Ci a ion: San os, F.D.; O’Rio dan, T.;
Rocha de Sousa, M.; Pede sen, J.S.T.
The Six C i ical De e minan s Tha
May Ac as Human Sus ainabili y
Bounda ies on Clima e Change
Ac ion. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su16010331
Academic Edi o s: Zahoo Ahmed,
Mahmood Ahmad, Syed Tausee
Hassan and Abdullah Em e Cagla
Recei ed: 7 No embe 2023
Re ised: 19 Decembe 2023
Accep ed: 25 Decembe 2023
Published: 29 Decembe 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
sus ainabili y
A icle
The Six C i ical De e minan s Tha May Ac as Human
Sus ainabili y Bounda ies on Clima e Change Ac ion
Filipe Dua e San os 1,* , Tim O’Rio dan 2, Miguel Rocha de Sousa 3,4,5 and Jiespe S andsbje g
T is an Pede sen 1,6
1cE3c—Cen e o Ecology, E olu ion and En i onmen al Changes, CHANGE—Global Change and
Sus ainabili y Ins i u e, Depa men o Physics, Facul y o Sciences, Uni e si y o Lisbon, 1749-016 Lisbon,
Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
2School o En i onmen al Sciences Membe , Cen e o Social and Economic Resea ch on he Global
En i onmen (CSERGE), Uni e si y o Eas Anglia, No wich, No olk NR4 7TJ, UK; .o io [email p o ec ed]
3Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o É o a, 7004-516 É o a, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
4CICP Resea ch Cen e in Poli ical Science, Uni e si y o É o a, 7004-516 É o a, Po ugal
5CEFAGE-UE—Cen e o Ad anced S udies in Managemen and Economics, Uni e si y o É o a, 7004-516
É o a, Po ugal
6Geosciences, Cope nicus Ins i u e o Sus ainable De elopmen , En i onmen al Sciences, U ech Uni e si y,
3508 TC U ech , The Ne he lands
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Signi ican ad ances ha e been achie ed in mul ila e al nego ia ions ega ding human
de elopmen and en i onmen al sa egua ding since he 1972 UN S ockholm Con e ence. The e
is much g ea e global awa eness and ac ion owa ds sus ainabili y. Howe e , sus ainabili y has
pe sis en ly been sidelined, leading o he iden i ica ion and de ini ion o a ansg essed “sa e and jus
space o humani y”. He e we de elop a new e olu iona y app oach and me hodology o explain
he easons why sus ainabili y con inues o be a di icul challenge o con empo a y socie ies o
adop . We a gue ha hese o igina e in six majo biological, social, psychological, poli ical, and
cul u al c i ical de e minan s ha esul ed om human biologic and cul u al e olu ion. Al hough
hey a e essen ial o human p ospe i y and wellbeing, hese cha ac e is ics may also ac as human
sus ainabili y bounda ies. I is possible o educe he inhibi ing powe o each c i ical de e minan
in he pa hways o sus ainabili y, a i al p ocess ha we e m so ening. Iden i ying, knowing, and
so ening hese impedimen s is a necessa y i s s ep o achie ing sus ainabili y h ough g ea e sel -
knowledge and ans o ma ional p ocesses. The applica ion o he p esen me hodology is es ic ed
he e o he clima e change challenge. We examine he ways in which each human sus ainabili y
bounda y is capable o obs uc ing clima e ac ion and o e possible ways o so en i s ha dness.
Keywo ds: sus ainabili y; en i onmen and de elopmen ; e olu iona y app oach; c i ical de e mi-
nan s o sus ainabili y; sus ainabili y bounda ies; clima e change ac ion
1. In oduc ion
The G ea Accele a ion [
1
] was a pe iod in human his o y wi hin he an h opocene
ha s a ed a e he Second Wo ld Wa . I is cha ac e ized by wo democ a ic wa es [
2
],
imp o ed socioeconomic condi ions in many wo ld egions, high global popula ion g ow h,
and huge inc eases and di e si ica ion in he p oduc ion and consump ion o goods and
se ices. The e was also a ema kable enla gemen o he wo ld’s G oss Domes ic P oduc
(GDP), o di ec o eign in es men , o ene gy gene a ion and consump ion, mobili y,
elecommunica ions, digi aliza ion, u baniza ion, globaliza ion, and he use o na u al
esou ces. Some o hese changes a e e lec ed in he al e ed unc ioning o he Ea h’s
sys em, which encompasses ou plane ’s in e ac ing physical, chemical, biological, and
human p ocesses [3].
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su16010331 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 2 o 20
The need o p o ec he en i onmen and gua an ee con inued access o na u al e-
sou ces mo i a ed he Global No h o con ene he 1972 Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on
he Human En i onmen in S ockholm. Tha was also he yea when “Limi s o G ow h”
was published [
4
], which modeled o he i s ime he likely undesi able long- e m conse-
quences o inde ini e economic g ow h. I s con o e sial p edic ions emain ele an o his
day [5].
