The Six Critical Determinants That May Act as Human Sustainability Boundaries on Climate Change Action

Ci a ion: San os, F.D.; O’Rio dan, T.; Rocha de Sousa, M.; Pede sen, J.S.T. The Six C i ical De e minan s Tha May Ac as Human Sus ainabili y Bounda ies on Clima e Change Ac ion. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su16010331 Academic Edi o s: Zahoo Ahmed, Mahmood Ahmad, Syed Tausee Hassan and Abdullah Em e Cagla Recei ed: 7 No embe 2023 Re ised: 19 Decembe 2023 Accep ed: 25 Decembe 2023 Published: 29 Decembe 2023 Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). sus ainabili y A icle The Six C i ical De e minan s Tha May Ac as Human Sus ainabili y Bounda ies on Clima e Change Ac ion Filipe Dua e San os 1,* , Tim O’Rio dan 2, Miguel Rocha de Sousa 3,4,5 and Jiespe S andsbje g T is an Pede sen 1,6 1cE3c—Cen e o Ecology, E olu ion and En i onmen al Changes, CHANGE—Global Change and Sus ainabili y Ins i u e, Depa men o Physics, Facul y o Sciences, Uni e si y o Lisbon, 1749-016 Lisbon, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed] 2School o En i onmen al Sciences Membe , Cen e o Social and Economic Resea ch on he Global En i onmen (CSERGE), Uni e si y o Eas Anglia, No wich, No olk NR4 7TJ, UK; .o io [email p o ec ed] 3Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o É o a, 7004-516 É o a, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed] 4CICP Resea ch Cen e in Poli ical Science, Uni e si y o É o a, 7004-516 É o a, Po ugal 5CEFAGE-UE—Cen e o Ad anced S udies in Managemen and Economics, Uni e si y o É o a, 7004-516 É o a, Po ugal 6Geosciences, Cope nicus Ins i u e o Sus ainable De elopmen , En i onmen al Sciences, U ech Uni e si y, 3508 TC U ech , The Ne he lands *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : Signi ican ad ances ha e been achie ed in mul ila e al nego ia ions ega ding human de elopmen and en i onmen al sa egua ding since he 1972 UN S ockholm Con e ence. The e is much g ea e global awa eness and ac ion owa ds sus ainabili y. Howe e , sus ainabili y has pe sis en ly been sidelined, leading o he iden i ica ion and de ini ion o a ansg essed “sa e and jus space o humani y”. He e we de elop a new e olu iona y app oach and me hodology o explain he easons why sus ainabili y con inues o be a di icul challenge o con empo a y socie ies o adop . We a gue ha hese o igina e in six majo biological, social, psychological, poli ical, and cul u al c i ical de e minan s ha esul ed om human biologic and cul u al e olu ion. Al hough hey a e essen ial o human p ospe i y and wellbeing, hese cha ac e is ics may also ac as human sus ainabili y bounda ies. I is possible o educe he inhibi ing powe o each c i ical de e minan in he pa hways o sus ainabili y, a i al p ocess ha we e m so ening. Iden i ying, knowing, and so ening hese impedimen s is a necessa y i s s ep o achie ing sus ainabili y h ough g ea e sel - knowledge and ans o ma ional p ocesses. The applica ion o he p esen me hodology is es ic ed he e o he clima e change challenge. We examine he ways in which each human sus ainabili y bounda y is capable o obs uc ing clima e ac ion and o e possible ways o so en i s ha dness. Keywo ds: sus ainabili y; en i onmen and de elopmen ; e olu iona y app oach; c i ical de e mi- nan s o sus ainabili y; sus ainabili y bounda ies; clima e change ac ion 1. In oduc ion The G ea Accele a ion [ 1 ] was a pe iod in human his o y wi hin he an h opocene ha s a ed a e he Second Wo ld Wa . I is cha ac e ized by wo democ a ic wa es [ 2 ], imp o ed socioeconomic condi ions in many wo ld egions, high global popula ion g ow h, and huge inc eases and di e si ica ion in he p oduc ion and consump ion o goods and se ices. The e was also a ema kable enla gemen o he wo ld’s G oss Domes ic P oduc (GDP), o di ec o eign in es men , o ene gy gene a ion and consump ion, mobili y, elecommunica ions, digi aliza ion, u baniza ion, globaliza ion, and he use o na u al esou ces. Some o hese changes a e e lec ed in he al e ed unc ioning o he Ea h’s sys em, which encompasses ou plane ’s in e ac ing physical, chemical, biological, and human p ocesses [3]. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su16010331 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 2 o 20 The need o p o ec he en i onmen and gua an ee con inued access o na u al e- sou ces mo i a ed he Global No h o con ene he 1972 Uni ed Na ions Con e ence on he Human En i onmen in S ockholm. Tha was also he yea when “Limi s o G ow h” was published [ 4 ], which modeled o he i s ime he likely undesi able long- e m conse- quences o inde ini e economic g ow h. I s con o e sial p edic ions emain ele an o his day [5]. The S ockholm Con e ence ini ia ed a mul ila e al p ocess on en i onmen al diplo- macy and ac ion. In i s ini ial phase, he Wo ld Commission on En i onmen and De- elopmen p oduced he 1987 B und land epo “Ou Common Fu u e” [ 6 ]. The epo in oduced he concep o sus ainable de elopmen , de ined as “de elopmen ha mee s he needs o he p esen wi hou comp omising he abili y o u u e gene a ions o mee hei own needs”. The ini ial ocus on en i onmen and human de elopmen e ol ed in o h ee dimensions o sus ainabili y—en i onmen al; social; and economic sus ainabili y—in he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen ; wi h i s 17 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), adop ed by he Uni ed Na ions in 2015. In spi e o he ela i e inc eases in p ospe - i y o e he las 50 yea s and much g ea e global awa eness abou sus ainabili y, wa e sca ci y, ood c ises, and ex eme po e y igh en hei hold in some o he leas de eloped and agile coun ies; social and economic inequali ies inc ease wi hin and be ween coun- ies; and humani y is challenged by clima e change, o e exploi a ion o na u al esou ces, pollu ion, was e, and biodi e si y loss in an in e na ional se ing expe iencing conside able geopoli ical s i e. The e is c i icism ha sus ainable de elopmen does no ha e an ag eed-upon de ini- ion [ 7 , 8 ]. I is oo ague and wide- anging o p o ide guidance, and i is no su icien ly a ac i e o mobilize he human esou ces necessa y o mee he socioeconomic and en i- onmen al challenges o oday [ 9 ]. “Plu i e se” al e na i es o he dominan “one-wo ld sus ainable de elopmen ” iew ha e also been p oposed [ 10 ]. The e is a g owing p e e - ence, including in go e nmen and p i a e sec o publica ions, o he b oade and mo e inclusi e concep o sus ainabili y [8]. Ra ely has a concep ual idea pene a ed so deeply in o a b oad ange o human ac- i i ies and acqui ed mo e apid and powe ul isibili y, wi h he capaci y o in luence go e nmen s, business, law, educa ion, non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions, and public opin- ion wo ldwide [ 11 – 13 ]. Nowadays, he e is a b oad “in p inciple” consensus abou he need o achie e, as soon as possible, some o m o global and inclusi e sus ainabili y. This is because some o m o c ea i e edis ibu ion o well-being, based on ecological p inciples and human igh s, is deemed necessa y o pe sis en p ospe i y o e ol e ac oss he wo ld. Bu many challenges emain. Wo ld leade s a he UN SDG Summi in Sep embe 2019 called o a decade o ac ion [ 14 ] o sus ainable de elopmen . They pledged o mobilize inancing, enhance na ional implemen a ion, and s eng hen ins i u ions o achie e he SDGs by he a ge da e o 2030. In a ollow-up mee ing a he UN Gene al Assembly o 2023, hey bemoaned he lack o p og ess o each some o he SDG a ge s. He e, we examine why his migh be he case. Ou app oach is based on he assump ion ha human sel -knowledge de elops and s eng hens he inne esou ces needed o add ess sus ain- abili y challenges. Sol ing hem equi es ans o ma ions ha a e no only echnological and poli ical bu also ope a e a he inne pe sonal le el [15]. 