionalism – ci cula ion – place – good dea h – Guinea-Bissau
Résumé
Lamo es le i edepassageul ime,quepe sonnene peu é i e ,a ecdes implica ions
mul iples pou la ie des indi idus e des g oupes dans lesquels ils se déplacen .
Tou au long de ce a icle, j’ai l’in en ion de mon e commen la mo es une
bonne mé apho e pou pense à la p oduc ion de la place e d’espaces d’appa enance
dans des con ex es ansna ionaux e commen la ci cula ion es le e me clé pou
comp end e commen ces endances ansna ionales son p odui es. Je p é ends que
dans un con ex e ansna ional – dans ce cas des mig an s guinéens au Po ugal –
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A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
la mo onc ionne comme une é i able sou ce de égéné a ion ca elle o me la
con inui édela ela ionen elemig an e lelieud’o igine.Laci cula iondescada es,
des uni e s symboliques, des gué isseu s spi i uels e des esp i s, e açonnen les liens
en e le monde des i an s e le monde des mo s à a e s les con inen s e les
océans.
Mo s-clés
ansna ionalisme – ci cula ion – place – bonne mo – Guinea-Bissau
In oduc ion: Dea h in T ansna ional Se ings
Dea h is he u mos i e o passage, one ha no one can a oid, wi h mul iple
implica ions o he li e o he indi iduals and o he g oups wi hin which hey
mo e. Th oughou his a icle, I in end o show how dea h is a good me apho
o hink abou he p oduc ion o places and spaces o belonging in ansna-
ional con ex s. In he s udy o mig a ions (Gable 2006; Ho 2006; Les age 2008),
dea h and dying a e good examples o he ci cula ion o symbolic uni e ses in
which he no ion o p ocess is ex emely impo an . Such a gumen s will be
explo ed h ough he case s udy o Guinean mig an s in Po ugal.1
In social an h opology, he concep ions o dea h and dying ha e dese ed
a en ion om se e al au ho s, such as he classics by F aze (1934), He z
(1960),E ans-P i cha d(1948),Vo elle(1983),A iés(1989),andVincen -Thomas
(1975, 1982) and con empo a y au ho s such as Bloch (1971, 1982), Gable (2006)
and de Boeck (2008). As João de Pina Cab al (1984) has a gued, hese au ho s’
app oaches o he opic include many elemen s, om he symbolism o se -
e al ce emonial elemen s o he liminali y o une a y i uals. In he p esen
a icle, I wan o explo e he ela ion be ween une a y ce emonies and he
( e)p oduc ionandsymboliza ion o places o belonging,placeswhich include
amongmanyo he s,alocal“communi y”,2a spaceo diaspo a, hebelonging o
1 Fieldwo k was done in Po ugal and Guinea Bissau and i included pa icipan obse a ion,
in-dep h in e iews, li e s o ies, and a chi al and bibliog aphic esea ch.
2 Besides he as li e a u e on ceme e ies as spaces o building collec i e memo ies (A iés
1989; Vo elle 1983; Vincen -Thomas 1975; 1982) he e a e also se e al ex s ha deal wi h
he ole o une a y i uals and g a es in he cons uc ion o local communi ies and he
ela ion be ween he li ing and he dead, such as he classic Dea h in Mu elaga by Douglass
(1969).
ci cula ing spi i s and dead bodies 63
A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
a na ion-s a e and he ci cula ionbe ween hese uni e ses. Addi ionally, a en-
ion will be d awn o he ela ion be ween he no ions o belonging o a place
and he idea o a “good dea h”.