The S ockholm Con e ence ini ia ed a mul ila e al p ocess on en i onmen al diplo-
macy and ac ion. In i s ini ial phase, he Wo ld Commission on En i onmen and De-
elopmen p oduced he 1987 B und land epo “Ou Common Fu u e” [
6
]. The epo
in oduced he concep o sus ainable de elopmen , de ined as “de elopmen ha mee s
he needs o he p esen wi hou comp omising he abili y o u u e gene a ions o mee
hei own needs”. The ini ial ocus on en i onmen and human de elopmen e ol ed in o
h ee dimensions o sus ainabili y—en i onmen al; social; and economic sus ainabili y—in
he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen ; wi h i s 17 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
(SDGs), adop ed by he Uni ed Na ions in 2015. In spi e o he ela i e inc eases in p ospe -
i y o e he las 50 yea s and much g ea e global awa eness abou sus ainabili y, wa e
sca ci y, ood c ises, and ex eme po e y igh en hei hold in some o he leas de eloped
and agile coun ies; social and economic inequali ies inc ease wi hin and be ween coun-
ies; and humani y is challenged by clima e change, o e exploi a ion o na u al esou ces,
pollu ion, was e, and biodi e si y loss in an in e na ional se ing expe iencing conside able
geopoli ical s i e.
The e is c i icism ha sus ainable de elopmen does no ha e an ag eed-upon de ini-
ion [
7
,
8
]. I is oo ague and wide- anging o p o ide guidance, and i is no su icien ly
a ac i e o mobilize he human esou ces necessa y o mee he socioeconomic and en i-
onmen al challenges o oday [
9
]. “Plu i e se” al e na i es o he dominan “one-wo ld
sus ainable de elopmen ” iew ha e also been p oposed [
10
]. The e is a g owing p e e -
ence, including in go e nmen and p i a e sec o publica ions, o he b oade and mo e
inclusi e concep o sus ainabili y [8].
Ra ely has a concep ual idea pene a ed so deeply in o a b oad ange o human ac-
i i ies and acqui ed mo e apid and powe ul isibili y, wi h he capaci y o in luence
go e nmen s, business, law, educa ion, non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions, and public opin-
ion wo ldwide [
11
–
13
]. Nowadays, he e is a b oad “in p inciple” consensus abou he
need o achie e, as soon as possible, some o m o global and inclusi e sus ainabili y. This
is because some o m o c ea i e edis ibu ion o well-being, based on ecological p inciples
and human igh s, is deemed necessa y o pe sis en p ospe i y o e ol e ac oss he wo ld.
Bu many challenges emain. Wo ld leade s a he UN SDG Summi in Sep embe 2019
called o a decade o ac ion [
14
] o sus ainable de elopmen . They pledged o mobilize
inancing, enhance na ional implemen a ion, and s eng hen ins i u ions o achie e he
SDGs by he a ge da e o 2030. In a ollow-up mee ing a he UN Gene al Assembly
o 2023, hey bemoaned he lack o p og ess o each some o he SDG a ge s. He e, we
examine why his migh be he case. Ou app oach is based on he assump ion ha human
sel -knowledge de elops and s eng hens he inne esou ces needed o add ess sus ain-
abili y challenges. Sol ing hem equi es ans o ma ions ha a e no only echnological
and poli ical bu also ope a e a he inne pe sonal le el [15].
2. Me hodology
We add ess he cu en ques o sus ainabili y wi h a new e olu iona y app oach o
explain he human o igins o he social, economic, en i onmen al, and cul u al sus ain-
abili y c ises ha con inue o a lic con empo a y socie ies. Ripoll [
16
] and Bohle [
17
]
a gue ha he e a e unchangeable neu al, an h opological, psychological, and sociological
human ai s ha p e en humans om eaching sus ainabili y. We do no ollow he
a gumen ha humans a e p e en ed om eaching o ms o sus ainabili y. In u n, we
p opose ha i is possible o iden i y and sys ema ize he c i ical e olu iona y de e minan s
ha may es ablish bounda ies along sus ainabili y pa hways and ha hese bounda ies
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 3 o 20
can be so ened. Social communi ies wi h he cha ac e is ics o he “exempla y e hical
communi ies” p oposed by [
18
], da ing back cen u ies o e en millennia, cons i u e an
example whe e he sus ainabili y bounda ies we e so ened.
The p oposed esea ch ques ion is: Wha a e he basic human e olu iona y “backs o y”
easons ha a e hinde ing sus ainabili y, and how can we o e come hem? In answe ing
he i s pa o he ques ion, we a e del ing in o he space- ime whe e human biological,
social, psychological, and cul u al de e minan s e ol ed.
Is i possible o cons uc a scien i ic me hodology o iden i y he human inne de e mi-
nan s acqui ed in he human biologic and cul u al e olu ion ha , while e y impo an o
su i al, well-being, and economic p ospe i y, may also cu en ly ac as impedimen s in he
pu sui o sus ainabili y? Al hough he e is no accep ed scien i ic me hodology o his end,
we no e ha science has success ully un a eled signi ican ace s o he biological and social
e olu ion o he Homo genus o e he pas 2.6 million yea s, leading o mode n humans.