2. Me hodology We add ess he cu en ques o sus ainabili y wi h a new e olu iona y app oach o explain he human o igins o he social, economic, en i onmen al, and cul u al sus ain- abili y c ises ha con inue o a lic con empo a y socie ies. Ripoll [ 16 ] and Bohle [ 17 ] a gue ha he e a e unchangeable neu al, an h opological, psychological, and sociological human ai s ha p e en humans om eaching sus ainabili y. We do no ollow he a gumen ha humans a e p e en ed om eaching o ms o sus ainabili y. In u n, we p opose ha i is possible o iden i y and sys ema ize he c i ical e olu iona y de e minan s ha may es ablish bounda ies along sus ainabili y pa hways and ha hese bounda ies Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 3 o 20 can be so ened. Social communi ies wi h he cha ac e is ics o he “exempla y e hical communi ies” p oposed by [ 18 ], da ing back cen u ies o e en millennia, cons i u e an example whe e he sus ainabili y bounda ies we e so ened. The p oposed esea ch ques ion is: Wha a e he basic human e olu iona y “backs o y” easons ha a e hinde ing sus ainabili y, and how can we o e come hem? In answe ing he i s pa o he ques ion, we a e del ing in o he space- ime whe e human biological, social, psychological, and cul u al de e minan s e ol ed. Is i possible o cons uc a scien i ic me hodology o iden i y he human inne de e mi- nan s acqui ed in he human biologic and cul u al e olu ion ha , while e y impo an o su i al, well-being, and economic p ospe i y, may also cu en ly ac as impedimen s in he pu sui o sus ainabili y? Al hough he e is no accep ed scien i ic me hodology o his end, we no e ha science has success ully un a eled signi ican ace s o he biological and social e olu ion o he Homo genus o e he pas 2.6 million yea s, leading o mode n humans. An h opology has comp ehensi ely in es iga ed aspec s o Homo sapiens, encompassing biology, e olu iona y his o y, socie al ea u es, and cul u al dynamics om ancien imes o he p esen day. A gumen s a e p esen ed suppo ing he easibili y and u ili y o iden i ying human c i ical de e minan s (HCDs) ha may ac as con empo a y human sus ainabili y bound- a ies (HSBs). C i ical because hey a e decisi e o eaching sus ainabili y. “May ac ” because we belie e ha he HSBs can be so ened by pe sonal commi men s capable o spu ing ins i u ional and go e nance ans o ma ions, ende ing sus ainabili y mo e acces- sible. The me hodology used ollows an induc i e e olu iona y app oach based on in-dep h analysis h ough biological, an h opological, sociological, psychological, economic, and po- li ical da a sou ces and seeks o iden i y he smalles se o in e ac ing and in e dependen HCDs. This pa simony is de ined by he condi ion ha he HCD se is he minimum se capable o p o iding a comple e and cohe en explana ion o why sus ainabili y is cu en ly p o ing o be an elusi e objec i e. The HCD se comp ises wo dis inc sub-se s, each delin- ea ing he in luence o di e en e olu iona y ea u es. The i s sub-se , consis ing o wo de e minan s, is cha ac e ized by in insic biological a ibu es, p edominan ly obse ed a he indi idual le el. The second sub-se , comp ising ou de e minan s, is cha ac e ized by social and cul u al a ibu es p esen a bo h indi idual and collec i e le els. The HCDs ha e been essen ial o human de elopmen and wellbeing. Howe e , hey may also ac as HSBs when unc ioning as impedimen s o p og ess owa ds sus ainabili y. In such an ope a ing mode, we designa e hem as bounda ies and no as ba ie s because hey a e no imposed ex e nally upon us. They ha e a human o igin, al hough we may no be ully conscious o hei ole. The p esen me hodology is based on he ecogni ion ha humans a e a deeply social biological species, elying s ongly on coope a ion [ 19 ]. The appea ance o Homo sapiens esul ed om a biological e olu ion ollowed by a cul u al e olu ion ha likely s a ed wi h he eme gence o ea ly symbolic beha io [ 20 – 23 ]. This double p ocess c ea ed iden i iable biological, social, psychological, poli ical, and cul u al ai s ha amed six majo HCDs. They ha e been p esen o a e y long ime, some o many millions o yea s, o he s o hund eds o housands o yea s, and s ill o he s only in he las h ee cen u ies. They a e common o all o us, al hough hey mani es hemsel es in di e en o ms and wi h di e en in ensi ies. We a e no add essing he e he easons o his di e en ia ion a he indi idual le el, bu hei global ic ion in he ques o sus ainabili y. The u gency o con olling ou in e e ence in he Ea h sys em has been highligh ed by he concep o plane a y bounda ies. Rocks öm e al. [24] iden i ied nine bounda ies ha de ine he “sa e space o humankind” conce ning he Ea h sys em and i s biophysical sub- sys ems and p ocesses. Acco ding o he au ho s, he bounda ies in h ee sys ems— he a e o biodi e si y loss; clima e change; and human in e e ence wi h he ni ogen cycle—we e exceeded a ound 2009, placing humani y in a egion o high isk ou side he zone o unce - ain y [ 24 ]. An upda e o his wo k inds ha six o he nine bounda ies ha e now been Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 4 o 20 ansg essed, sugges ing ha he Ea h sys em is now well ou side o he sa e ope a ing space o humani y [25]. Ka e Rawo h [ 26 ] wen a s ep u he and in oduced a isual amewo k shaped like a doughnu whe e one inds a “sa e and jus ” space be ween he plane a y bounda ies o su i al and he social bounda ies o eliable li elihoods. These a e de ined h ough s a is ical indica o s ha desc ibe a sa e social ounda ion o a ious de e minan s, such as ood secu i y, income, wa e and sani a ion, heal h ca e, educa ion, gende equali y, social equi y, and so on [ 26 , 27 ]. Mo e ecen ly, sa e and jus Ea h sys em bounda ies o clima e, he biosphe e, wa e and nu ien cycles, and ae osols a global and subglobal scales ha e been de ined [ 28 ]. These amewo ks se e o moni o humani y’s de ia ion om sus ainabili y, o cha ac e ize he esul ing isks, and o help indica e he bes cou ses o ac ion. In he p esen app oach, we a e no del ing in o he “sa e and jus ” space o humani y. We emain in human space- ime, whe e he HCDs play he leading oles in s aying wi hin he “sa e and jus ” space o humani y o in leading owa ds he c ossing o plane a y bounda ies o su i al and social bounda ies o li elihoods. I is possible o educe he inhibi ing powe o each c i ical de e minan in na owing he pa hways o human socie ies owa d sus ainabili y. This is a i al p ocess, which we e m so ening. Each HSB ac s on he h ee sus ainabili y componen s, and each has a ce ain deg ee o ha dness when we a emp o so en hei ac ion on each componen . The ha dness (so ness) o he HSB has a global spa ial dependence ha is con inually e ol ing wi h ime. HSB so ening can be achie ed h ough app op ia e ans o ma i e pa hways [ 29 ]. Inc emen al changes o “business as usual” a e cu en ly a om success ul, so ans o ma i e human p ocesses a e necessa y o sa egua d humani y’s sus ainable u- u e [ 30 ]. The mos p omising, consensual, comp ehensible, and uni e sal cu en pa hway is o each he 169 UN SDG-quan i ied a ge s by 2030. This goal is unlikely o be ully achie ed in ime. I will p obably equi e mo e obus human ans o ma ional p ocesses. Each HSB ac s on he social, economic, and en i onmen al sus ainabili y componen s wi h a ce ain deg ee o ha dness. Based on he analysis de eloped in he nex sec ion, we make a quali a i e assessmen o he ela i e ha dness ha each