Fo many mig an s (and ce ainly o he i s -gene a ion mig an s) he
ela ion wi h he o iginal g ounds accompanies he indi idual h oughou his
o he li e (see below). When dea h occu s, his ela ion becomes mo e i id
and pa o he social cons uc o wha a “good dea h” is all abou . One o
he objec i es is o en o ha e he body sen home, enabling i o go h ough
he ull adi ional dea h ce emonies. Only someone who goes h ough all he
app op ia e ce emonies will ha e a es ul dea h. The second objec i e is o
ha e he inal disposal o he body (bu ying, c ema ing o some o he o m o
inal disposal) on home g ound. Bo h hese objec i es a e pa o he complex
no ion o wha i means o ha e a “good dea h”, implying ha bo h co pse and
spi i a e well aken ca e o by he ela i es who ha e he du y o ake ca e
o he une a y i uals o he deceased. By doing so, hey also assu e ha he
accomplishmen o a “good dea h” will be he wa an y o a good ela ionship
be ween he wo ld o he dead and he wo ld o he li ing.
This ela ion be ween une a y ce emonies, bu ial place and he no ion o
a “good dea h” is, as we shall see, o he u mos ele ance in he p esen case
s udy o he mig a ion o people om Guinea-Bissau o Po ugal. Ha ing he
body sen home and disposed o he e, wi h ull une a y ce emonies, is he
ideal si ua ion, which is in ac ha dly e e accomplished – i is complica ed,
expensi e and di icul o achie e. Thus, amilies ha e o ind solu ions o pe -
pe ua e he links be ween he home g ound and he diaspo a communi y.
These solu ions deal wi h he links be ween une a y i es, places o belong-
ing and he ci cula ion ha mig a ion o ces upon bo h he li ing and dead
alike.
Such ela ions we e discussed by Mau ice Bloch in one o he mos impo -
an books on dea h, Dea h and he Regene a ion o Li e (Bloch and Pa y 1982).
In he las ex o his collec i e wo k, Bloch esumes an a gumen p e iously
explo edinhismaine hnog aphicwo k–Placing heDead (1971)–inwhich he
au ho expands on he ela ion be ween une a y i uals and he iden i ica ion
wi h a place, a land. Based on he Me ina o Madagasca , Bloch a gues ha he
une a y i uals imply wo bu ials.The i s one, in he icini ies o he place o
dying, aims a cleansing he body o all impu e subs ances.Two yea s la e , he
body is mo ed and bu ied again bu his ime in he g a e o one’s ances o s.
The e is a co espondence be ween he g a e and he g oup o kin and hus o
be bu ied in his land means he eunion be ween p esen , pas and u u e kin.
This bu ial in he ances al land is he celeb a ion o he union o amily ne -
wo ks and he ic o y o e he di ision and sepa a ion ha he quo idian li e
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A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
implies. This second bu ial eposi ions he Me ina who died a away om he
ances al land, in he socie y o hei ances o s.
The ellu ic dimensions o dea h and hei impo ance and ole in es ab-
lishing he connec ion be ween he diaspo a con ex s and he home g ound o
he mig an s ha e been u he de eloped in he wo k o se e al social scien-
is s.3 One o hem is F ançoise Les age’s (2008) on Mexican mig a ion in he
us and he p ocesses o epa ia ion o bodies. The au ho analyzes he c e-
a ion o an indus y o epa ia ion whe e se e al une a y agencies and s a e
ins i u ions a e he main ac o s. Such p ocesses e eal, once again, he ela ion
be ween mig a ions and place making bu his ime in ela ion o na ionalism.
Fo he Mexican s a e he mig an s ha e assumed a ole o p incipal agen s o
economicde elopmen and hus hey ha eaccess ounp eceden ed igh sand
p i ileges: dual na ionali y and he igh o es close o hei ances o s.
Wha happens wi h he people om Guinea-Bissau in he diaspo a in ela-
ion o dea h and hei connec ion wi h he home g ound – hei “places o
belonging” – is connec ed o hese wop e iousexamples,and in ol esaspec s
o “ci cula ion” ha , al hough ouched upon in he wo men ioned cases, allow
o u he explana ion and analysis.