An h opology has comp ehensi ely in es iga ed aspec s o Homo sapiens, encompassing
biology, e olu iona y his o y, socie al ea u es, and cul u al dynamics om ancien imes o
he p esen day.
A gumen s a e p esen ed suppo ing he easibili y and u ili y o iden i ying human
c i ical de e minan s (HCDs) ha may ac as con empo a y human sus ainabili y bound-
a ies (HSBs). C i ical because hey a e decisi e o eaching sus ainabili y. “May ac ”
because we belie e ha he HSBs can be so ened by pe sonal commi men s capable o
spu ing ins i u ional and go e nance ans o ma ions, ende ing sus ainabili y mo e acces-
sible. The me hodology used ollows an induc i e e olu iona y app oach based on in-dep h
analysis h ough biological, an h opological, sociological, psychological, economic, and po-
li ical da a sou ces and seeks o iden i y he smalles se o in e ac ing and in e dependen
HCDs. This pa simony is de ined by he condi ion ha he HCD se is he minimum se
capable o p o iding a comple e and cohe en explana ion o why sus ainabili y is cu en ly
p o ing o be an elusi e objec i e. The HCD se comp ises wo dis inc sub-se s, each delin-
ea ing he in luence o di e en e olu iona y ea u es. The i s sub-se , consis ing o wo
de e minan s, is cha ac e ized by in insic biological a ibu es, p edominan ly obse ed a
he indi idual le el. The second sub-se , comp ising ou de e minan s, is cha ac e ized by
social and cul u al a ibu es p esen a bo h indi idual and collec i e le els. The HCDs
ha e been essen ial o human de elopmen and wellbeing. Howe e , hey may also ac
as HSBs when unc ioning as impedimen s o p og ess owa ds sus ainabili y. In such an
ope a ing mode, we designa e hem as bounda ies and no as ba ie s because hey a e
no imposed ex e nally upon us. They ha e a human o igin, al hough we may no be ully
conscious o hei ole.
The p esen me hodology is based on he ecogni ion ha humans a e a deeply social
biological species, elying s ongly on coope a ion [
19
]. The appea ance o Homo sapiens
esul ed om a biological e olu ion ollowed by a cul u al e olu ion ha likely s a ed wi h
he eme gence o ea ly symbolic beha io [
20
–
23
]. This double p ocess c ea ed iden i iable
biological, social, psychological, poli ical, and cul u al ai s ha amed six majo HCDs.
They ha e been p esen o a e y long ime, some o many millions o yea s, o he s o
hund eds o housands o yea s, and s ill o he s only in he las h ee cen u ies. They
a e common o all o us, al hough hey mani es hemsel es in di e en o ms and wi h
di e en in ensi ies. We a e no add essing he e he easons o his di e en ia ion a he
indi idual le el, bu hei global ic ion in he ques o sus ainabili y.
The u gency o con olling ou in e e ence in he Ea h sys em has been highligh ed by
he concep o plane a y bounda ies. Rocks öm e al. [24] iden i ied nine bounda ies ha
de ine he “sa e space o humankind” conce ning he Ea h sys em and i s biophysical sub-
sys ems and p ocesses. Acco ding o he au ho s, he bounda ies in h ee
sys ems— he
a e
o biodi e si y loss; clima e change; and human in e e ence wi h he ni ogen
cycle—we e
exceeded a ound 2009, placing humani y in a egion o high isk ou side he zone o unce -
ain y [
24
]. An upda e o his wo k inds ha six o he nine bounda ies ha e now been
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 4 o 20
ansg essed, sugges ing ha he Ea h sys em is now well ou side o he sa e ope a ing
space o humani y [25].
Ka e Rawo h [
26
] wen a s ep u he and in oduced a isual amewo k shaped
like a doughnu whe e one inds a “sa e and jus ” space be ween he plane a y bounda ies
o su i al and he social bounda ies o eliable li elihoods. These a e de ined h ough
s a is ical indica o s ha desc ibe a sa e social ounda ion o a ious de e minan s, such
as ood secu i y, income, wa e and sani a ion, heal h ca e, educa ion, gende equali y,
social equi y, and so on [
26
,
27
]. Mo e ecen ly, sa e and jus Ea h sys em bounda ies o
clima e, he biosphe e, wa e and nu ien cycles, and ae osols a global and subglobal
scales ha e been de ined [
28
]. These amewo ks se e o moni o humani y’s de ia ion
om sus ainabili y, o cha ac e ize he esul ing isks, and o help indica e he bes cou ses
o ac ion.
In he p esen app oach, we a e no del ing in o he “sa e and jus ” space o humani y.
We emain in human space- ime, whe e he HCDs play he leading oles in s aying wi hin
he “sa e and jus ” space o humani y o in leading owa ds he c ossing o plane a y
bounda ies o su i al and social bounda ies o li elihoods.
I is possible o educe he inhibi ing powe o each c i ical de e minan in na owing
he pa hways o human socie ies owa d sus ainabili y. This is a i al p ocess, which we
e m so ening. Each HSB ac s on he h ee sus ainabili y componen s, and each has a
ce ain deg ee o ha dness when we a emp o so en hei ac ion on each componen .