HSB imposes on ul illing each o he h ee sus ainabili y componen s using a h ee-poin scale—s ong; mode a e; and weak (Table 1). The e alua ion was made using he me hodology de eloped in his pape . I assumes ha he HCDs ac as an HSB in he o eseeable medium and long e m, no only in he sho e m. Table 1. Cu en ela i e ha dness o each sus ainabili y bounda y o he ad ancemen in each o he h ee componen s o sus ainabili y (social, economic, and en i onmen al), g aded on a 3-poin scale. The las line indica es he cu en ha dness o each sus ainabili y bounda y o clima e ac ion, also g aded on a 3-poin scale. Ha dness o Human Sus ainabili y Bounda ies DRS 1TD 2HNI 3SIU 4CFR 5IGGR 6 Social sus ainabili y mode a e mode a e weak s ong s ong s ong Economic s ong s ong weak mode a e mode a e s ong sus ainabili y En i onmen al sus ainabili y s ong s ong s ong mode a e weak s ong Clima e Ac ion mode a e s ong weak s ong mode a e s ong 1 Dopamine gic Rewa d Sys em; 2 Time Discoun ing in In e empo al Decisions; 3 Human-Na u e In e - connec edness; 4 Sel -In e es and U ili y; 5 Coope a ion and F ee-Riding; 6 In e na ional Geopoli ical and Geo-s a egic Rela ions. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 5 o 20 Using a h ee-poin scale, a quali a i e analysis o he cu en ela i e ha dness o each HSB o implemen social, economic, and en i onmen al sus ainabili y was pe o med. The o he way o weigh ing his scale is o use a Delphi app oach in ol ing a su ey, which is ou side he scope o his wo k. The dimensions o jus ice, human igh s, and equi y we e included in he analysis o he social sus ainabili y componen . The dimensions o p ospe i y, well-being, and long- e m sus ainable economic de elopmen we e included in he economic sus ainabili y componen . Finally, he dimensions o na u al esou ce sus ainabili y and conse a ion o biodi e si y in eg i y, gene ic and unc ional, o suppo he well-being o cu en and u u e gene a ions we e included in he en i onmen al sus ainabili y componen . The esul s a e shown in Table 1. The holis ic ha dness o each HSB, de ined as he a i hme ic a e age o he ha dness a ings o he h ee componen s o sus ainabili y, is shown in Figu e 1. Sus ainabili y2024,16,xFORPEERREVIEW5o 20  Usinga h ee-poin scale,aquali a i eanalysiso  hecu en  ela i eha dnesso  eachHSB oimplemen social,economic,anden i onmen alsus ainabili ywaspe - o med.Theo he wayo weigh ing hisscaleis ouseaDelphiapp oachin ol inga su ey,whichisou side hescopeo  hiswo k.Thedimensionso jus ice,human igh s, andequi ywe eincludedin heanalysiso  hesocialsus ainabili ycomponen .Thedi- mensionso p ospe i y,well-being,andlong- e msus ainableeconomicde elopmen  we eincludedin heeconomicsus ainabili ycomponen .Finally, hedimensionso na - u al esou cesus ainabili yandconse a iono biodi e si yin eg i y,gene icand unc- ional, osuppo  hewell-beingo cu en and u u egene a ionswe eincludedin he en i onmen alsus ainabili ycomponen .The esul sa eshowninTable1.Theholis ic ha dnesso eachHSB,de inedas hea i hme ica e ageo  heha dness a ings o  he h eecomponen so sus ainabili y,isshowninFigu e1.  Figu e1.Holis icsus ainabili ybounda y(calcula edusingTable1)o  hesixhumansus ainabili y bounda ies:Dopamine gicRewa dSys em(DRS),TimeDiscoun inginIn e empo alDecisions (TD),HNI:Human-Na u eIn e connec edness,Sel -In e es andU ili y(SIU),Coope a ionand F ee-Riding(CFR)andIn e na ionalGeopoli icalandGeo-s a egicRela ions(IGGR).Thea ows indica e hemo emen  owa dssus ainabili y. In hispape ,we ocusou a en iononan h opogenicclima echange,whichhasa p ominen  olein he2030Agenda.SDG13calls o u gen ac ion ocomba clima e changeandi simpac s o each i e a ge scha ac e izedbyeigh indica o s.ThisSDGis Figu e 1. Holis ic sus ainabili y bounda y (calcula ed using Table 1) o he six human sus ainabili y bounda ies: Dopamine gic Rewa d Sys em (DRS), Time Discoun ing in In e empo al Decisions (TD), HNI: Human-Na u e In e connec edness, Sel -In e es and U ili y (SIU), Coope a ion and F ee-Riding (CFR) and In e na ional Geopoli ical and Geo-s a egic Rela ions (IGGR). The a ows indica e he mo emen owa ds sus ainabili y. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 6 o 20 In his pape , we ocus ou a en ion on an h opogenic clima e change, which has a p ominen ole in he 2030 Agenda. SDG 13 calls o u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac s o each i e a ge s cha ac e ized by eigh indica o s. This SDG is linked o all he o he 16 SDGs o he 2030 Agenda, and in pa icula SDG 7 on a o dable and clean ene gy. Mo e speci ically, he p esen me hodology p o ides insigh s in o why clima e change has o en been desc ibed as a “wicked” p oblem because o i s complexi y, in e connec ed na u e, and di icul y in inding a solu ion, in con as wi h “ ame” p oblems, which ha e a clea op imum solu ion [ 31 , 32 ]. The applica ion o he HSB me hodology o clima e change helps o unde s and i s ull complexi y and ind solu ions o he p oblem. Using a h ee-poin scale, he ela i e ha dness o each HSBs abili y o implemen e ec i e clima e ac ion was analyzed. This analysis is p esen ed and discussed in he sec ion ha ollows, and he esul s a e included in Table 1. The applica ion o his me hodology o o he sus ainabili y challenges, such as he deple ion o na u al esou ces, he ci cula economy, and biodi e si y conse a ion, is no p esen ed he e. 3. Human C i ical De e minan s Tha May Ac as Human Sus ainabili y Bounda ies 3.1. The Dopamine gic Rewa d Sys em The i s c i ical de e minan is he dopamine gic ewa d sys em (DRS). This is he mos impo an ewa d pa hway in he b ain. The b ain esponds o a ewa ding s imulus by eleasing dopamine, he main neu o ansmi e associa ed wi h pleasu e. The DRS is lo- ca ed in he mammalian pa o ou b ain and is esponsible o basic human mo i a ion o speci ic ac ions. These ac ions a e d i en by su i al necessi ies (e.g., ea ing, ep oducing, a oiding pain, and p o iding pleasu e) and he equi emen s o cul u al endu ance (e.g., acqui ing social s a us, minimizing e o , and gleaning in o ma ion). They play a cen al ole in ensu ing he ep oduc i e success o ou species and human su i al and wellbeing. Mo e han 200 million yea s ago, mammals de eloped a six-laye neoco ex and a compa men aliza ion o he s ia um ha enhanced co ico-s ia al connec i i y [ 33 ]. This biological e olu ion imp o ed beha io al lexibili y [ 33 ]. The s ia um is pa o he basal ganglia in all p esen -day mammals and pe o ms a c i ical unc ion in ac ion selec ion. The DSR has been loca ed in he basal ganglia since much be o e he pe iod o apid encephaliza ion in he Homo genus. Thei unc ion is no easoning, a capaci y in humans and o he mammals ha is assu ed by mo e ecen co ical s uc u es, mos ly he on al and p e on al co ex [ 33 ]. Howe e , he DRS has he essen ial unc ion o ewa ding he basic mo i a ions o speci ic ac ions such as ea ing [ 34 , 35 ], ep oducing [ 36 ], and a oiding pain by p o iding pleasu e. I is also in ol ed in acqui ing social s a us [ 37 ], minimizing e o [ 38 ], and gleaning in o ma ion [ 17 ]. Du ing he e olu ion o he Homo genus up o Homo sapiens, he complexi y o he connec i i y o he basic ganglia wi h he neoco ex inc eased. This s onge connec i i y means ha he neoco ex can ha e some con ol o e he esponse o s imuli po en ially ewa ded by he DRS. The DRS is common o all humans, bu s imuli a e e y di e se in he human pop- ula ion. Repea ing he s imulus is he way o p o ide mo e pleasu e because he ne e cells elease mo e dopamine. The DRS by i sel has no mechanism o es ablishing limi s on i s con ibu ion o he ep oduc i e success o ou species. I is compa