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Time- empe a u e p o iles and Lis e ia monocy ogenes p esence in
e ige a o s om households wi h ulne able consume s
Lo edana Dumi așcu
a
, Anca Ioana Nicolau
a
, Co ina Neagu
a
, Pie ine Didie
b
, Isabelle Maî e
c
,
Ch is ophe Nguyen-The
b
, Silje Elisabe h Skuland
d
, T ond Mø e ø
e
, Sol eig Langs ud
e
,
Monica T uninge
, Paula Teixei a
g
, Vânia Fe ei a
g
, Lydia Ma ens
h
, Daniela Bo da
a,∗
a
Duna ea de Jos Uni e si y o Gala i, Facul y o Food Science and Enginee ing, Domnească S ee 111, 800201, Gala i, Romania
b
UMR408 SQPOV Sécu i é e Quali é des P odui s d’O igine Végé ale, INRA, A ignon Uni e si é, A ignon, F ance
c
USC1422 GRAPPE, Ecole Supé ieu e d’Ag icul u es (ESA), INRA, SFR 4207 QUASAV, 55 ue Rabelais, BP 30748, 49007, Ange s Cedex, F ance
d
Consump ion Resea ch No way (SIFO), Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y, Oslo, No way
e
No ima, No wegian Ins i u e o Food, Fishe ies and Aquacul u e Resea ch, Oslo eien 1, N-1430, Ås, No way
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais da Uni e sidade de Lisboa, A . P o esso Aníbal de Be encou 9, 1600-189, Lisboa, Po ugal
g
Uni e sidade Ca ólica Po uguesa, CBQF - Cen o de Bio ecnologia e Química Fina – Labo a ó io Associado, Escola Supe io de Bio ecnologia, Rua Diogo Bo elho 1327,
4169-005, Po o, Po ugal
h
Keele Uni e si y, Uni ed Kingdom
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Elde ly
Young amily
Young single men
Tempe a u e dange zone
Consume
ABSTRACT
A ansdisciplina y obse a ional s udy, coupled wi h a web-based su ey, was conduc ed o in es iga e e-
ige a ed s o age o ood, in i e Eu opean coun ies. The in es iga ed consume g oups in his s udy we e:
young amilies wi h small child en and/o p egnan women, elde ly people, pe sons wi h an immunode icien
sys em, and young single men. The e ige a o empe a u e was moni o ed o app oxima ely wo weeks using a
empe a u e da a logge . Va iables such as coun y, income, age o e ige a o s, educa ion, li ing a ea, e-
ige a o loading p ac ices had no signi ican e ec (p> 0.05) on he o e all a e age idge empe a u e,
whe eas consume s' p ac ices showed a signi ican in luence (p < 0.05) on egis e ed empe a u e alues.
Compa ed o empe a u es inside he idges belonging o young amilies and young single men g oup, he
empe a u es inside e ige a o s belonging o elde ly was in he empe a u e dange zone (5–63 °C). The lowes
empe a u es we e eco ded in UK consume s’ e ige a o s, whe eas he highes we e in F ench households.
P esence o Lis e ia monocy ogenes was con i med in h ee e ige a o s ou o 53 sampled ( wo in Romania and
one in Po ugal). The mos ulne able ca ego y o ood sa e y isks is ep esen ed by elde ly pe sons wi h low
educa ion, unawa e o sa e e ige a ion p ac ices and he ac ual empe a u e hei idges a e unning.
1. In oduc ion
S o age empe a u e has a signi ican in luence on ood quali y and
sa e y, especially o oods ha mus be kep e ige a ed o ozen.
EFSA, in Eu ope, and in e na ional o ganiza ions esponsible o peo-
ple's heal h, such as he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, ad ise ha oods
should be e ige a ed below 5 °C and ozen a −18 °C (EFSA, 2018).
The mos c i ical pa o he cold chain is he cold ood s o age a do-
mes ic le el, as demons a ed by se e al s udies (James, Ona inde, &
James, 2017; Jo é, La o e-Mo a alla, Ga iga, & Bo e -Cid, 2019). In
ecen yea s, he ole o inadequa e con ol o ood empe a u e on he
numbe o ood poisoning inciden s has been highligh ed (James,
E ans, & James, 2008). Nowadays, he cold ood chain is inconcei able
wi hou domes ic e ige a o s (James Ona inde, & James, 2017).
No wi hs anding, empe a u e abuse migh happen along he en i e
ood chain (B own, Ryse , Go man, S einmaus, & Vo s , 2015), in-
cluding households. By s o ing ood p ope ly, consume s a e he inal
line o de ense in p e en ing ood spoilage and ensu ing ood sa e y
(De ens-Be heau Osswald, Lague e, & Al a ez, 2014).
In addi ion, s o age empe a u es can a y wi h geog aphic loca ion
(Ma klinde , Lindblad, E iksson, Finnson, & Lindq is , 2004). The
o e all a iabili y o empe a u e in Eu opean domes ic e ige a o s as
epo ed by Roca o, Uy endaele, & Memb é, (2017) anged be ween
7.0 ± 2.7 °C o Sou he n and 6.1 ± 2.8 °C o No he n coun ies.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. oodcon .2019.107078
Recei ed 5 No embe 2019; Recei ed in e ised o m 20 Decembe 2019; Accep ed 21 Decembe 2019
Abb e ia ions: ELD, elde ly people; YF, amilies wi h in an s and/o p egnan women; YSM, young single men; IDP, immunode icien and diabe ic pe sons
∗
Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (D. Bo da).
Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078
A ailable online 23 Decembe 2019
0956-7135/ © 2019 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
T
While many su eys ha e been conduc ed on domes ic s o age unde
e ige a ion in speci ic coun ies (James e al., 2008; James e al.,
2017) and in mos cases domes ic e ige a o s we e epo ed o wo k
abo e 6 °C, ew s udies ha e ocused on he e ige a ed ood s o age
p ac ices o ulne able consume g oups, and e en ewe we e con-
duc ed simul aneously in se e al coun ies, using a compa a i e
me hodology. Te ps a, S eenbekke s, De Mae elae e, and Nijhuis
(2005) moni o ed empe a u es in he e ige a o s o young amilies
wi h small child en and elde ly people in he Ne he lands, and de-
mons a ed ha elde lies ha e hei idges ope a ing abo e he e-
commended empe a u e o e ige a ion (i.e. < 5 °C). The e-
ige a o empe a u e o Ame ican young adul s aged be ween 18 and
26 yea s was eco ded by By d-B edbemme , Mau e , Whea ley,
Co one, & Clancy (2007), he au ho s inding a mean alue o
6.1 ± 3.6 °C, wi h a minimum alue o 0 °C, and a maximum alue o
16 °C. While ood may spend an impo an pa o i s shel li e in a
domes ic e ige a o , he a ia ion o he empe a u e could a o
psycho opic pa hogen g ow h, Lis e ia monocy ogenes being equen ly
epo ed o a ec ulne able consume s (EFSA, 2018).
Immunode icien consume s, such as young child en, p egnan
women and elde ly people a e mo e suscep ible o oodbo ne illness
han o he consume s; howe e , ulne abili y di e s g ea ly be ween
hese g oups. The elde ly a e mo e exposed o oodbo ne diseases han
heal hy adul s as esul o age-associa ed dec eased immuni y, gas o-
in es inal ac changes, an ibio ic usage, malnu i ion, and seden a y
li es yles (E ans & Redmond, 2015; Lund, 2015). The Wo ld Heal h
O ganiza ion epo ed a 2.6 imes highe suscep ibili y o de eloping a
se ious illness in he elde ly compa ed wi h he heal hy gene al popu-
la ion, in he las decade (E ans & Redmond, 2018; 2015). Also, lis-
e iosis a ec ed abou 2200 people in 2015, he p opo ion o cases in
he o e 64 age g oup being 64% (EFSA, 2016). P egnan women a e
conside ed 17 imes mo e likely o con ac lis e iosis han he heal hy
gene al popula ion (Feng & B uhn, 2016). Then, pe sons wi h diabe es
and immunode icien people a e 25 imes mo e likely o su e om
lis e iosis (Feng & B uhn, 2016). Al hough no ulne able, an in e -
es ing ca ego y o consume s is ep esen ed by young single men (< 30
yea s old). They a e conside ed high isk- ake s as hey a e mo e p one
o dis ega d ood sa e y p ac ices a home compa ed wi h he abo e-
men ioned ca ego ies (By d-B edbenne , Mau e , Whea ley, Co one, &
Clancy, 2007). Mo eo e , ood handling beha iou o young adul s
becomes impo an as hey migh be in ol ed in he u u e in aking
ca e o hei household membe s ulne able o ood poisoning. Fu -
he mo e, consume s hold speci ic pe cep ions o ulne abili y, isk and
con ol in ela ion o hei own ood sa e y p ac ices, pe cep ions ha
di e acco ding o age, gende , e hnici y, and educa ion (E ans &
Redmond, 2019; Redmond & G i i h, 2004).
The aim o his s udy was o collec in o ma ion on e ige a ion
empe a u es, occu ence o L. monocy ogenes and s o age o e-
ige a ed oods om di e en households in i e Eu opean coun ies
(F ance, No way, Po ugal, Romania and UK) and e alua e he di e -
ences be ween consume knowledge and p ac ices conside ing he high-
isk popula ion. Tempe a u e moni o ing wi h da a logge s, placed in
idges o a maximum o wo weeks, p o ided solid g ound o compa e
alues. A ques ionnai e e alua ed he knowledge and pe cep ions o
consume s ega ding e ige a ion empe a u e. This s udy is pa o a
la ge esea ch p ojec (sa econsume.eu) ha aims o explo e con-
sume s’ ood handling p ac ices om “ e ail o o k”, and o ind ways
o educe he isk o oodbo ne illnesses among he Eu opean con-
sume s.
2. Ma e ials and me hods
2.1. Rec ui men
Fi een households om i e coun ies (No way, F ance, Po ugal,
UK and Romania) we e ec ui ed o pa icipa e in a ansdisciplina y
ieldwo k, leading o a o al o 75 households isi ed. Based on a call o
ende , he ec ui men o olun ee s om he gene al public o da a
collec ion was subcon ac ed o a p o essional se ice p o ide (No s a
No ge AS, Oslo, No way). In each coun y, he ec ui men o pa ici-
pan s was pe o med conside ing he maximum a ia ion in one a ea
ela ed o ulne abili y, educa ion, income, li ing a ea. In Po ugal, he
ci y o Po o and i s G ea e Me opoli an A ea was chosen, in F ance
he s udy was conduc ed in Ange (Maine e Loi e), in UK, he isi s
ha e been paid in medium sized households om he Midlands, in
Romania, Gala i coun y was chosen, whe eas in No way he s udy a ea
s e ched o u al and u ban a eas su ounding Oslo. Th ee g oup ypes
we e conside ed: elde ly (ELD; > 65 yea s o age), amilies wi h in an s
and/o p egnan women (YF), and young single men (YSM, 20–35 yea s
old). All he olun ee s we e in o med abou he aim o he esea ch
and all he da a we e collec ed wi h consen .
2.2. Time- empe a u e da a collec ion
The ime- empe a u e p o iling was conduc ed om Feb ua y o
June 2018, in he consume s’ domes ic ki chens o e a pe iod o up o
14 days. Da a logge s (Romania: RC5-USB, Eli ech, UK; F ance:
The moBou on P oges-Plus, Willems, F ance; Po ugal: KOOLTRAK™
Kied ich, Ge many; UK and No way: EL-USB-2-LCD, Lasca elec onics
L d, Salisbu y, UK) we e placed in e ige a o s, in he zone whe e he
consume s s o ed highly isky oods such as eady- o-ea (RTE) oods.