The ha dness (so ness) o he HSB has a global spa ial dependence ha is con inually
e ol ing wi h ime. HSB so ening can be achie ed h ough app op ia e ans o ma i e
pa hways [
29
]. Inc emen al changes o “business as usual” a e cu en ly a om success ul,
so ans o ma i e human p ocesses a e necessa y o sa egua d humani y’s sus ainable u-
u e [
30
]. The mos p omising, consensual, comp ehensible, and uni e sal cu en pa hway
is o each he 169 UN SDG-quan i ied a ge s by 2030. This goal is unlikely o be ully
achie ed in ime. I will p obably equi e mo e obus human ans o ma ional p ocesses.
Each HSB ac s on he social, economic, and en i onmen al sus ainabili y componen s
wi h a ce ain deg ee o ha dness. Based on he analysis de eloped in he nex sec ion, we
make a quali a i e assessmen o he ela i e ha dness ha each HSB imposes on ul illing
each o he h ee sus ainabili y componen s using a h ee-poin scale—s ong; mode a e;
and weak (Table 1). The e alua ion was made using he me hodology de eloped in his
pape . I assumes ha he HCDs ac as an HSB in he o eseeable medium and long e m,
no only in he sho e m.
Table 1. Cu en ela i e ha dness o each sus ainabili y bounda y o he ad ancemen in each o he
h ee componen s o sus ainabili y (social, economic, and en i onmen al), g aded on a 3-poin scale.
The las line indica es he cu en ha dness o each sus ainabili y bounda y o clima e ac ion, also
g aded on a 3-poin scale.
Ha dness o Human Sus ainabili y Bounda ies
DRS 1TD 2HNI 3SIU 4CFR 5IGGR 6
Social
sus ainabili y mode a e mode a e weak s ong s ong s ong
Economic s ong s ong weak mode a e mode a e s ong
sus ainabili y
En i onmen al
sus ainabili y s ong s ong s ong mode a e weak s ong
Clima e
Ac ion mode a e s ong weak s ong mode a e s ong
1
Dopamine gic Rewa d Sys em;
2
Time Discoun ing in In e empo al Decisions;
3
Human-Na u e In e -
connec edness;
4
Sel -In e es and U ili y;
5
Coope a ion and F ee-Riding;
6
In e na ional Geopoli ical and
Geo-s a egic Rela ions.
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 5 o 20
Using a h ee-poin scale, a quali a i e analysis o he cu en ela i e ha dness o each
HSB o implemen social, economic, and en i onmen al sus ainabili y was pe o med. The
o he way o weigh ing his scale is o use a Delphi app oach in ol ing a su ey, which
is ou side he scope o his wo k. The dimensions o jus ice, human igh s, and equi y
we e included in he analysis o he social sus ainabili y componen . The dimensions o
p ospe i y, well-being, and long- e m sus ainable economic de elopmen we e included
in he economic sus ainabili y componen . Finally, he dimensions o na u al esou ce
sus ainabili y and conse a ion o biodi e si y in eg i y, gene ic and unc ional, o suppo
he well-being o cu en and u u e gene a ions we e included in he en i onmen al
sus ainabili y componen . The esul s a e shown in Table 1. The holis ic ha dness o each
HSB, de ined as he a i hme ic a e age o he ha dness a ings o he h ee componen s o
sus ainabili y, is shown in Figu e 1.
Sus ainabili y2024,16,xFORPEERREVIEW5o 20

Usinga h ee-poin scale,aquali a i eanalysiso  hecu en  ela i eha dnesso 
eachHSB oimplemen social,economic,anden i onmen alsus ainabili ywaspe -
o med.Theo he wayo weigh ing hisscaleis ouseaDelphiapp oachin ol inga
su ey,whichisou side hescopeo  hiswo k.Thedimensionso jus ice,human igh s,
andequi ywe eincludedin heanalysiso  hesocialsus ainabili ycomponen .Thedi-
mensionso p ospe i y,well-being,andlong- e msus ainableeconomicde elopmen 
we eincludedin heeconomicsus ainabili ycomponen .Finally, hedimensionso na -
u al esou cesus ainabili yandconse a iono biodi e si yin eg i y,gene icand unc-
ional, osuppo  hewell-beingo cu en and u u egene a ionswe eincludedin he
en i onmen alsus ainabili ycomponen .The esul sa eshowninTable1.Theholis ic
ha dnesso eachHSB,de inedas hea i hme ica e ageo  heha dness a ings o  he
h eecomponen so sus ainabili y,isshowninFigu e1.

Figu e1.Holis icsus ainabili ybounda y(calcula edusingTable1)o  hesixhumansus ainabili y
bounda ies:Dopamine gicRewa dSys em(DRS),TimeDiscoun inginIn e empo alDecisions
(TD),HNI:Human-Na u eIn e connec edness,Sel -In e es andU ili y(SIU),Coope a ionand
F ee-Riding(CFR)andIn e na ionalGeopoli icalandGeo-s a egicRela ions(IGGR).Thea ows
indica e hemo emen  owa dssus ainabili y.