ible wi h un- limi ed global popula ion g ow h, which is no a desi able ou come. The DRS unc ions as a neu ochemical mo o o g ow h in he b ain. Du ing mos o he Holocene, human eason and endea o ha e been able o p ojec his un es ic ed p inciple o g ow h in o ou social, ag icul u al, economic, inancial, and echnological socie y’s models [ 17 ]. I limi s o g ow h exis [ 4 , 5 ], hey ep esen a concep ha is un ela ed o he DRS mode o unc ioning bu can be easily g asped by he b ain. DRS by i sel is also compa ible wi h inde ini e economic g ow h because i ewa ds he consump ion o goods and se ices o he ex en ha hey p o ide sa is ac ion o pleasu e, a p ocess ha is op imized h ough u ili y maximiza ion. In he p e-his o ic pas , su i al/ ep oduc ion/pleasu e-connec ed g ow h in pop- ula ions and na u al esou ce use could be sa is ied by he en i onmen a he local and Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 7 o 20 egional le els. The pace o sou cing o cu en g ow h a he global le el ends o become es ic i e. This seems o ha e been he case a leas since he beginning o he G ea Accele a ion in he middle o he 20 h cen u y, including he “age o sus ainable de el- opmen ”, [ 39 ]. This i s c i ical de e minan has a biological o igin and is common o all indi iduals. I con ibu es o bo h indi idual and collec i e beha io . Because o i s na u e and p esence in all aspec s o li e, i is one o he mo e challenging o so en when unc ioning as an HSB. So ening his i s HSB equi es a g ea e awa eness o he ela ionships be ween decisions ewa ded by he DRS and eaching a gi en SDG. This awa eness pa es he way o an inc eased in ol emen o he neoco ex in such decisions. The inc eased in ol emen may be able o decouple he b ain’s neu ochemical mo o o g ow h om unsus ainable g ow h models. I s ela ionship wi h clima e change s ems om he in e dependen connec ion be- ween he cu en human ac i i ies ha con ibu e o an h opogenic g eenhouse gas emis- sions (GHG) and some o he much-di e si ied DRS s imuli in con empo aneous socie ies ac oss he wo ld. The e a e many examples o ha connec ion. The mos signi ican esul s om he high global dependence on ossil uels o he p o ision o abundan and a o d- able global p ima y ene gy, an indispensable way o maximize u ili y, in pa icula h ough DRS s imuli. This dependence has been o he o de o 80% in he las 50 yea s and was 82% in 2021 [ 40 ] and 81.8% in 2022 [ 41 ]. S eadily, he cos s o enewable ene gy a e alling, so he e is a iable subs i u e ha is ecei ing la ge in es men s. I he u u e dominan p ima y ene gy sou ces a e deca bonized and he DRS d i e is s ill sa is ied, hen he e is a basis o a so ening. Ene gy is no a di ec s imulus o he DRS; i has an indi ec e ec . I is essen ial o p oduce globally he g owing amoun and di e si y o goods and se ices ha a e consumed, some o which a e s imuli o he DRS. Mea consump ion in ol es he DRS and has a signi ican impac on sus ainabili y, pa icula ly on clima e change [ 42 ]. So ening he DRS impac on clima e change could be achie ed, o ins ance, by olun a ily es ain in uminan mea consump ion, he eby educing me hane emissions. The e is also a case o p olonged awa eness- aising o he pe sonal heal h bene i s o lowe mea consump ion, coupled wi h cul u al shi s in mo al coo dina ion. In he case o ene gy, p o iding eliable employmen in clean ene gy- ela ed jobs may well suppo a so ening in his di icul a ena. In iew o he indi ec ela ion wi h ene gy, DRS ha dness o clima e change ac ion, in pa icula mi iga ion, is es ima ed o be mode a e. 3.2. Time Discoun ing in In e empo al Decisions The second c i ical de e minan s ems om ime-discoun ing in in e empo al de- cisions. These a e decisions made now ha ha e consequences o e mul iple ime pe i- ods. I is abb e ia ed as ime-discoun ing (TD). Time discoun ing measu es he g ea e alue assigned o an immedia e ewa d o e he alue assigned o he same ewa d pos poned [43–45]. This de alua ion caused by he pos ponemen ime is called ime dis- coun ing. The way he alue o he ewa d lessens o e he ime o pos ponemen is called he psychological ime discoun unc ion. In he con ex o economics, i is assumed ha he human discoun unc ion is exponen ial, which implies a ixed- ime discoun a e. The highe he a e, he s onge he discoun ing o he u u e. He e, mo e ewa d is sough a he ou se . How o deal wi h ime discoun ing is c i ical o achie ing sus ainabili y. The main eason is ha mo emen in he sa e and jus space o humankind owa ds he Ea h sys em o plane a y bounda ies is gene ally ela i ely slow, aking place in ime in e als ha encompass mul iple gene a ions. Sus ainabili y issues ha in ol e such la ge ime in e als become almos i ele an due o he ela i ely high alues o human ime discoun ing a es [ 43 , 46 , 47 ]. Unless we de elop he capaci y o conside hem ele an in he p esen , human TD ac s as a HSB ha ends o inc ease isk and ampli ies unce ain y abou he u u e. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 8 o 20 Clima e change p o ides a good example o TD ac ing as a HSB because he choice o he social ime discoun a e o make he cos -bene i analysis o in es ing in mi iga ion is c i ical o p e en ing dange ous human in e e ence in he clima e sys em [ 48 ]. The S e n e iew [ 49 ] a ibu es a ela i ely low alue o he social ime discoun a e. This choice is an incen i e o a apid ene gy ansi ion, which is a good ou come o p esen and u u e social gene a ions. S e n’s choice con as s wi h he highe alues p oposed by No dhaus, which gi e g ea e p io i y o mo e obus economic g ow h in he sho e m [ 50 , 51 ]. Howe e , he S e n e iew showed ha his sho - e m s a egy ails in he medium and long e m because i implies much la ge damage cos s ha esul om he impac s o u u e unaba ed clima e change. Clima e change o e s ano he example whe e TD ac s as an HSB. Human TD has di icul y g appling wi h he consequences o la ge and inc easing ca bon dioxide (CO 2 ) an h opogenic emissions o he a mosphe e. The eason is ha hese consequences pe sis o housands o yea s—in e als o ime ha a e oo la ge o in luence ou p esen decisions and ac ions. When an addi ional onne o CO 2 is emi ed in o he a mosphe e, only abou 50% is aken up by he land biosphe e and he ocean. The emaining componen , called he ai bo ne ac ion, s ays in he a mosphe e and is emo ed by se e al p ocesses on mul iple imescales. I akes decades o he CO 2 o be cap u ed by he biosphe e, and by he su ace and uppe laye s o he ocean, cen u ies o be cap u ed in he deep ocean, housands o yea s o be inco po a ed in o sedimen s o med om shell-building o ganisms, and ens o hund eds o housands o yea s o be cap u ed om he a mosphe e by he silica e wea he ing slow p ocess [ 52 ]. Abou 15–40% o he CO 2 emi ed emains in he a mosphe e o mo e han 1000 yea s [ 53 ]. This means ha o he human a e o TD, he addi ional CO 2 emi ed o he a mosphe e beha es as i i s ays he e “ o e e ”. The CO 2 ha con empo aneous social gene a ions a e cu en ly emi ing is likely o a ec he Ea h’s clima e and cause ha m ul impac s on human gene a ions o e housands o yea s. In iew o he wo powe ul impedimen s ha TD imposes on clima e ac ion, i s ha dness is e alua ed as s ong. This second HSB has i s o igin in ou biological and psychological cha ac e is ics, which a e common o all humans and mani es mos ly a he indi idual le el. I is also one o he HSBs ha is mo e di icul o so en because humans a e disposed o bias alue in a o o immedia e o sho - e m g a i ica ion bu no o long- e m g a i ica ion. So ening he second HSB depends on he capaci y o p ojec he u u e using science- based scena ios and o build he abili y o make in e empo al decisions ha a e able o p e en he mo e se e e scena ios, as also p oposed by “long e mism” [ 54 ]. So ening depends on an inc eased awa eness o long- e m p oblems and on he in ol emen o he neoco ex in in e empo al decisions ha ha e implica ions o he sus ainabili y o human endea o . Making clea e he signi ican and una oidable consequences o ailu e o so en o u u e gene a ions who cu en ly ha e no say in hei p ospec i e pligh may also add o he imp o ed so ening p ocess. Coupling his wi h he eme ging bene i s o clean echnology and new o ms o li ing in a sus ainable wo ld will also help he so ening p ocess. 