The da a logge s wi h esolu ion o 0.1–0.5 °C ope a ed in he ange o
−30 °C–70 °C (F ance), −40 °C–85 °C (Romania, Po ugal), and
−10 °C–40 °C (UK, No way) and pe o med measu emen s wi h a e-
quency anging om 1 min (No way, UK), o 5 min (Po ugal and
Romania) and o 1 h (F ance). A pa icula si ua ion was encoun e ed in
Romania whe e, in h ee u al households, he empe a u e was mon-
i o ed in a oom used by he elde lies o s o e ood (such as aw mea
and RTE), as he idge was swi ched o in win e season o sa e en-
e gy.
2.3. De ec ion o Lis e ia monocy ogenes
A o al o 53 su aces we e swabbed om he idges in ou coun-
ies (15 samples pe coun y in F ance, Romania and Po ugal, and 8
samples in No way) using SodiBox swab ab ics (320 × 175 mm)
(Raisio Diagnos ic, Nieuwe ke k aan den IJssel, he Ne he lands) p e-
mois ened wi h Ringe solu ion. Samples we e aken om he shel
whe e consume s s o ed RTE oods, and om he ege able cabine /box
( he a ea analyzed was max. 400 cm
2
). A e sampling, he clo hs we e
placed in plas ic bags and anspo ed o he labo a o y in insula ed
cold boxes (1–4 °C). Un il analysis, he samples we e kep unde e-
ige a ion (less han 24 h). De ec ion o Lis e ia spp. was pe o med
acco ding o he o icial me hod EN ISO 11290-1:1996 in Romania,
No way and F ance and acco ding o ISO 11290-1:2017 in Po ugal. In
Romania, es s based on la ex agglu ina ion (Oxoid, Wade Road,
Basings oke, Hampshi e, UK) we e used o he con i ma ion o Lis e ia
monocy ogenes, whe eas in Po ugal con i ma ion was made based on
G am s aining, ca alase es , β hemolysis in blood aga , suga e men-
a ion (xylose, hamnose, and manni ol) and CAMP es .
2.4. Da a analysis o ime- empe a u e p o ile
P o iled ime- empe a u e da a we e analyzed using Mic oso Excel
2018. S a is ical analysis was conduc ed using Mini ab 19 (Mini ab LLC,
S a e College, Pennsyl ania, USA) calcula ing desc ip i e s a is ical
pa ame e s. Chi-squa e es was used o compa e equencies among
g oup ca ego ies, e ige a o empe a u es, e ige a o age and e-
ige a o loading.
L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078
2
2.5. Ques ionnai e design and da a collec ion
The Sa eConsume Household Su ey, conduc ed be ween Decembe
2018 and Ap il 2019 esul ed in a comp ehensi e da abase om which
da a o i e EEA coun ies (F ance, UK, Po ugal, Romania and
No way) we e selec ed (N = 5009). Sampling was based on a s a i ied
andom design, wi h he educa ion le el o he a ge esponden as
s a um a iable. Two ques ions ela ed o consume s' knowledge and
pe cep ions on he idge empe a u e we e analyzed in his s udy. The
in e nal eliabili y o he selec ed i ems was es ed using C onbach's
alpha and he alue o 0.72 indica ed good in e nal consis ency.
Responden s had he main o sha ed esponsibili y o ood shopping in
households wi h: ELD (n = 1287), p egnan women (n = 318), YSM
below 30 yea s old (n = 118) and immunode icien and diabe ic pe -
sons (IDP) (n = 946). The da a we e analyzed wi h C oss abs' s a is ics
conside ing educa ion le el as laye . S a is ical analysis was conduc ed
wi h SPSS S a is ics 20 (IBM So wa e G oup, Chicago, IL).
3. Resul s and discussion
3.1. Demog aphic da a
Table 1 p esen s he pa icipan s in he ield esea ch and hei
households. The in es iga ed popula ion consis ed o 30% YSM
households, 35% YF, and 35% ELD, 65% being om u ban a eas, and
50% ha ing e ia y educa ion and medium income.
3.2. Tempe a u e inside e ige a o s
Re ige a o s o m an impo an link in he cold chain, and ep esen
a signi ican ec o o domes ic oodbo ne illnesses (Hassan, Dimassi, &
El Amin, 2015). In Table 2, he empe a u es eco ded inside he idges
a e p esen ed. An a e age e ige a o empe a u e alue o 6.3 °C was
calcula ed ou o he mean alues eco ded o he pa icipan s om
F ance, ega dless o household ype. The esul s we e simila o wha
was ound in o he s udies. Lagendjk, Asse e, De ens, & Ca pen ie ,
(2008) indica ed ha in one ou o ou F ench households, he a e age
empe a u e o domes ic e ige a o s was abo e 8 °C and only 11% o
e ige a o s we e wo king a ≤ 4 °C, whe eas Geppe (2011, p. 146)
indica ed a mean eco ded empe a u e alue o 6.7 °C. In ano he s udy
conduc ed in F ance, he au ho s moni o ed he empe a u e in 119
domes ic e ige a o s and epo ed an a e age alue o 6.6 °C, minimum
0.9 °C and maximum 11.4 °C (Lague e, De ens, & Palagos, 2002),
whe eas in he su ey conduc ed by ANSES (2017) wi h 5428 F ench
households, 51% o idges had a empe a u e be ween 5 °C and 8 °C.
Apa om F ance, in all he o he coun ies, he highes median
empe a u es we e eco ded in ELD households, whe eas he lowes
alues we e eco ded in YF households, whe e he median anged be-
ween 3 °C and 5 °C. In UK and Po ugal, he median o a e age em-
pe a u es in ELD e ige a o s was 6.2 °C and 6.4 °C, espec i ely,
whe eas in No way and Romania, he calcula ed median was 7.5 °C.