In hispape ,we ocusou a en iononan h opogenicclima echange,whichhasa
p ominen  olein he2030Agenda.SDG13calls o u gen ac ion ocomba clima e
changeandi simpac s o each i e a ge scha ac e izedbyeigh indica o s.ThisSDGis
Figu e 1. Holis ic sus ainabili y bounda y (calcula ed using Table 1) o he six human sus ainabili y
bounda ies: Dopamine gic Rewa d Sys em (DRS), Time Discoun ing in In e empo al Decisions (TD),
HNI: Human-Na u e In e connec edness, Sel -In e es and U ili y (SIU), Coope a ion and F ee-Riding
(CFR) and In e na ional Geopoli ical and Geo-s a egic Rela ions (IGGR). The a ows indica e he
mo emen owa ds sus ainabili y.

Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 6 o 20
In his pape , we ocus ou a en ion on an h opogenic clima e change, which has
a p ominen ole in he 2030 Agenda. SDG 13 calls o u gen ac ion o comba clima e
change and i s impac s o each i e a ge s cha ac e ized by eigh indica o s. This SDG is
linked o all he o he 16 SDGs o he 2030 Agenda, and in pa icula SDG 7 on a o dable
and clean ene gy. Mo e speci ically, he p esen me hodology p o ides insigh s in o why
clima e change has o en been desc ibed as a “wicked” p oblem because o i s complexi y,
in e connec ed na u e, and di icul y in inding a solu ion, in con as wi h “ ame” p oblems,
which ha e a clea op imum solu ion [
31
,
32
]. The applica ion o he HSB me hodology o
clima e change helps o unde s and i s ull complexi y and ind solu ions o he p oblem.
Using a h ee-poin scale, he ela i e ha dness o each HSBs abili y o implemen
e ec i e clima e ac ion was analyzed. This analysis is p esen ed and discussed in he sec ion
ha ollows, and he esul s a e included in Table 1. The applica ion o his me hodology
o o he sus ainabili y challenges, such as he deple ion o na u al esou ces, he ci cula
economy, and biodi e si y conse a ion, is no p esen ed he e.
3. Human C i ical De e minan s Tha May Ac as Human Sus ainabili y Bounda ies
3.1. The Dopamine gic Rewa d Sys em
The i s c i ical de e minan is he dopamine gic ewa d sys em (DRS). This is he
mos impo an ewa d pa hway in he b ain. The b ain esponds o a ewa ding s imulus
by eleasing dopamine, he main neu o ansmi e associa ed wi h pleasu e. The DRS is lo-
ca ed in he mammalian pa o ou b ain and is esponsible o basic human mo i a ion o
speci ic ac ions. These ac ions a e d i en by su i al necessi ies (e.g., ea ing, ep oducing,
a oiding pain, and p o iding pleasu e) and he equi emen s o cul u al endu ance (e.g.,
acqui ing social s a us, minimizing e o , and gleaning in o ma ion). They play a cen al
ole in ensu ing he ep oduc i e success o ou species and human su i al and wellbeing.
Mo e han 200 million yea s ago, mammals de eloped a six-laye neoco ex and a
compa men aliza ion o he s ia um ha enhanced co ico-s ia al connec i i y [
33
]. This
biological e olu ion imp o ed beha io al lexibili y [
33
]. The s ia um is pa o he basal
ganglia in all p esen -day mammals and pe o ms a c i ical unc ion in ac ion selec ion.
The DSR has been loca ed in he basal ganglia since much be o e he pe iod o apid
encephaliza ion in he Homo genus. Thei unc ion is no easoning, a capaci y in humans
and o he mammals ha is assu ed by mo e ecen co ical s uc u es, mos ly he on al
and p e on al co ex [
33
]. Howe e , he DRS has he essen ial unc ion o ewa ding he
basic mo i a ions o speci ic ac ions such as ea ing [
34
,
35
], ep oducing [
36
], and a oiding
pain by p o iding pleasu e. I is also in ol ed in acqui ing social s a us [
37
], minimizing
e o [
38
], and gleaning in o ma ion [
17
]. Du ing he e olu ion o he Homo genus up o
Homo sapiens, he complexi y o he connec i i y o he basic ganglia wi h he neoco ex
inc eased. This s onge connec i i y means ha he neoco ex can ha e some con ol o e
he esponse o s imuli po en ially ewa ded by he DRS.
The DRS is common o all humans, bu s imuli a e e y di e se in he human pop-
ula ion. Repea ing he s imulus is he way o p o ide mo e pleasu e because he ne e
cells elease mo e dopamine. The DRS by i sel has no mechanism o es ablishing limi s
on i s con ibu ion o he ep oduc i e success o ou species. I is compa ible wi h un-
limi ed global popula ion g ow h, which is no a desi able ou come. The DRS unc ions
as a neu ochemical mo o o g ow h in he b ain. Du ing mos o he Holocene, human
eason and endea o ha e been able o p ojec his un es ic ed p inciple o g ow h in o
ou social, ag icul u al, economic, inancial, and echnological socie y’s models [
17
]. I
limi s o g ow h exis [
4
,
5
], hey ep esen a concep ha is un ela ed o he DRS mode o
unc ioning bu can be easily g asped by he b ain. DRS by i sel is also compa ible wi h
inde ini e economic g ow h because i ewa ds he consump ion o goods and se ices o
he ex en ha hey p o ide sa is ac ion o pleasu e, a p ocess ha is op imized h ough
u ili y maximiza ion.