In o de o analyze he Guinean case, I will i s ly con ex ualize he mig a-
ion lows ha link Guinea-Bissau o Po ugal. Then, I will ocus on he dis-
cou ses and p ac ices ega ding dea h and une a y ce emonies in a ansna-
ional se ing. This will lead o he analysis o he ci cula ion o he en i-
ies in ol ed in he p ocess – he dead bodies, he amilies, he spi i s o he
deceased – and how hey all ela e in a dual scena io, whe e ce emonies o en
ake place wice, and bodies o hei a a a s ci cula e be ween Po ugal and
A ica.
Mig an s om Guinea-Bissau
In he pas decades, he ansna ional dimensions o he mig a o y phenom-
enaassumed an inc easing heo e icalande hnog aphicimpo ance,implying
he mul iple and pe manen ies sus ained be ween he sending coun y and
he coun y o ecep ion, in i s economic, poli ical and cul u al ace s (Glick
3 See, amongs many, Gable (2006) o he Guinean case on how he youngs e s use une als
o ma k hei social posi ion in he home communi ies; De Boeck’s piece (2008) conce ning
ceme e ies in Kinshasa and he ole o young people in he une als; and Ho (2006) o he
impo ance o he Had ami g a es in he case o he Yemeni diaspo a in he Indian Ocean.
ci cula ing spi i s and dead bodies 65
A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
Schille e al. 1992; Basch e al. 1997). Such ies and mobili ies – eal o imag-
ined – a e equen ly accompanied by he social and symbolic cons uc ion
o places o belonging. As Ka en Fog Olwig (2007) and Cli o d Gee z (1996)
called o ou a en ion, global mobili ies and lows a e accompanied by quo-
idian p ocesses o place making. In ansna ional mig a ion con ex s, hese
p ocesses a e p oduced h ough he sending and use o emi ances (in capi al
and goods) and in he pe o mance o ce ain i uals and ce emonies, o men-
ion a ew examples. The case o he dea h o immig an s p o es o be a good
example o analyze how such p ocesses occu as well as hei mul iple social
and symbolic implica ions (Sa ai a and Map il 2012; Sa ai a and Map il 2015;
Sa ai a 2015).
People om Guinea-Bissau ha e a long adi ion o mig a ion, and he e a e
Guineanssca e ed h oughou Senegal,F anceand heNe he lands(Machado
2002), bu Po ugal soon became a p e e en ial des ina ion, due o he ies con-
nec ing he wo coun ies. The immig a ion o Po ugal s a ed a e he 25 h
Ap il1974 e olu ionand heindependenceo Guinea-Bissau,bu i wasmainly
a e 1984, wi h he opening o he coun y o mo e wes e nized economic and
social models (Machado 2002; Sa ai a 2008; Quin ino 2004) ha i inc eased.
Po ugal is seen as a pa adise, whe e one can ha e a job and send emi ances
o amilies back home (Sa ai a 2008: 256).
Guinea Bissau is a small coun y, wi h ca. 1.2 million inhabi an s, bu wi h a
la ge e hnic di e si y, coun ing mo e han wen y- h ee e hnic g oups (Eina s-
do i 2000). Mos g oups in he in e io a e Islamized, and he coas al ones a e
animis ic,bu eligiousa ilia iondoesno always ollowane hnicdi ision(Jao
1995), and he e a e mul iple combina ions o animis ic and Ch is ian eligious
op ions.
In Po ugal, almos all he g oups a e ep esen ed, and he e is a ce ain
union and e indica ion o a common na ional o igin ha su passes e hnic
di e si y (Bo dona o and Pusse i 2006:133; Sa ai a 2008:257). Na ional iden i y
is ec ea ed in he diaspo a hough a e-elabo a ion o e e ences and codes
ha connec indi iduals o hei amilies in he o iginal g ounds. One o such
e e encesis ela ed odea hand he une a y i uals,which a ein u n di ec ly
connec ed o issues o place and belonging, ab ica ed h ough a cons an
ela ion wi h he i ual and ce imónias di uso o adi ions om home.