Al hough he median alues we e p e y simila in he e ige a o s o
ELD om Romania and No way, based on he hi d qua ile i can be
obse ed ha 75% o he ELDs om Romania ha e e ige a o em-
pe a u es o less han 9.4 °C, whe eas in No way, he hi d qua ile is
8.3 °C, indica ing ha he ELDs om Romania could be mo e exposed o
ood sa e y isks. As shown by o he indings (James e al., 2017), i is
no uncommon o ind e ige a o s om households wo king abo e
6 °C. In a s udy conduc ed by Te ps a e al., 2005) in he Ne he lands
wi h h ee household ypes (adul s, amilies wi h child en unde ou
yea s old, and elde lies), mos o he elde lies had hei idges wo king
abo e 7 °C. A s udy conduc ed in UK (E ans & Redmond, 2015) ound
ha 50% o he ood s o ed in he cen al compa men , and 85% o he
ood s o ed in he doo , was s o ed a e ige a o empe a u es o >
5 °C in elde ly households.
In Po ugal, o YSM and YF households, he median empe a u e
was simila (5 °C), whe eas in No way and Romania, small di e ences
(bu no signi ican ones; p> 0.05) we e no iced. A compa ison be-
ween household ypes shows ha in ou ou o i e coun ies, he
smalles sp ead o he da a alues was egis e ed o he YF g oup,
demons a ing a mo e homogenous cooling en i onmen and hus a
be e capaci y o p e en he isk o empe a u e abuse. The same
compa ison be ween household ypes, ega dless o he coun y, shows
ha he median e ige a o empe a u e o he ELD g oup is sig-
ni ican ly highe (p< 0.01) han o he YF and YSM g oups and his
makes he elde ly he mos exposed ca ego y o ood isk. Despi e
conside ing YSM g oup as high isk- ake s, he pa icipan s included in
his s udy demons a ed ca e ulness in keeping hei idges cool, al-
hough he in es iga o s could no de e mine i he eason behind his
was a conce n abou ood sa e y o p e e ence o no ha ing wa m
bee .
An o e all compa ison be ween coun ies e eals ha ega dless o
household ype, he lowes a e age empe a u e was moni o ed in he
idges o UK households, whe e he median a ied om 3 °C (YF) o
6.2 °C (ELD). The a e age empe a u e epo ed so a in UK e-
ige a o s anged be ween 4.4 °C and 5.2 °C (E ans, Fos e , & B own,
2014; Geppe , 2011, p. 146), while he minimum and he maximum
mean we e −0.6 °C and 10.4 °C (E ans e al., 2014). The esul s e-
po ed o he UK in ou s udy a e hus in close ag eemen wi h hose
epo ed by E ans e al. (2014).
Table 1
Desc ip ion o he households (n = 75) pa icipa ing in he s udy.
Household desc ip ion Coun y To al no. (%)
F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way
G oup ca ego y YSM 5 5 3 5 5 23 (30)
YF 5 5 6 5 5 26 (35)
ELD 5 5 6 5 5 26 (35)
Li ing a ea U ban 7 13 11 9 9 49 (65)
Ru al 8 2 4 6 6 26 (35)
Educa ion P ima y 5 3 5 5 0 18 (24)
Seconda y 7 3 2 4 3 19 (25)
Te ia y 3 8 8 6 12 37 (49)
ns 0 1 0 0 0 1 (1)
Income
a
Low 3 4 3 5 3 18 (24)
Medium 9 9 10 6 6 40 (53)
High 3 2 2 3 4 14 (19)
ns 0 0 0 1 2 3 (4)
ns-no speci ied.
a
F ance - low: < 1100 €; medium: 1100–2500 €; high: > 2500€; UK - low: < 1200 €; medium: 1200–2500 €; high: > 2500 €; Po ugal - low: < 750 €; medium:
750–2000 €; high: > 2000 €; Romania - low: < 350 €; medium: 350–750 €; high: > 750 €; No way - low: < 2000 €; medium: 2000–3200 €; high: > 3200 €
L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078
3
Based on Table 2, i can be seen ha 20% o he e ige a o s we e
ope a ing a empe a u es lowe han 4 °C, 43.6% we e wo king be-
ween 4 and 6 °C and 36.4% o e 6 °C. The lowes pe cen age o
households whe e e ige a o empe a u e was ound abo e 6 °C was in
Po ugal (26.7%) and he highes in F ance (53.3%). In o he s udies,
conduc ed in he UK and F ance, abou 70% o he e ige a o s we e
unning a empe a u es highe han 5 °C (ANSES, 2017; James &
E ans, 1992), whe eas in Po ugal, 70% we e unning a empe a u es
abo e 6 °C (Aze edo e al., 2005).
3.3. Re ige a o s ime p o ile ope a ing a empe a u es abo e 6 °C
Time- empe a u e p o ile o e ige a o s is a good ood sa e y in-
dica o as i shows he eal luc ua ions o he eco ded empe a u es
and gi es a be e unde s anding o he ood sa e y isks ela ed o
consume p ac ices. Few s udies ha e in es iga ed he ime- empe a-
u e p o ile o domes ic e ige a o s. Fo example, E ans and Redmond
(2016) showed ha no e ige a o om B i ish households ope a ed
a ≤ 5 °C o 6.5 days o s udy, while in 91% o he du a ion, he mean
empe a u e exceeded 5 °C. Table 3 shows he pe cen ages o ime when
domes ic ki chen e ige a o s ope a ed a empe a u es highe han
6 °C. In mo e han 75% o he du a ion o he p o iling s udy, abou hal
o he F ench households and a hi d o No wegian households had
hei e ige a o s ope a ing abo e 6 °C. EFSA ecommends e ige a-
ion empe a u es below 5 °C, simila o Food S anda d Agency in he
UK (EFSA, 2018), while in No way, he maximum ecommended em-
pe a u e is 4 °C (Røss oll, Jacobsen, Ueland, Eina G anum, &
Langs ud, 2010). In 4 ou o 15 UK households, e ige a o s eco ded
empe a u es abo e 6 °C o less han o equal o 1% o he o al ime. In
40% o he Romanian households, up o 25% o he moni o ed s o age
ime empe a u e was abo e 5 °C. The du a ion o empe a u e abo e
he h eshold alue in households is wo isome conside ing ha L.
monocy ogenes, bu also some o he pa hogens p esen in low numbe in
RTE oods, could o e g ow, i he oppo uni y occu s.