In he p e-his o ic pas , su i al/ ep oduc ion/pleasu e-connec ed g ow h in pop-
ula ions and na u al esou ce use could be sa is ied by he en i onmen a he local and
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 7 o 20
egional le els. The pace o sou cing o cu en g ow h a he global le el ends o become
es ic i e. This seems o ha e been he case a leas since he beginning o he G ea
Accele a ion in he middle o he 20 h cen u y, including he “age o sus ainable de el-
opmen ”, [
39
]. This i s c i ical de e minan has a biological o igin and is common o all
indi iduals. I con ibu es o bo h indi idual and collec i e beha io .
Because o i s na u e and p esence in all aspec s o li e, i is one o he mo e challenging
o so en when unc ioning as an HSB. So ening his i s HSB equi es a g ea e awa eness
o he ela ionships be ween decisions ewa ded by he DRS and eaching a gi en SDG. This
awa eness pa es he way o an inc eased in ol emen o he neoco ex in such decisions.
The inc eased in ol emen may be able o decouple he b ain’s neu ochemical mo o o
g ow h om unsus ainable g ow h models.
I s ela ionship wi h clima e change s ems om he in e dependen connec ion be-
ween he cu en human ac i i ies ha con ibu e o an h opogenic g eenhouse gas emis-
sions (GHG) and some o he much-di e si ied DRS s imuli in con empo aneous socie ies
ac oss he wo ld. The e a e many examples o ha connec ion. The mos signi ican esul s
om he high global dependence on ossil uels o he p o ision o abundan and a o d-
able global p ima y ene gy, an indispensable way o maximize u ili y, in pa icula h ough
DRS s imuli. This dependence has been o he o de o 80% in he las 50 yea s and was
82% in 2021 [
40
] and 81.8% in 2022 [
41
]. S eadily, he cos s o enewable ene gy a e alling,
so he e is a iable subs i u e ha is ecei ing la ge in es men s. I he u u e dominan
p ima y ene gy sou ces a e deca bonized and he DRS d i e is s ill sa is ied, hen he e is a
basis o a so ening.
Ene gy is no a di ec s imulus o he DRS; i has an indi ec e ec . I is essen ial
o p oduce globally he g owing amoun and di e si y o goods and se ices ha a e
consumed, some o which a e s imuli o he DRS. Mea consump ion in ol es he DRS and
has a signi ican impac on sus ainabili y, pa icula ly on clima e change [
42
]. So ening he
DRS impac on clima e change could be achie ed, o ins ance, by olun a ily es ain in
uminan mea consump ion, he eby educing me hane emissions. The e is also a case o
p olonged awa eness- aising o he pe sonal heal h bene i s o lowe mea consump ion,
coupled wi h cul u al shi s in mo al coo dina ion. In he case o ene gy, p o iding eliable
employmen in clean ene gy- ela ed jobs may well suppo a so ening in his di icul
a ena. In iew o he indi ec ela ion wi h ene gy, DRS ha dness o clima e change ac ion,
in pa icula mi iga ion, is es ima ed o be mode a e.
3.2. Time Discoun ing in In e empo al Decisions
The second c i ical de e minan s ems om ime-discoun ing in in e empo al de-
cisions. These a e decisions made now ha ha e consequences o e mul iple ime pe i-
ods. I is abb e ia ed as ime-discoun ing (TD). Time discoun ing measu es he g ea e
alue assigned o an immedia e ewa d o e he alue assigned o he same ewa d
pos poned [43–45].
This de alua ion caused by he pos ponemen ime is called ime dis-
coun ing. The way he alue o he ewa d lessens o e he ime o pos ponemen is called
he psychological ime discoun unc ion. In he con ex o economics, i is assumed ha
he human discoun unc ion is exponen ial, which implies a ixed- ime discoun a e. The
highe he a e, he s onge he discoun ing o he u u e. He e, mo e ewa d is sough a
he ou se .
How o deal wi h ime discoun ing is c i ical o achie ing sus ainabili y. The main
eason is ha mo emen in he sa e and jus space o humankind owa ds he Ea h sys em
o plane a y bounda ies is gene ally ela i ely slow, aking place in ime in e als ha
encompass mul iple gene a ions. Sus ainabili y issues ha in ol e such la ge ime in e als
become almos i ele an due o he ela i ely high alues o human ime discoun ing
a es [
43
,
46
,
47
]. Unless we de elop he capaci y o conside hem ele an in he p esen ,
human TD ac s as a HSB ha ends o inc ease isk and ampli ies unce ain y abou
he u u e.