Almos all amilies in Guineaha eoneo mo e ela i es esidingin Po ugal,
and he cons an low o people and goods back and o h is an impo an eal-
i y, isible in he mo emen o people a Lisbon ai po on days o ligh s o and
omBissau.The ai po becomes a placewhe epeople ga he omee ela i es
o iends and o ecei e goods di e a ( om home), o o send hings back, and
say goodbye o he ones who lea e, aking o he Wes e n and mode n p oduc s

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A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
wi h hem (Sa ai a 2008; see also Ab anches 2013). Guineans in Po ugal ec e-
a e hei iden i y h ough he e-elabo a ion o he e e ences and codes om
home and by ela ing hem o he ones om he hos coun y; hey c ea e new
ne wo ks and o ms o in e ac ion, ins i u ions, symbols and cul u al p ac ices
which allow o a ec ea ion o he pas and a cons uc ion o he p esen , in
a pe manen nego ia ing p ocess, wi hin hei own communi y and wi hin he
encompassing Po uguese socie y (Quin ino 2004; Sa ai a 2007, 2008).
Cu ing ac oss no only he di e en social and economic g oups, bu also
e hnic appu enance, Quin ino (2004:263) explains how he chon (o iginal
g ounds)isanimpo an e i o ialande hnic e e ence;i ssymboliccons uc-
ion is based on language, and a common pas , oo ed in he social o ganiza-
ion o he abanka ( illage), and he du ies one has owa ds he lineage and
membe s o he mo ansa (ex ended amily li ing oge he in a compound). An
‘e hnici y package’ is hus cons uc ed, comp ising se e al elemen s ha a e
manipula ed in he highly symbolic p ocess o ela ing o hei o igins. These
elemen s ( e i o y, language, skin colou , d ess codes, commensali y, music,
dance, eligion and healing p ac ices) a e manipula ed in o de o cons uc
one’s iden i y in ela ion o o he Guineans and o he Po uguese. In he mids
o all hese, eligious p ac ices and une a y ce emonies a e o u mos impo -
ance. In he sac aliza ion o he new dwelling, he ela ion wi h he ances o s
( o e a he s who ha e died and li e in he o he wo ld) mus be acknowledged
h ough he placemen o he es os (al a s) dedica ed o hem and he p o ec-
i e i ãs (spi i s),4 as well as all he magical- eligious ce emonies ha go along
wi h such emplacemen s, o which he da ma ( o pou be e ages and ood o
he ances o s) is he mos signi ican , due o i s di ec symbolism o he con-
nec ion wi h he ances o s in he o he wo ld (Sa ai a 2007).
The Mala o he Deceased: The Case o Guinean Dea h
All his b ings us o a no ion o ans/iden i y Quin ino (2004:35), cons uc ed
a ound hecons an ela ionbe ween heimmig an sand hehos communi y,
heo iginalg oundsand hedesi e oonedaybeable o e u nhome.Dea hisa
si ua ion ha allows one o e u n home and s eng hen he eal and symbolic
ies ha connec he indi idual o he o igins ( chon), which unc ions as a
e i o ial and symbolic e e ence. How does his happen?
4I ãs a e spi i s ha li e in na u e and a e known as icks e spi i s; one should wo ship and
espec hem in o de o ha e hem as p o ec i e (and no punishe ) en i ies.
ci cula ing spi i s and dead bodies 67
A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
People om Guinea Bissau s ongly in es in ansna ional associa ions and
he e a e o e i y Guinean ngos ope a ing in Po ugal. Mos o hem ac as
mu uali ies, and gi e suppo o he immig an s in ma e s o adminis a ion
and legaliza ion o hei s a us, bu hey also p omo e solida i y ac ions, as col-
lec ing unds o public acili ies and imp o emen s back home, coope a ion
p og ammes, e c. Beyond hese, hey a e also in cha ge o he o ganiza ion
o all he aspec s conce ning i es o passage and cyclic eligious o p o ane
eas s, in which his o ical eligious adi ions, and Ca holic and Muslim p ac-
icescome oge he ,and which a emomen s o in ensein a-e hnic sociabili y.