As indica ed p e iously, some amilies belonging o he Romanian
ELD g oup li ing in u al a ea swi ch o hei e ige a o s du ing
win e , and use he coldes oom o he house o s o e pe ishable oods,
such as aw mea o RTE. Fig. 1 illus a es an example on how ime-
empe a u e a ia ion occu s when using a cool oom, a he han a
e ige a o , o s o ing ood. Al hough he median empe a u e alue
was 3.7 °C, om Fig. 1 can be seen ha , due o a ying ou doo
empe a u es, o abou hal o he eco ded ime (168 h), he ac ual
empe a u e was abo e 6 °C. These da a highligh he isk o which
hose who emb ace such a p ac ice a e exposed. Mo eo e , 168 h o
empe a u e abuse ou o he wo weeks s o age ime, which could be
assimila ed wi h he a e age ime o s o ing oods in he idges a
home, would allow, in he wo s case scena io, he subs an ial g ow h
o L. monocy ogenes, as demons a ed by ecen challenge s udies made
o e ige a ed s o age a he e aile s (Ceuppens, Van Boxs ael,
Wes yn, De lieghe e, & Uy endaele, 2016). E en i he epo ed
g ow h a e a 6 °C is low, an inc ease by a ac o o 100 in ce ain dai y
o mea ma ices could endange ulne able g oups.
3.4. Age o e ige a o s
Di e ences ela ed o he age o e ige a o s exis be ween coun-
ies and household ypes (Table 4). In he ec ui men c i e ia o
consume s om No way and F ance, ha ing an old e ige a o was a
speci ic equi emen . Howe e , as his equi emen was no sha ed by
he o he coun ies, no all he selec ed pa icipan s had old e-
ige a o s and we can he e o e no conside esul s based on his
c i e ion. In Romania, in all ELD's households, he e ige a o had an
a e age age o abo e en yea s. In No way, h ee ou o i e ELD
households had he e ige a o o mo e han en yea s, whe eas in
Po ugal only in one ELD household was he e ige a o less han i e
yea s old. In case o YF households, ega dless o coun y ype, he
highes pe cen age was calcula ed o idges aged less han i e yea s.
In No way and Po ugal, in mos o he YSM households, he e-
ige a o age was be ween 6 and 10 yea s, whe eas in Romania, 3 ou
o 5 idges in hese households we e less han i e yea s old. O e all,
30% o he o al numbe o households had a e ige a o wi h an age o
less o equal o 5 yea s, 19% be ween 6 and 10 yea s, and 21% o e 10
yea s, while 30% ha e no been epo ed.
O he s udies ca ied ac oss Eu ope e ealed ha in Se bian
households, 45% o e ige a o s we e up o 5-yea s-old, 36% we e up
o 10 yea s old and 19% o e 10 yea s old (Janjic e al., 2016), and in
F ance, up o 66% o households had a e ige a o olde han i e yea s
(Lague e e al., 2002; Ma klinde e al., 2004). While some su eys
epo ed ha age has a signi ican in luence on e ige a o empe a u e
(Janjic e al., 2016), in ou s udy he e was no signi ican co ela ion
be ween he eco ded empe a u e and e ige a o s' age (p > 0.05).
Ou esul s a e in ag eemen wi h he s udy o Hassan e al. (2015).
Table 2
Tempe a u es (°C) measu ed inside idges in di e en coun ies and household ypes.
Household ype Pa ame e Coun y O e all a e age
F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way
YSM Median 6.3 4.5 5 5 4.8 5.1
Q1 5.4 3.6 – 3.8 4 4.2
Q3 7.2 5.3 – 6.3 5.8 6.2
min 3.7 3.4 4.1 3.1 1.2 3.1
max 8.3 8.2 4.9 8.3 8 7.5
YF Median 6.3 3 5 4.8 4.5 4.7
Q1 5.6 2 – 2.9 4 3.6
Q3 6.9 3.7 – 6.1 5.5 5.6
min 4.4 1.1 3.2 1.8 3.6 2.8
max 7.5 4.7 8 8.2 5.5 6.8
ELD Median 6.3 6.2 6.4 7.4 7.6 6.8
Q1 5.5 5.8 – 5 6 5.6
Q3 7 7.4 – 9.4 8.3 8.0
min 4.8 4.5 3.8 3.5 3.1 3.9
max 8.2 9.2 9.1 12.3 8.8 9.5
% be ween < 4 °C 6.7 25 20 26.7 21.4 20
4–6 °C 40 41.7 53.3 40 42.9 43.6
> 6 °C 53.3 33.3 26.7 33.3 35.7 36.4
O e all a e age empe a u e 6.3 4.6 5.5 5.7 5.6
Q1- he median o he lowe hal o he da a se ; Q3- he median o he uppe hal o he da a se .