3.3. Human-Na u e In e connec edness The hi d c i ical de e minan e lec s he cul u al e olu ion o human-na u e in e - connec edness (HNI) and how i a ec s he ques o s ay wi hin he sa e and jus space o humankind. HNI mani es s i sel mos ly a he collec i e le el. I p obably s a ed o change wi h he human cul u al e olu ion ha accele a ed a ound 40,000 yea s BP. This p ocess was s imula ed by he ag icul u al and indus ial e olu ions and by apid indus ial u baniza ion [ 55 ]. Cu en ly, mos o he wo ld’s popula ion no longe depends di ec ly on he na u al en i onmen and i s esou ces o su i e and h i e. A la ge pa o he human popula ion has deg aded he HNI because na u e, biodi e si y, and ecosys em se ices ha e become abs ac concep s. The conques o na u e and he o e exploi a ion o some na u al esou ces ad anced he idea o he sac edness o na u e. This powe ul idea Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 9 o 20 con ibu ed o he need o conse e e uges o p is ine land in p o ec ed a eas [ 56 ]. These a e isola ed, unin eg a ed, ulne able, and endange ed. HNI mani es s i sel bo h a he indi idual and collec i e le els, bu i has a s onge exp ession a he la e . I can ac as he hi d HSB because de aluing HNI induces he e oneous pe cep ion ha conse a ion o biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices a e mos ly deemed o be supe luous and ha na u al capi al can always subs i u e human-made capi al [ 57 ]. On he o he hand, since p omo ing he alue o HNI is a pa hway o sus ain- abili y [58], i so ens he HSB po en ial. Unaba ed clima e change is a po en ial h ea o li e on Ea h. I s impac s a e ecog- nized as an inc easingly majo d i e o biodi e si y loss [ 59 ]. Fu he mo e, biodi e si y in ood and ag icul u e is in decline, posing a isk o global ood secu i y [ 60 ]. Clima e change has nega i e impac s on ag icul u e and ood secu i y by lowe ing c op yields due o mo e equen d ough s, hea wa es, and looding, as well as inc eases in pes s and plan diseases. Enhancing HNI e eals he c i ical alue o biodi e si y o human de elopmen and well-being, and he e o e i is also a pa hway o add ess he clima e change challenge. On he o he hand, de aluing HNI ends o ein o ce emissions and hence agg a a e clima e change. Cu en ly, he e is a g owing empa hy o he alues o enhanced na u e in ou e e yday li es [ 61 ]. Al hough HNI has a s ong ha dness ega ding biodi e si y conse a ion, i s ha dness o clima e ac ion is es ima ed o be weak when compa ed wi h he o he mo e powe ul HSBs (Table 1). 3.4. Sel -In e es and U ili y The ou h c i ical de e minan o sus ainabili y ega ds he e ol ing concep s o sel -in e es and u ili y (SIU) and mani es s i sel bo h a he indi idual and collec i e le els. Homo sapiens su passes o he species in he complexi y o i s coope a ion and de ec ion [ 43 ]. This achie emen was made possible h ough he in e dependen p ocesses o gene ic and cul u al e olu ion. Du ing his o ical ci iliza ions, concep s ela ed o coop- e a ion, such as al uism, sel -in e es , sel ishness, and egoism, had a ema kable e olu ion. Be o e he concep o al uism was in oduced by Augus e Com e, he mo al p inciples o bene icence and bene olence we e de eloped and p ac iced by Ch is iani y and o he eligions [62]. The wo d sel ishness was i s used in he English language in he 17 h cen u y. Sel ishness was conside ed by P esby e ians o be mo ally objec ionable beha io be o e God and socie y [ 63 ]. Cu en ly, al uism is ecognized as ha ing posi i e e ec s on socie y, bu hu ul aspec s ha e also been iden i ied [ 64 ]. On he o he hand, sel ishness is no conside ed necessa ily bad [ 65 ]. Egoism can be ei he desc ip i e o no ma i e. The concep o desc ip i e egoism, o psychological egoism, was i s in oduced by Thomas Hobbes, who sugges ed ha all human beha io s a e mo i a ed by sel -in e es . He p oposed ha “o all olun a y ac s, he objec o e e y man is his own pleasu e” [66]. The Hobbesian apology o sel -in e es opened he way o he de elopmen o u il- i a ianism and he economic heo y o Adam Smi h [ 67 ], spea heading he success o mains eam economics. E hical egoism and a ional egoism a e wo o ms o no ma i e egoism [ 68 ]. The c i ical ques ion ha sepa a es he u ili a ian mo ali y o Je emy Ben ham and John S ua Mill [ 69 , 70 ] om no ma i e egoism is he ex en o which maximizing an agen ’s sel -in e es maximizes he sel -in e es o o he agen s. Adam Smi h’s economic heo y hesis, namely ha humans’ na u al endency o sel -in e es can be di ec ed o esul in economic p ospe i y o all, has pa ially sol ed ha ques ion [ 67 ]. He explains he mechanism wi h he well-known me apho o he “in isible hand.” Ma ke ailu es caused by he nega i e ex e nali ies o mains eam economics can be ixed by co ec ing he o igins o hose ailu es. Howe e , he nega i e impac s o ma ke ailu es end o inc ease wi h economic scale and, he e o e, wi h global GDP g ow h [ 71 – 73 ]. This endency in- c eases he challenge o co ec ing hem. Un il now, ma ke co ec ions ha e been unable o Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 16 o 20 p ocess because he causes o esis ance ha e been long in ges a ion and endu ing in he human condi ion. Ye , we conside ha he human capaci y o adap a ion and e olu ion based on accumula ed knowledge can o e come and adjus o he sus ainabili y challenge. This may well be ad anced by ecogni ion o he causes, consequences, and concilia ions connec ed o HSBs. Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, F.D.S.; me hodology, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; so wa e, F.D.S. and J.S.T.P.; alida ion, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; o mal analysis, F.D.S. and T.O.; in es iga ion, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; esou ces, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; da a cu a ion, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, F.D.S.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, F.D.S., T.O., M.R.d.S. and J.S.T.P.; isualiza ion, F.D.S.; supe ision, F.D.S.; p ojec adminis a ion, F.D.S. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding. Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : This s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion o Helsinki and app o ed by he Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d. In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : We ob ained da a om pee - e iewed and g ay li e a u e (books, pee - e iewed epo s) sou ces, all a ailable on he In e ne . Ene gy da a a e om BP BP S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy 2020, 69 h (a ailable on: h ps://www.bp.com/: accessed on 18 Decembe 2023) and he Ene gy Ins i u e (EI). S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy, 72nd Edi ion (a ailable on: h ps://www.ene gyins .o g/s a is ical- e iew: accessed on 18 Decembe 2023). GDP da a a e om he Wo ld Bank. Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es . Re e ences 1. S e en, W.; B oadga e, W.; Deu sch, L.; Ga ney, O.; Ludwig, C. The T ajec o y o he An h opocene: The G ea Accele a ion. An h . Re . 