In his spi i , one o he p imo dial unc ions o hese associa ions is he sup-
po o he ealiza ion o he shipmen o he deceased, o , a leas , o allow
o he amilies o he aluable goods o be sen back home o he amilies who
li e in Guinee Bissau. The impo an idea behind hese mo emen s o people
and goods is he main enance o he ela ion wi h he places o o igin, which is
a c ucial condi ion o allow o he conc e iza ion o he ideal o a good dea h.
This Guinean case o o ming associa ions is no a single one; on he con-
a y, i is a phenomenon widely p esen in A ica, bo h in ea lie imes as well
as nowadays. In hei book Fune als in A ica, Michael Jind a and Joel No e
(2011) expand on he his o ical impac o he de elopmen o associa ions in
se e al pa s o colonial A ica, especially om he middle hi d o he wen-
ie h cen u y onwa ds. They s ess how, amongs such associa ions, une a y
ones became e y impo an , p o iding mu ual help o he o ganiza ion o
une als as an essen ial p ac ice wi hin such solida i ies. As hey s a e:
In con empo a y A ica, membe ship in associa ions is s ill o en igh ly
associa ed wi h une als and suppo o membe s acing dea h- ela ed
expenses.Inu bancon ex s, he oles ha associa ionso people om he
same egionplay, no ablyin b ingingco pses back “home” o bu ial,ha e
been documen ed in a ious egions, including Wes , Eas and sou he n
A ica.5
jind a and no e 2011:21
Le us see how his wo ks in p ac ice. Mos o he associa ions equi e he pay-
men o a ee ha e e s o he common und. I is wi h his und ha hey
5 Jind a and No e (2011: 21–24) p o ide a wide ange o cases in which he ole o such
associa ions is explained, om ea ly colonial imes o con empo a y socie ies, such as ade
associa ions in Ghana, Malawaian “home illage s” associa ions, Came oonian mu uelles in
Yaoundé,aswellas une a yassocia ions inE hiopia,Tanzania,andsou he n A ica,amongs
o he s.
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help he amilies o send back he co pses, in case his is he wish o he am-
ily. Ne e heless, in mos cases his is s ill no possible, due o he high cos s
o ansna ional une als, and a symbolic shipmen is o ganized o eplace he
sending o a eal body. Sending he mala (sui case), and he oka chu ( he sec-
onda y une a y i uals) a e he womos signi ican elemen s o his complex.
To cla i y his p ocess I will use he example o one o he associa ions
ha helps in such ma e s and my own ield wo k in Guinea Bissau. This
associa ion was ounded in 1992 and is pa icula ly ac i e in main aining he
ela ionship wi h he place o o igin. I is a Manjako-based o ganiza ion, one o
he e hnic g oups ha has a longe immig a ion adi ion, wi h la ge numbe s
o immig an s in F ance, whe e a sis e o ganiza ion exis s. One o i s majo
ac i i ies is he suppo o i s membe s in case o illness o dea h. Acco ding
o he es ablished ules, in he e en o a dea h in he amily he membe s a e
en i led o economic suppo o pe o m he une a y i uals. Mos indi iduals
(90%) a e bu ied in he Lisbon ceme e ies, and he associa ion pays he cos s
o he une al. I he body is sen back o Guinea Bissau he associa ion gi es
he same amoun o money and he es o he expense has obe shoulde ed by
he amily. In eali y, due o he high cos s o his p ocess (a ound 5,000 eu os),
mos amilies do no ha e he economic means o send he body back home.
Facing such impossibili y, conside able e o is being pu in o he i ualiza ion
o he bonds wi h he place o o igin and wi h he amily back in Guinea, in
o de o a ain he ideal o a “good dea h”. This ela ionship is consolida ed
h ough a ious ac ions and i ual pe o mances which, h ough a ange o
a ious o ms,es ablish aphysicalandsymbolic b idgewi h he place o o igin.