L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078
4
In addi ion, Table 4 shows ha mos o he pa icipan s, ega dless
o coun y o consume g oup, had idges ha do no ha e a em-
pe a u e display. Mo eo e , many consume s we e no su e on how o
se he empe a u e in hei idges. Some indica ed hey used as e-
e ence he sensa ion o coldness a e ouching a be e age con aine o
moni o empe a u e, o he s hough ha he 1 o 5 scale he mos a
indica o signaled empe a u es, and hey hus adjus ed he gage o 1,
which in ac was he wa mes idge se ing. I is well known ha o-
day's e ige a o s ha e lo s o unique op ions and ea u es, he ol-
lowing being ela ed o ood sa e y: (1) Inne su aces coa ed wi h sil e
ions a emp ing o con ol he ans e o mic oo ganisms o ood,
howe e , he e ec i eness o such coa ing should be u he in-
es iga ed (Kampmann e al., 2008); (2) Tempe a u e displays on doo s
allowing consume s o moni o he empe a u e inside he idge
wi hou opening i s doo (ac ual empe a u e) and o se he empe a-
u e o speci ic alues (se empe a u e); (3) Re ige a o empe a u e
ala m announcing when he doo is opened o when he empe a u e
inside he idge is abo e he se empe a u e; (4) Compa men s wi h
small icons ep esen ing speci ic ood o he coldes zone o helping
consume s o iden i y he bes place o keep ood and o a oid c oss
con amina ion. These ep esen some easons ha a e impo an om
he ood sa e y pe spec i e du ing s o age o ood a low empe a u es
and en i le us o suppo he idea o ha ing new idges in ou house-
holds. In ac , he p obabili y o socie y e olu ion owa ds a wo ld
con olled by he In e ne o all hings would no only make ou e-
ige a o s sma e and able o le us know when ce ain i ems a e
missing, bu also could wa n consume s when empe a u es a e abo e
he h eshold alue.
3.5. Numbe o e ige a o s- eeze s
The mos common ype o e ige a o obse ed in ou s udy was a
combined e ige a o - eeze (Table 5). Excep ing Po ugal, whe e
e e y household in ol ed in he s udy had jus one, a compa ison be-
ween coun ies e eals ha he numbe o combined e ige a o -
eeze de ices is dependen on household ype. Fo example, in
Table 3
Time p o ile o e ige a o s ope a ing a empe a u es highe han 6 °C.
Household ype % o ime ope a ing a empe a u es highe han
6 °C
Numbe o e ige a o s exceeding ecommended empe a u e o indica ed % o ime To al no.(%)
F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way
YSM ≤1 0 2 1 0 1 4 (5)
2–25 1 1 1 3 1 7 (9)
26–50 1 0 1 1 1 4 (5)
51–75 1 1 0 1 0 3 (4)
> 75 2 1 0 0 1 4 (5)
ns 0 0 0 0 1 1(1)
YF ≤1 0 2 1 1 1 5 (7)
2–25 2 1 4 2 3 12 (17)
26–50 0 0 0 1 1 2 (3)
51–75 0 0 0 0 0 0
> 75 3 0 1 1 0 5 (7)
ns 0 2 0 0 0 2(3)
ELD ≤1 0 0 1 0 0 1(1)
2–25 2 2 2 1 0 7 (9)
26–50 0 1 0 2 0 3 (4)
51–75 1 0 0 1 0 2 (3)
> 75 2 0 3 1 4 10 (13)
ns 0 2 0 0 1 3 (4)
To al 15 15 15 15 15 75
ns-no speci ied.
Fig. 1. Time- empe a u e p o ile o a oom used as e ige a o du ing win e season.
L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078
5

No way and Romania, all pa icipan s om YSM g oup had one com-
bined e ige a o - eeze in hei households, whe eas, in F ance and
UK, wo ou o i e pa icipan s had one combined e ige a o - eeze
and an ex a eeze .
In F ance and UK, mos o he households o YF g oup had one
combined e ige a o - eeze , whe eas in Romania and No way, 3 ou
o 5 households had an ex a eeze o e ige a o . Abou 15% o ELD
households had mo e han one e ige a o ; a pe cen age ha is highe
han o he YF and YSM g oups, amongs which only 12% and 6%
espec i ely had mo e han one e ige a o o eeze . Ha ing an ex a-
e ige a o in he household does no necessa ily mean a sa e cold
chain, as i could in ol e s o ing ood o a longe ime, which in u n
could esul s in p oblems wi h he appliances, and highe exposu e o
isk o pa hogens g ow h.
3.6. Loading p ac ices
The e ige a o s loading capaci y was es ima ed based on he oc-
cupied olume o he i ems inside idge. The idge was conside ed ull
and o e packed i mo e han 75% o idge olume was occupied; hal
ull i a ound 50% o he idge olume was occupied and qui e emp y i
less han 25% o he idge olume was occupied. Mos o he elde ly
om No way, Po ugal and F ance had hei idges almos ull,
whe eas in he UK, all kep hei idges hal ull (Table 6). On he o he
hand, Romanian ELD kep hei idges hal ull o qui e emp y. In
win e imes, in u al a eas, his si ua ion can be explained by s o ing
pe ishable ood ou side idge in he cooles oom o he house. A
compa ison be ween coun ies, ega dless o household ype e eals
ha in Romania 11 ou o 15 in es iga ed household had he idge hal
ull o qui e emp y, whe eas in he o he coun ies he e ige a o was
in mos cases ull and o e packed.
O e all, in mo e han hal o he in es iga ed households, he e-
ige a o s we e ull and o e packed and a hi d o hem we e hal ull.
Re ige a o s ha a e packed oo igh ly wi h ood es ic he cool ai
om ci cula ing and e ige a ion empe a u e canno be achie ed.
Also, he igh packing could inc ease ood- o- ood c oss-con amina ion
isk (By d-B edbenne e al., 2007). The wa me spo s om he idge
could a o he g ow h o L. monocy ogenes. In ou s udy, e ige a o
loading could no be co ela ed wi h eco ded empe a u es and hese
indings a e in ag eemen wi h o he s udies (Janjic e al., 2016). On he
o he hand, cold ood al eady s o ed in he e ige a o con ibu es o
e ige a o empe a u e s abili y, whe eas an emp y o pa ly emp y
idge migh lead o la ge empe a u e a ia ions. In addi ion, he
empe a u e o he ood ha is going o be s o ed in he idge is also
impo an . Fo ins ance, cooling o bo les wi h liquids equi es much
mo e ene gy han ai cooling (Belman-Flo es, Ba oso-Maldonado,
Rod íguez-Muñoz, & Camacho-Vázquez, 2015; James Ona inde, &
James, 2017).