2015,2, 81–98. [C ossRe ] 2. Hun ing on, S.P. The Thi d Wa e: Democ a iza ion in he La e Twen ie h Cen u y; Uni e si y o Oklahoma P ess: No man, OK, USA, 1991. 3. S e en, W.; Richa dson, K.; Rocks öm, J.; Co nell, S.E.; Fe ze , I.; Benne , E.M.; Biggs, R.; Ca pen e , S.R.; De V ies, W.; De Wi , C.A.; e al. Plane a y Bounda ies: Guiding Human De elopmen on a Changing Plane . Science 2015,347, 1259855. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 4. Meadows, D.H.; Meadows, D.L.; Rande s, J.; Beh ens III, W.W. The Limi s o G ow h: A Repo o The Club o Rome’s P ojec on he P edicamen o Mankind; Po omac Associa es: New Yo k, NY, USA, 1972. 5. Meadows, D.; Rande s, J. The Limi s o G ow h: The 30-Yea Upda e; Rou ledge: London, UK, 2004. [C ossRe ] 6. WCED (Wo ld Commission on En i onmen and De elopmen ). Ou Common Fu u e; Ox o d Uni e si y P ess: New Yo k, NY, USA, 1987. 7. Meb a u, D. Sus ainabili y and Sus ainable De elopmen : His o ical and Concep ual Re iew. En i on. Impac Assess. Re . 1998, 18, 493–520. [C ossRe ] 8. Robinson, J. Squa ing he Ci cle? Some Though s on he Idea o Sus ainable De elopmen . Ecol. Econ. 2004,48, 369–384. [C ossRe ] 9. De nbach, J.C.; Chee e , F. Sus ainable De elopmen and I s Discon en s. T ansna l. En i on. Law 2015,4, 247–287. [C ossRe ] 10. Kaul, S.; Akbulu , B.; Dema ia, F.; Ge be , J.-F. Al e na i es o Sus ainable De elopmen : Wha Can We Lea n om he Plu i e se in P ac ice? Sus ain. Sci. 2022,17, 1149–1158. [C ossRe ] 11. Blackbu n, W. The Sus ainabili y Handbook: The Comple e Managemen Guide o Achie ing Social, Economic, and En i onmen al Responsibili y; G eenlea Publishing, Rou ledge: London, UK, 2007. 12. Bándi, G.; Szabo, M.; Szalai, A. Sus ainabili y, Law, and Public Choice; Eu opa Law; Ui ge e ij Pa is b : Zu phen, The Ne he lands, 2014. 13. Lozano, R.; Haa man, R. Rein o cing he Holis ic Pe spec i e o Sus ainabili y: Analysis o he Impo ance o Sus ainabili y D i e s in O ganiza ions. Co p. Soc. Responsib. En i on. Manag. 2018,25, 508–522. [C ossRe ] 14. UNGA. Poli ical Decla a ion o he High-Le el Poli ical Fo um on Sus ainable De elopmen Con ened unde he Auspices o he Gene al Assembly. Resolu ion A/RES/74/4 Adop ed by he Gene al Assembly o he Uni ed Na ions on 15 Oc obe 2019. A ailable online: h ps://digi allib a y.un.o g/ eco d/3833352?ln=en (accessed on 18 Decembe 2023). 15. I es, C.D.; F ee h, R.; Fische , J. Inside-ou sus ainabili y: The neglec o inne wo lds. Ambio 2020,49, 208–217. [C ossRe ] 16. Ripoll, T. Pou quoi dé ui -on la planè e?: Le ce eau d’Homo sapiens es -il capable de p ése e la Te e? Le Bo d de l’eau: Pa is, F ance, 2022. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 17 o 20 17. Bohle , S. Human Psycho: Commen l’humani ées De enue l’espèce la Plus Dange euse de la Planè e; Bouquins Edi ions: Pa is, F ance, 2022. 18. Con e si, D. Exempla y E hical Communi ies. A New Concep o a Li able An h opocene. Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 5582. [C ossRe ] 19. Hilbe, C.; Cha e jee, K.; Nowak, M.A. Pa ne s and Ri als in Di ec Recip oci y. Na . Hum. Beha . 2018,2, 469–477. [C ossRe ] 20. Tylén, K.; Fusa oli, R.; Rojo, S.; Heimann, K.; Fay, N.; Johannsen, N.N.; Riede, F.; Lomba d, M. The E olu ion o Ea ly Symbolic Beha io in Homo sapiens. P oc. Na l. Acad. Sci. USA 2020,117, 4578–4584. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 21. Mcb ea y, S.; B ooks, A.S. The Re olu ion Tha Wasn’ : A New In e p e a ion o he O igin o Mode n Human Beha io . J. Hum. E ol. 2000,39, 453–563. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 22. Ragsdale, A.P.; Wea e , T.D.; A kinson, E.G.; Hoal, E.G.; Mölle , M.; Henn, B.M.; G a el, S. A Weakly S uc u ed S em o Human O igins in A ica. Na u e 2023,617, 755–763. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 23. Sce i, E.M.L.; Will, M. The Re olu ion Tha S ill Isn’ : The O igins o Beha io al Complexi y in Homo sapiens. J. Hum. E ol. 2023, 179, 103358. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 24. Rocks öm, J.; S e en, W.; Noone, K.; Pe sson, Å.; Chapin, F.S., III; Lambin, E.F.; Len on, T.M.; Sche e , M.; Folke, C.; Schellnhube , H.J.; e al. A Sa e Ope a ing Space o Humani y. Na u e 2009,461, 472–475. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 25. Richa dson, K.; S e en, W.; Luch , W.; Bend sen, J.; Co nell, S.E.; Donges, J.F.; D üke, M.; Fe ze , I.; Bala, G.; on Bloh, W.; e al. Ea h beyond six o nine plane a y bounda ies. Sci. Ad . 2023,9, eadh2458. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 26. Rawo h, K. A Sa e and Jus Space o Humani y: Can We Li e wi hin he Doughnu ? Ox am: Ox o d, UK, 2012. 27. Leach, M.; Rawo h, K.; Rocks öm, J. Be ween Social and Plane a y Bounda ies: Na iga ing Pa hways in he Sa e and Jus Space o Humani y. In Wo ld Social Science Repo 2013, Changing Global En i onmen ; ISSC, UNESCO: Pa is, F ance, 2013. [C ossRe ] 28. Rocks öm, J.; Gup a, J.; Qin, D.; Lade, S.J.; Ab ams, J.F.; Ande sen, L.S.; McKay, D.I.A.; Bai, X.; Bala, G.; Bunn, S.E.; e al. Sa e and Jus Ea h Sys em Bounda ies. Na u e 2023,619, 102–111. [C ossRe ] 29. Ely, A. T ans o ma i e Pa hways o Sus ainabili y: Lea ning Ac oss Disciplines, Cul u es, and Con ex s; Rou ledge: London, UK, 2021. [C ossRe ] 30. EASAC. Towa ds a Sus ainable Fu u e: T ans o ma i e Change and Pos -COVID-19 P io i ies. A Pe spec i e by EASAC’s En i onmen P og amme; Eu opean Academies Science Ad iso y Council (EASAC). 2020. A ailable online: h ps://easac.eu/ ileadmin/use _upload/EASAC_Pe spec i e_on_T ans o ma i e_Change_Web_comple e.pd (accessed on 18 Decembe 2023). 31. Inc ope a, F.P. Clima e Change: A Wicked P oblem; Camb idge Uni e si y P ess: Camb idge, UK, 2015. 32. Sun, J.; Yang, K. The Wicked P oblem o Clima e Change: A New App oach Based on Social Mess and F agmen a ion. Sus ainabili y 2016,8, 1312. [C ossRe ] 33. Hamasaki, H.; Go o, A. Pa allel Eme gence o a Compa men alized S ia um wi h he Phylogene ic De elopmen o he Ce eb al Co ex. B ain Sci. 2019,9, 90. [C ossRe ] 34. Douglass, A.M.; Kucukde eli, H.; Ponse e, M.; Ma ko ic, M.; G ündemann, J.; S obel, C.; Mo ales, P.L.A.; Conzelmann, K.-K.; Lü hi, A.; Klein, R. Cen al Amygdala Ci cui s Modula e Food Consump ion h ough a Posi i e-Valence Mechanism. Na . Neu osci. 2017,20, 1384–1394. [C ossRe ] 35. Fa , O.M.; Li, C.R.; Man zo os, C.S. Cen al Ne ous Sys em Regula ion o Ea ing: Insigh s om Human B ain Imaging. Me abolism 2016,65, 699–713. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 36. Bai d, A.D.; Wilson, S.J.; Bladin, P.F.; Saling, M.M.; Reu ens, D.C. Neu ological Con ol o Human Sexual Beha io : Insigh s om Lesion S udies. J. Neu ol. Neu osu g. Psychia y 2007,78, 1042–1049. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 37. U e sky, A.V.; Pla , M.L. S a us and he B ain. PLoS Biol. 2014,12, e1001941. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 38. Salamone, J.D.; Co ea, M.; Yang, J.-H.; Ro olo, R.; P esby, R. Dopamine, E o -Based Choice, and Beha io al Economics: Basic and T ansla ional Resea ch. F on . Beha . Neu osci 2018,12, 52. [C ossRe ] 39. Sachs, J.D. The Age o Sus ainable De elopmen ; Columbia Uni e si y P ess: New Yo k, NY, USA, 2015. 40. BP—The B i ish Pe oleum Company p.l.c. BP S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy 2021, 71s ed.; BP: London, UK, 2021. 41. Ene gy Ins i u e (EI). S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy, 72nd ed.; EI: London, UK, 2023. 