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 8 o 20
Clima e change p o ides a good example o TD ac ing as a HSB because he choice o
he social ime discoun a e o make he cos -bene i analysis o in es ing in mi iga ion
is c i ical o p e en ing dange ous human in e e ence in he clima e sys em [
48
]. The
S e n e iew [
49
] a ibu es a ela i ely low alue o he social ime discoun a e. This
choice is an incen i e o a apid ene gy ansi ion, which is a good ou come o p esen
and u u e social gene a ions. S e n’s choice con as s wi h he highe alues p oposed
by No dhaus, which gi e g ea e p io i y o mo e obus economic g ow h in he sho
e m [
50
,
51
]. Howe e , he S e n e iew showed ha his sho - e m s a egy ails in he
medium and long e m because i implies much la ge damage cos s ha esul om he
impac s o u u e unaba ed clima e change.
Clima e change o e s ano he example whe e TD ac s as an HSB. Human TD has
di icul y g appling wi h he consequences o la ge and inc easing ca bon dioxide (CO
2
)
an h opogenic emissions o he a mosphe e. The eason is ha hese consequences pe sis
o housands o yea s—in e als o ime ha a e oo la ge o in luence ou p esen decisions
and ac ions. When an addi ional onne o CO
2
is emi ed in o he a mosphe e, only abou
50% is aken up by he land biosphe e and he ocean. The emaining componen , called
he ai bo ne ac ion, s ays in he a mosphe e and is emo ed by se e al p ocesses on
mul iple imescales. I akes decades o he CO
2
o be cap u ed by he biosphe e, and
by he su ace and uppe laye s o he ocean, cen u ies o be cap u ed in he deep ocean,
housands o yea s o be inco po a ed in o sedimen s o med om shell-building o ganisms,
and ens o hund eds o housands o yea s o be cap u ed om he a mosphe e by he
silica e wea he ing slow p ocess [
52
]. Abou 15–40% o he CO
2
emi ed emains in he
a mosphe e o mo e han 1000 yea s [
53
]. This means ha o he human a e o TD, he
addi ional CO
2
emi ed o he a mosphe e beha es as i i s ays he e “ o e e ”. The CO
2
ha con empo aneous social gene a ions a e cu en ly emi ing is likely o a ec he Ea h’s
clima e and cause ha m ul impac s on human gene a ions o e housands o yea s. In
iew o he wo powe ul impedimen s ha TD imposes on clima e ac ion, i s ha dness is
e alua ed as s ong.
This second HSB has i s o igin in ou biological and psychological cha ac e is ics,
which a e common o all humans and mani es mos ly a he indi idual le el. I is also one
o he HSBs ha is mo e di icul o so en because humans a e disposed o bias alue in
a o o immedia e o sho - e m g a i ica ion bu no o long- e m g a i ica ion.
So ening he second HSB depends on he capaci y o p ojec he u u e using science-
based scena ios and o build he abili y o make in e empo al decisions ha a e able o
p e en he mo e se e e scena ios, as also p oposed by “long e mism” [
54
]. So ening
depends on an inc eased awa eness o long- e m p oblems and on he in ol emen o
he neoco ex in in e empo al decisions ha ha e implica ions o he sus ainabili y o
human endea o . Making clea e he signi ican and una oidable consequences o ailu e
o so en o u u e gene a ions who cu en ly ha e no say in hei p ospec i e pligh may
also add o he imp o ed so ening p ocess. Coupling his wi h he eme ging bene i s
o clean echnology and new o ms o li ing in a sus ainable wo ld will also help he
so ening p ocess.
3.3. Human-Na u e In e connec edness
The hi d c i ical de e minan e lec s he cul u al e olu ion o human-na u e in e -
connec edness (HNI) and how i a ec s he ques o s ay wi hin he sa e and jus space
o humankind. HNI mani es s i sel mos ly a he collec i e le el. I p obably s a ed
o change wi h he human cul u al e olu ion ha accele a ed a ound 40,000 yea s BP.
This p ocess was s imula ed by he ag icul u al and indus ial e olu ions and by apid
indus ial u baniza ion [
55
]. Cu en ly, mos o he wo ld’s popula ion no longe depends
di ec ly on he na u al en i onmen and i s esou ces o su i e and h i e. A la ge pa o
he human popula ion has deg aded he HNI because na u e, biodi e si y, and ecosys em
se ices ha e become abs ac concep s. The conques o na u e and he o e exploi a ion o
some na u al esou ces ad anced he idea o he sac edness o na u e. This powe ul idea
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 9 o 20
con ibu ed o he need o conse e e uges o p is ine land in p o ec ed a eas [
56
]. These
a e isola ed, unin eg a ed, ulne able, and endange ed.
HNI mani es s i sel bo h a he indi idual and collec i e le els, bu i has a s onge
exp ession a he la e . I can ac as he hi d HSB because de aluing HNI induces he
e oneous pe cep ion ha conse a ion o biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices a e mos ly
deemed o be supe luous and ha na u al capi al can always subs i u e human-made
capi al [
57
]. On he o he hand, since p omo ing he alue o HNI is a pa hway o sus ain-
abili y [58], i so ens he HSB po en ial.