Table 4
Re ige a o cha ac e is ics: age and empe a u e display.
Household ype Pa ame e Coun y To al no.(%)
F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way
Age o e ige a o s
YSM ≤5 2 1 1 3 – 7(9)
6–10 – – 2 – 3 5(7)
> 10 1 – – 2 – 3(4)
ns 2 4 – – 2 8(11)
YF ≤5 2 – 4 3 2 11(14)
6–10 1 – 2 2 1 6(8)
> 10 – 1 – – – 1(1)
ns 2 4 – – 2 8(11)
ELD ≤5 2 – 1 – 2 5(7)
6–10 1 – 2 – – 3(4)
> 10 2 – 2 5 3 12(16)
ns – 5 1 – – 6(8)
To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100)
Tempe a u e display
YSM Yes 0 1 0 2 0 3(4)
No 5 2 3 3 5 18(24)
ns – 2 – – – 2(3)
YF Yes 2 1 1 2 3 9(12)
No 3 1 5 3 2 14(18)
ns – 3 – – – 3(4)
ELD Yes 2 1 1 0 2 6(8)
No 3 1 5 5 3 17(23)
ns – 3 – – – 3(4)
To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100)
Table 5
Numbe s o e ige a o s and eeze s pe household.
Household ype Coun y To al no.(%)
F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way
YSM 1
a
2 3 3 5 5 18(24)
2 2 2 0 0 0 4(5)
> 2 1 0 0 0 0 1(1)
YF 1
a
3 3 6 2 2 16(21)
2 2 1 0 2 3 8(11)
> 2 0 0 0 1 0 1(1)
ns 0 1 0 0 0 1(1)
ELD 1
a
2 2 6 3 1 14(19)
2 2 0 0 1 2 5(7)
> 2 1 2 0 1 2 6(8)
ns 0 1 0 0 0 1(1)
To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100)
a
Combine e ige a o / eeze ; ns - no speci ied.
L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078
6
3.7. P esence o Lis e ia monocy ogenes
F om he o al o 53 e ige a o s sampled in ou s udy, Lis e ia
monocy ogenes was con i med in h ee e ige a o s: one belonging o
YSM (Romania), one o YF (Romania), and one o ELD (Po ugal). In
ano he idge om Po ugal Lis e ia was p esen , bu i was no con-
i med as L. monocy ogenes. P e alence o Lis e ia spp. in domes ic e-
ige a o s has al eady been demons a ed in di e en coun ies. Fo
example, in Po ugal om a o al o 86 samples, incidence o L.
monocy ogenes was abou 3.5% (Aze edo e al., 2005). Lis e ia innocua
was iden i ied in 1% samples collec ed om Po uguese and F ench
e ige a o s (Aze edo e al., 2005; Dieule eux Collobe , Do ey, &
Guix, 2005) and up o 2.4% in I aly (Vega a e al., 2014).
Kennedy e al. (2005) concluded ha u ban householde s' e-
ige a o s in I eland a e mo e likely o ha e pa hogens han u al
householde s, while young adul s unde 25 yea s o age a e e en mo e
likely o ha e one o mo e ex a pa hogens p esen in hei e-
ige a o s. Al hough his s udy was pe o med o a ela i ely low
numbe o households, posi i e samples we e ound bo h in u ban and
u al e ige a o s. Despi e he incidence o pa hogens, such as Lis e ia
monocy ogenes, is low, mic obiological esul s co ela ed o e-
ige a o s’ empe a u e indica e he possibili y o psycho ophic pa-
hogen g ow h (James e al., 2017). To be e ela e he incidence o
lis e iosis in ulne able g oups wi h empe a u e a ia ions in con-
sume s' e ige a o s, la ge scale expe imen s a e equi ed o isk as-
sessmen .
The p esence o Lis e ia spp. in he idge can be associa ed wi h
s o age o RTE and unwashed ege ables (B ee & Baumga ne , 1992;
James e al., 2017) and/o wi h poo hygiene (Mak abi, Jamnejad, &
Fa ama zian, 2013). To a oid c oss-con amina ion, i is impo an o
wash ege ables be o e placing hem in he idge, o s o e all he ood
packed, and o equen ly clean he e ige a o .
3.8. Ques ionnai e da a
The ques ionnai e assessed he knowledge abou e ige a ion
empe a u e and he pe cei ed empe a u e o he e ige a o s con-
side ing he educa ion le el o he esponden s and was answe ed by
esponden s om households wi h ulne able pe sons. A qua e o he
answe s coming om households wi h ELD, ha ing a low educa ion
le el, showed lack o knowledge on he e ige a ion empe a u e ha
is supposed o be in he idge (Fig. 2A) and indica ed ha esponden s
we e no awa e o he eal empe a u e in hei e ige a o s (Fig. 2B).
Howe e , anging om 11 o 17%, acco ding o hei le el o educa-
ion, esponden s om households wi h ELD conside ed ha he em-
pe a u e should be abo e 6 °C. The knowledge le el (Fig. 2A) was
co ela ed wi h he pe cei ed alues o empe a u e (Fig. 2B)
(R
2
= 0.525, p < 0.001).
In he case o households wi h IDP ha ing a low educa ion le el, he
pe cen age o he people who did no know he e ige a ion em-
pe a u es was simila o he one egis e ed o ELD (Fig. 2C). Howe e ,
in his case, he pe cen age o he people who did no ha e he
knowledge o he e ige a ion empe a u e was 24.4% o he people
wi h low educa ion, and in e sely co ela ed wi h he le el o educa-
ion, being 13.3% o people wi h high educa ion. The op imis ic bias
p obably is p esen since he pe cep ion was be e han he knowledge
(Fig. 2D) and he e was co ela ion be ween pe cep ions and knowledge
(R
2
= 0.626 and p < 0.000). I appea s ha esponden s om
households wi h IDP a e mo e awa e han ELD on he e ige a ion
empe a u es, howe e , he e is an impo an pe cen age ha do no
possess he knowledge, o is mis aking he e ige a ion empe a u es
and his could mo e likely expose hem o isks.