One o such o ms, which su passes e hnic o eligious di e si y, since i is
used by Ca holics, Muslims and hose in ol ed in his o ical eligious adi ions
alike,is hemala.A e he une al, heclose amilyo ganizes hesui caseo he
deceased. This sui case is illed wi h he pe son’s mos impo an belongings,
mainly clo hing, jewelle y and clo hs,6 especially panos pen i, he hand-wo en
clo hs highly alued in Guinea and all o e Wes A ica (Sa ai a 2008). Beyond
he une al cos s, he associa ion gi es 250 eu os which may be inc eased wi h
amily dona ions.This money is placed inside he sui case and sen back home
by a amily membe .
This ac con i ms wo undamen al ideals. Fi s ly, he con inui y o he am-
ily beyond na ional bo de s and su passing i s membe s’ mobili y. Such obli-
6 By clo hing I mean he pe son’s clo hing, d esses, shi s, ouse s, e c.; by clo hs I mean eal
clo h, pieces o issue, which a e commonly used in many pa s o Wes A ica o w ap he
dead bodies du ing he une a y ce emonies. Such clo hs a e highly alued and conside ed a
symbol o he pe son’s weal h.
ci cula ing spi i s and dead bodies 69
A ican Diaspo a 9 (2016) 61–76
ga ions a e du ies o he di ec amily, who a e also he ones ha may bene i
om he p o ec ion o a dead pe son who becomes a p o ec i e ances o , bu
can also su e he e enge o an ances o who did no ha e his i uals o ally
ul illed. Secondly, i is exac ly when one’s physical mobili y ends, due o dea h
ha he belongings symbolizing he pe son mus e u n home and close he
cycle o he connec ion o he home g ound, he chon.
The goods placed in he sui case ei he belonged o he indi idual o we e
gi s o e ed du ing he une al. No one comes o a une al wi hou goods o
o e . I is belie ed ha he deceased needs such hings in his o he wo ld li e.
Bu all ha he li ing o e o he dead will ul ima ely e e in hei a ou , as
hey a e goods ha en ich he o he wo ld, o which each will become pa .
Al hough hey may seem con adic o y, hese wo assump ions complemen
each o he . Wha belonged o he deceased goes o he eal amily, bo h in he
diaspo a and in he place o o igin, and all ha is o e ed by he people coming
o he i ual is symbolically gi en o he spi i o he deceased and o he wo ld
o he spi i s in gene al.
This means ha he gene osi y o he ones ha pay hei las homage o he
dead e e s o hei p o i , since when hey o e he ecen ly dead a ull mala
hey a e also pleasing hei own ances o s, who li e in he o he wo ld and can
hus ecei e he goods b ough o e by he spi i o he newly dead. He/she
akes hem o he o he wo ld and edis ibu es his su plus, as i was explained
by he head o he associa ion: “One mus o e as much as possible; i he spi i
a i es in he o he wo ld wi h a lo o clo hes he edis ibu es hem o he
o he …”
The o ganiza ion o he sui case akes place igh a e dea h, in he house
o he deceased o o a amily membe . Songs a e sung and d inks a e pou ed
(da ma ) on he g ound o he spi i , and, in he case o Muslims, i includes
he sac i ice o an animal. Da ma has he ul ima e meaning o communion
be ween humans and ances o s: he idea is ha ances o s su ound us, and
we need o also sha e wi h hem wha is going o be d unk o ea en. This is
especially impo an in ci cums ances when he communica ion be ween he
wo ld o he li ing and he one o he dead is open due o he new dea h. I
is a ime when “ he dead akes e e y hing: d inks, ood, and ce ainly, also he
spi i o hedead”.Theances o sli eina o allymobilewo ld,and hus heya e
p esen in he ce emonies in Po ugal as in Guinea, as one o my in e iewees
s a ed: “you see, hey do no need o ake a plane … i he e is a ce emony he e
in Po ugal, all he ances o s’ spi i s come, and we need o nu u e hem”.
The in ense ci cula ion be ween he wo spaces and communi ies ha emi-
g a ion implies as well as he mobili y o he spi i s ha mus be p esen come
ali e in he ecip oci y o du ies o “ he ones ha a e he e” and “ he ones ha
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