Unaba ed clima e change is a po en ial h ea o li e on Ea h. I s impac s a e ecog-
nized as an inc easingly majo d i e o biodi e si y loss [
59
]. Fu he mo e, biodi e si y
in ood and ag icul u e is in decline, posing a isk o global ood secu i y [
60
]. Clima e
change has nega i e impac s on ag icul u e and ood secu i y by lowe ing c op yields due
o mo e equen d ough s, hea wa es, and looding, as well as inc eases in pes s and
plan diseases.
Enhancing HNI e eals he c i ical alue o biodi e si y o human de elopmen and
well-being, and he e o e i is also a pa hway o add ess he clima e change challenge.
On he o he hand, de aluing HNI ends o ein o ce emissions and hence agg a a e
clima e change. Cu en ly, he e is a g owing empa hy o he alues o enhanced na u e
in ou e e yday li es [
61
]. Al hough HNI has a s ong ha dness ega ding biodi e si y
conse a ion, i s ha dness o clima e ac ion is es ima ed o be weak when compa ed wi h
he o he mo e powe ul HSBs (Table 1).
3.4. Sel -In e es and U ili y
The ou h c i ical de e minan o sus ainabili y ega ds he e ol ing concep s o
sel -in e es and u ili y (SIU) and mani es s i sel bo h a he indi idual and collec i e
le els. Homo sapiens su passes o he species in he complexi y o i s coope a ion and
de ec ion [
43
]. This achie emen was made possible h ough he in e dependen p ocesses
o gene ic and cul u al e olu ion. Du ing his o ical ci iliza ions, concep s ela ed o coop-
e a ion, such as al uism, sel -in e es , sel ishness, and egoism, had a ema kable e olu ion.
Be o e he concep o al uism was in oduced by Augus e Com e, he mo al p inciples
o bene icence and bene olence we e de eloped and p ac iced by Ch is iani y and o he
eligions [62].
The wo d sel ishness was i s used in he English language in he 17 h cen u y.
Sel ishness was conside ed by P esby e ians o be mo ally objec ionable beha io be o e
God and socie y [
63
]. Cu en ly, al uism is ecognized as ha ing posi i e e ec s on socie y,
bu hu ul aspec s ha e also been iden i ied [
64
]. On he o he hand, sel ishness is no
conside ed necessa ily bad [
65
]. Egoism can be ei he desc ip i e o no ma i e. The concep
o desc ip i e egoism, o psychological egoism, was i s in oduced by Thomas Hobbes,
who sugges ed ha all human beha io s a e mo i a ed by sel -in e es . He p oposed ha
“o all olun a y ac s, he objec o e e y man is his own pleasu e” [66].
The Hobbesian apology o sel -in e es opened he way o he de elopmen o u il-
i a ianism and he economic heo y o Adam Smi h [
67
], spea heading he success o
mains eam economics. E hical egoism and a ional egoism a e wo o ms o no ma i e
egoism [
68
]. The c i ical ques ion ha sepa a es he u ili a ian mo ali y o Je emy Ben ham
and John S ua Mill [
69
,
70
] om no ma i e egoism is he ex en o which maximizing an
agen ’s sel -in e es maximizes he sel -in e es o o he agen s. Adam Smi h’s economic
heo y hesis, namely ha humans’ na u al endency o sel -in e es can be di ec ed o
esul in economic p ospe i y o all, has pa ially sol ed ha ques ion [
67
]. He explains
he mechanism wi h he well-known me apho o he “in isible hand.” Ma ke ailu es
caused by he nega i e ex e nali ies o mains eam economics can be ixed by co ec ing he
o igins o hose ailu es. Howe e , he nega i e impac s o ma ke ailu es end o inc ease
wi h economic scale and, he e o e, wi h global GDP g ow h [
71
–
73
]. This endency in-
c eases he challenge o co ec ing hem. Un il now, ma ke co ec ions ha e been unable o
Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 16 o 20
p ocess because he causes o esis ance ha e been long in ges a ion and endu ing in he
human condi ion. Ye , we conside ha he human capaci y o adap a ion and e olu ion
based on accumula ed knowledge can o e come and adjus o he sus ainabili y challenge.
This may well be ad anced by ecogni ion o he causes, consequences, and concilia ions
connec ed o HSBs.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, F.D.S.; me hodology, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.;
so wa e, F.D.S. and J.S.T.P.; alida ion, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; o mal analysis, F.D.S. and
T.O.; in es iga ion, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; esou ces, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.;
da a cu a ion, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, F.D.S.; w i ing—
e iew and edi ing, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; isualiza ion, F.D.S.; supe ision, F.D.S.; p ojec
adminis a ion, F.D.S. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : This s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion
o Helsinki and app o ed by he Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : We ob ained da a om pee - e iewed and g ay li e a u e (books,
pee - e iewed epo s) sou ces, all a ailable on he In e ne . Ene gy da a a e om BP BP S a is ical
Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy 2020, 69 h (a ailable on: h ps://www.bp.com/: accessed on 18 Decembe
2023) and he Ene gy Ins i u e (EI). S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy, 72nd Edi ion (a ailable on:
h ps://www.ene gyins .o g/s a is ical- e iew: accessed on 18 Decembe 2023). GDP da a a e om
he Wo ld Bank.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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