The s udy a ge ed also households wi h p egnan women (n = 318)
and YSM (n = 118), bu segmen a ion was less ele an o hese cases
since he sample was oo small compa ed o he o he g oups (ELD
n = 1287; IDP n = 946). None heless, only in 13.2% o he households
whe e p egnan women li e, esponden s we e no awa e o he em-
pe a u e in hei idges and in 13.9% we e unde he imp ession ha
empe a u e in hei idges should be abo e 6 °C. F om he o al
numbe o households wi h YSM, 18.6% we e no awa e on he em-
pe a u e in hei idge and 9.32% conside ed he igh alue being
abo e 6 °C. The pe cei ed alues a e lowe demons a ing again he
alidi y o he hypo hesis o op imis ic bias.
Ou esul s demons a ed ha ELD is he mos exposed ca ego y o
ood sa e y isks and he less educa ed ones a e mo e exposed han all
he o he ca ego ies. Thus, s a egies ocussed on he sa e y o he cold
chain should sepa a ely y o add ess he mos ulne able ca ego ies
and in his case he age could be a ba ie in communica ion, bu also
echnology, while he in ica e wo ld in which we a e li ing and un-
doub edly he dispa i ies wi hin he Eu opean consume s could com-
plica e mo e his e o . Mo eo e , a en ion should be paid o he IDP
ca ego y ha should be pe iodically eminded on he impo ance o
keeping e ige a o a he igh empe a u es.
The o he ca ego ies o ulne able pe sons should ecei e an equal
in e es and he low educa ed ones should no be le ou side he edu-
ca ional ci cle.
4. Conclusions
Fo he i s ime, in es iga ion o e ige a ion empe a u e in i e
Eu opean coun ies, conduc ed in households wi h ulne able g oups
and high isk- ake s, is epo ed. A posi i e inding was ha young men
Table 6
Re ige a o loading capaci y.
Household ype Coun y To al no.(%)
F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way
YSM Hal ull 1 2 1 3 1 8 (11)
Full and o e packed 4 2 1 2 2 11 (14)
Qui e emp y – 1 – – 2 3 (4)
Ns – – 1 – – 1(1)
YF Hal ull – 2 1 2 1 6(8)
Full and o e packed 5 3 3 1 3 15(20)
Qui e emp y – – – 2 – 2(3)
ns – – 2 – 1 3(4)
ELD Hal ull 1 4 1 2 – 8(11)
Full and o e packed 4 – 4 1 4 13(17)
Qui e emp y – – – 2 – 2(3)
ns – 1 1 – 1 3(4)
To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100)
ns-no speci ied.
L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078
7
a e no con i med o be isk- ake s in ela ion o cooling p ac ices, and
amilies wi h young child en and immunode icien pe sons appea o be
he mos awa e abou e ige a ion p ac ices. Meanwhile, inadequa e
e ige a ion p ac ices may con ibu e owa ds highe incidences o
illnesses, such as lis e iosis, in he ELD popula ion. The decisions o
low-income ca ego y o elde ly in Romania o swi ch he idge o
du ing he win e , and in di e en coun ies o no in es in new e-
ige a o equipmen , can be conside ed o inc ease ood isks. The
mic obiological esul s indica ed a low p e alence o L. monocy ogenes
ac oss he in es iga ed coun ies, wi h a ew cases ound in Romanian
households. A sui able ques ionnai e demons a ed ha elde ly pe sons
wi h low educa ion a e he mos suscep ible g oup o ood isks om all
he ulne able ca ego ies and ha a ge ed s a egies should di e en ly
add ess each suscep ible ca ego y. These indings indica e ha mo e
e o is needed in e ms o legisla ion aimed o egula e speci ic e-
qui emen s o domes ic e ige a o s. The ma ke should also suppo
hese sa e y ini ia i es by p o iding easy access o ins umen s o
moni o ing empe a u e inside he idge o edesigning idges o be
mo e use - iendly wi h consume s in espec o empe a u e con ol
( empe a u e gadge s easy o ead, apps, wa ning signs and ala ms, cold
ai ci cula ion). Meanwhile, he documen a ion ha comes wi h new
idges should also con ain in o ma ion on op imum idge empe a-
u es and s o age ad ice.
To educe he ood sa e y isk a home, educa ion and commu-
nica ion campaigns emains he bes ool o add ess ulne able con-
sume s ac oss Eu ope, i messages a e ailo ed o each coun y speci ic
p oblems and co e he whole di e si y o consume s. Fo example,
speci ic guidance on e ige a ion empe a u es should be p o ided, in
each coun y by he na ional ood sa e y au ho i ies.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Lo edana Dumi așcu: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Anca Ioana
Nicolau: Concep ualiza ion, Supe ision, W i ing - e iew & edi ing.
Co ina Neagu: W i ing - o iginal d a . Pie ine Didie : W i ing - e-
iew & edi ing. Isabelle Maî e: W i ing - e iew & edi ing.
Ch is ophe Nguyen-The: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Silje Elisabe h
Skuland: Fo mal analysis. T ond Mø e ø: W i ing - e iew & edi ing.
Sol eig Langs ud: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Monica T uninge :
In es iga ion. Paula Teixei a: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Vânia
Fe ei a: In es iga ion. Lydia Ma ens: W i ing - e iew & edi ing.
Daniela Bo da: W i ing - o iginal d a , Fo mal analysis.
Acknowledgmen s
This esea ch was suppo ed by he Ho izon 2020 p ojec
Sa eConsume (G an Ag eemen No. 727580). Joachim Scholde e and
his eam a e acknowledged o designing and o ganizing he consume
su ey.
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