42. Pa lasca, M.C.; Qaim, M. Mea Consump ion and Sus ainabili y. Annu. Re . Resou . Econ. 2022,14, 17–41. [C ossRe ] 43. San os, F.D. Time, P og ess, G ow h and Technology: How Humans and he Ea h A e Responding; Sp inge In e na ional Publishing: Be lin/Heidelbe g, Ge many, 2021. [C ossRe ] 44. Hayden, B.Y. Time Discoun ing and Time P e e ence in Animals: A C i ical Re iew. Psychon. Bull. Re . 2015,23, 39–53. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 45. Kalensche , T.; Penna z, C.M.A. Is a Bi d in he Hand Wo h Two in he Fu u e? The Neu oeconomics o In e empo al Decision-Making. P og. Neu obiol. 2008,84, 284–315. [C ossRe ] 46. Ainslie, G.; Haslam, N. Hype bolic Discoun ing. In Choice OVER Time; Russell Sage Founda ion: New Yo k, NY, USA, 1992; pp. 57–92. 47. Doyle, J.R. Su ey o Time P e e ence, Delay Discoun ing Models. Judgm. Decis. Mak. 2013,8, 116–135. [C ossRe ] 48. San os, F.D.; Fe ei a, P.L.; S andsbje g, J.; Pede sen, T. The Clima e Change Challenge: A Re iew o he Ba ie s and Solu ions o Deli e a Pa is Solu ion. Clima e 2022,10, 75. [C ossRe ] 49. S e n, N.; Pe e s, S.; Bakhshi, V.; Bowen, A.; Came on, C.; Ca o sky, S.; C ane, D.; C uickshank, S.; Die z, S.; Edmonson, N.; e al. S e n Re iew: The Economics o Clima e Change; HM T easu y: London, UK, 2006. Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 18 o 20 50. Goulde , L.H.; Williams, R.C. The Choice o Discoun Ra e o Clima e Change Policy E alua ion. Clim. Chang. Econ. 2012, 3, 1250024. [C ossRe ] 51. No dhaus, W.D. Re isi ing he Social Cos o Ca bon. P oc. Na l. Acad. Sci. USA 2017,114, 1518–1523. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 52. A che , D.; Eby, M.; B o kin, V.; Ridgwell, A.; Cao, L.; Mikolajewicz, U.; Caldei a, K.; Ma sumo o, K.; Munho en, G.; Mon eneg o, A.; e al. A mosphe ic Li e ime o Fossil Fuel Ca bon Dioxide. Annu. Re . Ea h Plane . Sci. 2009,37, 117–134. [C ossRe ] 53. Zick eld, K.; Köbe le, A.C.; Ma hesius, S.; Milla , R.J.; Pe e s, G.P.; S olze, M.; Tanaka, K.; U ouko , I.S. Long- e m Clima e Change Commi men and Re e sibili y: An EMIC In e compa ison. J. Clim. 2013,26, 5782–5809. [C ossRe ] 54. MacAskill, W. Wha We Owe he Fu u e; Basic Books: New Yo k, NY, USA, 2022. 55. Mille , J.R. Biodi e si y Conse a ion and he Ex inc ion o Expe ience. T ends Ecol. E ol. 2005,20, 430–434. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 56. Vining, J.; Me ick, M.S.; P ice, E.A. The Dis inc ion be ween Humans and Na u e: Human Pe cep ions o Connec edness o Na u e and Elemen s o he Na u al and Unna u al. Hum. Ecol. Re . 2008,15, 1–11. 57. Reijnde s, L. Subs i u ion, Na u al Capi al and Sus ainabili y. J. In eg . En i on. Sci. 2021,18, 115–142. [C ossRe ] 58. Ba agan-Jason, G.; de Mazancou , C.; Pa mesan, C.; Singe , M.C.; Lo eau, M. Human–Na u e Connec edness as a Pa hway o Sus ainabili y: A Global Me a-Analysis. Conse . Le . 2022,15, e12852. [C ossRe ] 59. S an on, J.C.; Shoemake , K.T.; Pea son, R.G.; Akçakaya, H.R. Wa ning Times o Species Ex inc ions Due o Clima e Change. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2015,21, 1066–1077. [C ossRe ] 60. Muluneh, M.G. Impac o Clima e Change on Biodi e si y and Food Secu i y: A Global Pe spec i e—A Re iew A icle. Ag ic. Food Secu . 2021,10, 36. [C ossRe ] 61. Dasgup a, P. The Economics o Biodi e si y: The Dasgup a Re iew; HM T easu y: London, UK, 2021. 62. Neusne , J.; Chil on, B. Al uism in Wo ld Religions; Geo ge own Uni e si y P ess: Washing on, DC, USA, 2005. 63. Layne, L.L. In oduc ion. Sel , Sel ish, Sel less. In Sel ishness and Sel lessness: New App oaches o Unde s and Mo ali y; Layne, L.L., Ed.; Be ghahn Books: Ox o d, NY, USA, 2020. 64. Oakley, B.A. Concep s and Implica ions o Al uism Bias and Pa hological Al uism. P oc. Na l. Acad. Sci. USA 2013,110, 10408–10415. [C ossRe ] 65. Kau man, S.B.; Jauk, E. Heal hy Sel ishness and Pa hological Al uism: Measu ing Two Pa adoxical Fo ms o Sel ishness. F on . Psychol. 2020,11, 1006. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 66. Hobbes, T. Le ia han; Ox o d Uni e si y P ess: Ox o d, UK, 1651. 67. Smi h, A. An Inqui y in o he Na u e and Causes o Weal h o Na ions; Libe y Fund: Indianapolis, IN, USA, 1776. 68. Sha e , R. Egoism. In S an o d Encyclopedia o Philosophy; Edwa d, N., Ed.; S an o d Uni e si y: S an o d, CA, USA, 2015. 69. Ben ham, J. An In oduc ion o he P inciples o Mo als and Legisla ion; Ha ne : New Yo k, NY, USA, 1948; (O iginally published in 1789). 70. Mill, J.S. U ili a ianism; Rou ledge: London, UK, 1863. 71. Cassie s, K.I.; Ma échal, D. Pos -G ow h Economics and Socie y: Explo ing he Pa hs o a Social and Ecological T ansi ion; Rou ledge: London, UK, 2018. 72. B and-Co ea, L.; B ook, A.; Büchs, M.; Meie , P.; Naik, Y.; O’Neill, D.W. Economics o People and Plane —Mo ing Beyond he Neoclassical Pa adigm. Lance Plane Heal h 2022,6, e371–e379. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 73. Schoenmake , D.; S egeman, H. Can he Ma ke Economy Deal wi h Sus ainabili y? Economis 2023,171, 25–49. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 74. Simon, H.A. Bounded Ra ionali y in Social Science: Today and Tomo ow. Mind Soc. 2000,1, 25–39. [C ossRe ] 75. Gopel, M. The G ea Mindshi : How a New Economic Pa adigm and Sus ainabili y T ans o ma ions Go Hand in Hand; Sp inge Na u e: Be lin/Heidelbe g, Ge many, 2016. 76. O’Neill, D.W.; Fanning, A.L.; Lamb, W.F.; S einbe ge , J.K. A Good Li e o All wi hin Plane a y Bounda ies. Na . Sus ain. 2018,1, 88–95. [C ossRe ] 77. Coscieme, L.; Su on, P.; Mo ensen, L.F.; Kubiszewski, I.; Cos anza, R.; T ebeck, K.; Pulselli, F.M.; Gianne i, B.F.; Fio amon i, L. O e coming he My hs o Mains eam Economics o Enable a New Wellbeing Economy. Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 4374. [C ossRe ] 78. Fio amon i, L.; Coscieme, L.; Cos anza, R.; Kubiszewski, I.; T ebeck, K.; Wallis, S.; Robe s, D.; Mo ensen, L.F.; Picke , K.E.; Wilkinson, R.; e al. Wellbeing Economy: An E ec i e Pa adigm o Mains eam Pos -G ow h Policies? Ecol. Econ. 2022, 192, 107261. [C ossRe ] 79. San os, F.D. Humans on Ea h: F om O igins o Possible Fu u es; Sp inge : Be lin/Heidelbe g, Ge many, 2012. 80. Jones, C.I. The Fac s o Economic G ow h. Handb. Mac oecon. 2016,2, 3–69. [C ossRe ] 81. BP—The B i ish Pe oleum Company p.l.c. BP S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy 2020, 69 h ed.; BP: London, UK, 2020. 82. Smil, V. Ene gy and Ci iliza ion: A His o y; MIT P ess: Camb idge, MA, USA, 2017. 83. Nielsen, K.S.; Nicholas, K.A.; C eu zig, F.; Die z, T.; S e n, P.C. The Role o High-Socioeconomic-S a us People in Locking In o Rapidly Reducing Ene gy-D i en G eenhouse Gas Emissions. Na . Ene gy 2021,6, 1011–1016. [C ossRe ] 84. Chancel, L.; Pike y, T. Ca bon and Inequali y: F om Kyo o o Pa is. Pa is School o Economics. 2015. A ailable online: h p://pike y.pse.ens. / iles/ChancelPike y2015.pd (accessed on 18 Decembe 2023). 85. Oswald, Y.; Owen, A.; S einbe ge , J.K. La ge Inequali y in In e na ional and In ana ional Ene gy Foo p in s be ween Income G oups and Ac oss Consump ion Ca ego ies. Na . Ene gy 2020,5, 231–239. [C ossRe ] Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 19 o 20 86. Wiedmann, T.; Lenzen, M.; Keyße , L.T.; S einbe ge , J.K. Scien is s’ Wa ning on A luence. Na . Commun. 2020,11, 3107. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 87. Chancel, L. Global Ca bon Inequali y o e 1990–2019. Na Sus ain 2022,5, 931–938. [C ossRe ] 88. Chancel, L.; Pike y, T.; Saez, E.; Zucman, G. Wo ld Inequali y Repo 2022; Wo ld Inequali y Lab, Pa is School o Economics: Pa is, F ance, 2022. 89. Boyce, J.K. Ca bon P icing: E ec i eness and Equi y. Ecol. Econ. 2018,150, 52–61. [C ossRe ] 90. Goulde , L.H.; Ha s ead, M.A.C.; Kim, G.; Long, X. Impac s o a Ca bon Tax ac oss US Household Income G oups: Wha A e he Equi y-E iciency T ade-o s? J. Public Econ. 2019,175, 44–64. [C ossRe ] 91. Nielsen, K.S.; Clay on, S.; S e n, P.C.; Die z, T.; Caps ick, S.; Whi ma sh, L. How Psychology Can Help Limi Clima e Change. Am. Psychol. 2020,76, 130–144. [C ossRe ] 92. S u m, B.; Pei, J.; Wang, R.; Löschel, A.; Zhao, Z. Condi ional Coope a ion in Case o a Global Public Good—Expe imen al E idence om Clima e Change Mi iga ion in Beijing. China Econ. Re . 2019,56, 101308. [C ossRe ] 93. Diede ich, J.; Goeschl, T. Willingness o Pay o Volun a y Clima e Ac ion and I s De e minan s: Field-Expe imen al E idence. En i on. Resou . Econ. 2014,57, 405–429. [C ossRe ] 94. Diede ich, J.; Goeschl, T. To Mi iga e o No o Mi iga e: The P ice Elas ici y o P o-en i onmen al Beha io . J. En i on. Econ. Manag. 2017,84, 209–222. [C ossRe ] 95. Bu on-Chellew, M.N.; el Mouden, C.; Wes , S.A. Condi ional Coope a ion and Con usion in Public-Goods Expe imen s. P oc. Na l. Acad. Sci. USA 2016,113, 1291–1296. [C ossRe ] 96. Bohm, P. Es ima ing Demand o Public Goods: An Expe imen . Eu . Econ. Re . 1972,3, 111–130. [C ossRe ] 97. Gäch e , S. Condi ional Coope a ion: Beha io al Regula i ies om he Lab and he Field and Thei Policy Implica ions; Discussion Pape s 2006-03; Uni e si y o No ingham: No ingham, UK, 2006. 98. Ledya d, J. Public Goods: A Su ey o Expe imen al Resea ch. Handbook o Expe imen al Economics; P ince on Uni e si y P ess: P ince on, NJ, USA, 1995; pp. 111–194. 99. Fischbache , U.; Gäch e , S.; Feh , E. A e People Condi ionally Coope a i e? E idence om a Public Goods Expe imen . Econ. Le . 2001,71, 397–404. [C ossRe ] 100. Fischbache , U.; Gäch e , S. Social P e e ences, Belie s, and he Dynamics o F ee Riding in Public Goods Expe imen s. Am. Econ. Re . 2010,100, 541–556. [C ossRe ] 101. Ca a ini, S.; Le in, S.; Ta oni, A. Coope a ion in he Clima e Commons. Re . En i on. Econ. Policy 2019,13, 227–247. [C ossRe ] 102. Milinski, M.; Semmann, D.; K ambeck, H.J.; Ma o zke, J. S abilizing he Ea h’s Clima e Is No a Losing Game: Suppo ing E idence om Public Goods Expe imen s. P oc. Na l. Acad. Sci. USA 2006,103, 3994–3998. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 103. Löschel, A.; S u m, B.; Vog , C. The Demand o Clima e Change Mi iga ion—An Empi ical Assessmen o Ge many. Econ. Le . 2013,118, 415–418. [C ossRe ] 104. Calzola i, G.; Casa i, M.; Ghidoni, R. Ca bon Is Fo e e : A Clima e Change Expe imen on Coope a ion. J. En i on. Econ. Manag. 2018,92, 169–184. [C ossRe ] 105. Schneide , C.J.; Slan che , B.L. The Domes ic Poli ics o In e na ional Coope a ion: Ge many and he Eu opean Deb C isis. In . O gan. 2018,72, 1–31. [C ossRe ] 106. Con e si, D. The Ul ima e Challenge: Na ionalism and Clima e Change. Na l. Pap. 2020,48, 625–636. [C ossRe ] 107. Blondeel, M.; B adshaw, M.J.; B idge, G.; Kuzemko, C. The Geopoli ics o Ene gy Sys em T ans o ma ion: A Re iew. Geog . Compass 2021,15, e12580. [C ossRe ] 108. Yang, Y.; Xia, S.; Qian, X. Geopoli ics o he Ene gy T ansi ion. J. Geog . Sci. 2023,33, 683–704. [C ossRe ] 109. Owen, J.R.; Kemp, D.; Lechne , A.M.; Ha is, J.; Zhang, R.; Lèb e, É. Ene gy T ansi ion Mine als and Thei In e sec ion wi h Land-Connec ed Peoples. Na . Sus ain. 2023,6, 203–211. [C ossRe ] 110. Cas illo, R.; P udy, C. China’s Role in Supplying C i ical Mine als o he Global Ene gy T ansi ion—Wha Could he Fu u e Hold? In Le e aging T anspa ency o Reduce Co up ion P ojec (LTRC); B ookings Ins i u ion: Washing on, DC, USA, 2022. 111. S einbock, D. U.S.–China T ade Wa and I s Global Impac s. China Q. In . S a eg. S ud. 2018,4, 515–542. [C ossRe ] 112. Fajgelbaum, P.; Khandelwal, A. The Economic Impac s o he US-China T ade Wa . Annu. Re . Econ. 2022,14, 205–228. [C ossRe ] 113. Lippe , B.; Pe hes, V. (Eds.) S a egic Ri al y be ween Uni ed S a es and China: Causes, T ajec o ies, and Implica ions o Eu ope; SWP Resea ch Pape , 4/2020; S i ung Wissenscha und Poli ik (SWP)—Deu sches Ins i u ü In e na ionale Poli ik und Siche hei : Be lin, Ge many, 2020. [C ossRe ] 114. Liu, Z.; Deng, Z.; Da is, S.J.; Gi on, C.; Ciais, P. Moni o ing global ca bon emissions in 2021. Na . Re . Ea h En i on. 2022,3, 217–219. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 115. Desch, M.C. I Is Kind o Be C uel: The Humani y o Ame ican Realism. Re . In . S ud. 2003,29, 415–426. [C ossRe ] 116. Ka kou , H.L. F om he Twen y Yea s’ C isis o he clima e c isis: Reconside ing Ca ’s hough s on na ionalism and global e o m. J. In . Poli ical Theo y 2023,19, 317–334. [C ossRe ] 117. Ba e , S.; Dannenbe g, A. An Expe imen al In es iga ion in o ‘Pledge and Re iew’ in Clima e Nego ia ions. Clim. Change 2016, 138, 339–351. [C ossRe ] 118. Axel od, R. The E olu ion o Coope a ion; Basic Books: New Yo k, NY, USA, 1984. 119. G undig, F. Pa e ns o In e na ional Coope a ion and he Explana o y Powe o Rela i e Gains: An Analysis o Coope a ion on Global Clima e Change, Ozone Deple ion, and In e na ional T ade. In . S ud. Q. 2006,50, 781–801. [C ossRe ] Sus ainabili y 2024,16, 331 20 o 20 120. Tingley, D.; Tomz, M. Condi ional Coope a ion and Clima e Change. Comp. Poli . S ud. 2014,47, 344–368. [C ossRe ] 121. Sze szynski, B.; Kea nes, M.; Macnagh en, P.; Owen, R.; S ilgoe, J. Why Sola Radia ion Managemen Geoenginee ing and Democ acy Won’ Mix. En i on. Plann. A 2013,45, 2809–2816. [C ossRe ] 122. Co y, O. The In e na ional Poli ics o Geoenginee ing: The Feasibili y o Plan B o Tackling Clima e Change. Secu . Dialogue 2017,48, 297–315. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 123. Bie mann, F.; Oomen, J.; Gup a, A.; Ali, S.H.; Conca, K.; Haje , M.A.; Kashwan, P.; Ko zé, L.J.; Leach, M.; Messne , D.; e al. Sola Geoenginee ing: The Case o an In e na ional Non-Use Ag eemen . WIREs Clim. Change 2022,13, e754. [C ossRe ] 124. McLa en, D.; Co y, O. The Poli ics and Go e nance o Resea ch in o Sola Geoenginee ing. WIREs Clim. Change 2021,12, e707. [C ossRe ] 125. MacMa in, D.G.; Visioni, D.; K a i z, B.; Rich e , J.H.; Felgenhaue , T.; Lee, W.; Mo ow, D.; Sugiyama, M. Scena ios o Modeling Sola Geoenginee ing. P oc. Na l. Acad. Sci. USA 2022,119, e2202230119. [C ossRe ] [PubMed] 126. Holahan, R.; Kashwan, P. Disen angling he Rhe o ic o Public Goods om Thei Ex e nali ies: The Case o Clima e Enginee ing. Glob. T ansi . 2019,1, 132–140. [C ossRe ] 127. Chemnick, J. U.S. Blocks U.N. Resolu ion on Geoenginee ing. Scien i ic Ame ican. 2019. A ailable online: h ps://www. scien i icame ican.com/a icle/u-s-blocks-u-n- esolu ion-on-geoenginee ing (accessed on 18 Decembe 2023). 128. Jinnah, S.; Nicholson, S.; Mo ow, D.R.; Do e, Z.; Wapne , P.; Valdi ia, W.; Thiele, L.P.; McKinnon, C.; Ligh , A.; Lahsen, M.; e al. Go e ning Clima e Enginee ing: A P oposal o Immedia e Go e nance o Sola Radia ion Managemen . Sus ainabili y 2019, 11, 3954. [C ossRe ] 129. Reynolds, J.L. The Go e nance o Sola Geoenginee ing; Camb idge Uni e si y P ess: Camb idge, UK, 2019. 130. Reynolds, J.L. Sola Geoenginee ing o Reduce Clima e Change: A Re iew o Go e nance P oposals. P oc. R. Soc. A 2019, 475, 20190255. [C ossRe ] 131. S oboda, T.; I ine, P.J.; Callies, D.; Sugiyama, M. The Po en ial o Clima e Enginee ing wi h S a osphe ic Sul a e Ae osol Injec ions o Reduce Clima e Injus ice. J. Glob. E hics 2019,14, 353–368. [C ossRe ] 132. Wagne , G. Geoenginee ing: The Gamble; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2021. Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .