Time-temperature profiles and Listeria monocytogenes presence in refrigerators from households with vulnerable consumers

Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec Food Con ol jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ oodcon Time- empe a u e p o iles and Lis e ia monocy ogenes p esence in e ige a o s om households wi h ulne able consume s Lo edana Dumi așcu a , Anca Ioana Nicolau a , Co ina Neagu a , Pie ine Didie b , Isabelle Maî e c , Ch is ophe Nguyen-The b , Silje Elisabe h Skuland d , T ond Mø e ø e , Sol eig Langs ud e , Monica T uninge , Paula Teixei a g , Vânia Fe ei a g , Lydia Ma ens h , Daniela Bo da a,∗ a Duna ea de Jos Uni e si y o Gala i, Facul y o Food Science and Enginee ing, Domnească S ee 111, 800201, Gala i, Romania b UMR408 SQPOV Sécu i é e Quali é des P odui s d’O igine Végé ale, INRA, A ignon Uni e si é, A ignon, F ance c USC1422 GRAPPE, Ecole Supé ieu e d’Ag icul u es (ESA), INRA, SFR 4207 QUASAV, 55 ue Rabelais, BP 30748, 49007, Ange s Cedex, F ance d Consump ion Resea ch No way (SIFO), Oslo Me opoli an Uni e si y, Oslo, No way e No ima, No wegian Ins i u e o Food, Fishe ies and Aquacul u e Resea ch, Oslo eien 1, N-1430, Ås, No way Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais da Uni e sidade de Lisboa, A . P o esso Aníbal de Be encou 9, 1600-189, Lisboa, Po ugal g Uni e sidade Ca ólica Po uguesa, CBQF - Cen o de Bio ecnologia e Química Fina – Labo a ó io Associado, Escola Supe io de Bio ecnologia, Rua Diogo Bo elho 1327, 4169-005, Po o, Po ugal h Keele Uni e si y, Uni ed Kingdom ARTICLE INFO Keywo ds: Elde ly Young amily Young single men Tempe a u e dange zone Consume ABSTRACT A ansdisciplina y obse a ional s udy, coupled wi h a web-based su ey, was conduc ed o in es iga e e- ige a ed s o age o ood, in i e Eu opean coun ies. The in es iga ed consume g oups in his s udy we e: young amilies wi h small child en and/o p egnan women, elde ly people, pe sons wi h an immunode icien sys em, and young single men. The e ige a o empe a u e was moni o ed o app oxima ely wo weeks using a empe a u e da a logge . Va iables such as coun y, income, age o e ige a o s, educa ion, li ing a ea, e- ige a o loading p ac ices had no signi ican e ec (p> 0.05) on he o e all a e age idge empe a u e, whe eas consume s' p ac ices showed a signi ican in luence (p < 0.05) on egis e ed empe a u e alues. Compa ed o empe a u es inside he idges belonging o young amilies and young single men g oup, he empe a u es inside e ige a o s belonging o elde ly was in he empe a u e dange zone (5–63 °C). The lowes empe a u es we e eco ded in UK consume s’ e ige a o s, whe eas he highes we e in F ench households. P esence o Lis e ia monocy ogenes was con i med in h ee e ige a o s ou o 53 sampled ( wo in Romania and one in Po ugal). The mos ulne able ca ego y o ood sa e y isks is ep esen ed by elde ly pe sons wi h low educa ion, unawa e o sa e e ige a ion p ac ices and he ac ual empe a u e hei idges a e unning. 1. In oduc ion S o age empe a u e has a signi ican in luence on ood quali y and sa e y, especially o oods ha mus be kep e ige a ed o ozen. EFSA, in Eu ope, and in e na ional o ganiza ions esponsible o peo- ple's heal h, such as he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion, ad ise ha oods should be e ige a ed below 5 °C and ozen a −18 °C (EFSA, 2018). The mos c i ical pa o he cold chain is he cold ood s o age a do- mes ic le el, as demons a ed by se e al s udies (James, Ona inde, & James, 2017; Jo é, La o e-Mo a alla, Ga iga, & Bo e -Cid, 2019). In ecen yea s, he ole o inadequa e con ol o ood empe a u e on he numbe o ood poisoning inciden s has been highligh ed (James, E ans, & James, 2008). Nowadays, he cold ood chain is inconcei able wi hou domes ic e ige a o s (James Ona inde, & James, 2017). No wi hs anding, empe a u e abuse migh happen along he en i e ood chain (B own, Ryse , Go man, S einmaus, & Vo s , 2015), in- cluding households. By s o ing ood p ope ly, consume s a e he inal line o de ense in p e en ing ood spoilage and ensu ing ood sa e y (De ens-Be heau Osswald, Lague e, & Al a ez, 2014). In addi ion, s o age empe a u es can a y wi h geog aphic loca ion (Ma klinde , Lindblad, E iksson, Finnson, & Lindq is , 2004). The o e all a iabili y o empe a u e in Eu opean domes ic e ige a o s as epo ed by Roca o, Uy endaele, & Memb é, (2017) anged be ween 7.0 ± 2.7 °C o Sou he n and 6.1 ± 2.8 °C o No he n coun ies. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. oodcon .2019.107078 Recei ed 5 No embe 2019; Recei ed in e ised o m 20 Decembe 2019; Accep ed 21 Decembe 2019 Abb e ia ions: ELD, elde ly people; YF, amilies wi h in an s and/o p egnan women; YSM, young single men; IDP, immunode icien and diabe ic pe sons ∗ Co esponding au ho . E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (D. Bo da). Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078 A ailable online 23 Decembe 2019 0956-7135/ © 2019 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/). T While many su eys ha e been conduc ed on domes ic s o age unde e ige a ion in speci ic coun ies (James e al., 2008; James e al., 2017) and in mos cases domes ic e ige a o s we e epo ed o wo k abo e 6 °C, ew s udies ha e ocused on he e ige a ed ood s o age p ac ices o ulne able consume g oups, and e en ewe we e con- duc ed simul aneously in se e al coun ies, using a compa a i e me hodology. Te ps a, S eenbekke s, De Mae elae e, and Nijhuis (2005) moni o ed empe a u es in he e ige a o s o young amilies wi h small child en and elde ly people in he Ne he lands, and de- mons a ed ha elde lies ha e hei idges ope a ing abo e he e- commended empe a u e o e ige a ion (i.e. < 5 °C). The e- ige a o empe a u e o Ame ican young adul s aged be ween 18 and 26 yea s was eco ded by By d-B edbemme , Mau e , Whea ley, Co one, & Clancy (2007), he au ho s inding a mean alue o 6.1 ± 3.6 °C, wi h a minimum alue o 0 °C, and a maximum alue o 16 °C. While ood may spend an impo an pa o i s shel li e in a domes ic e ige a o , he a ia ion o he empe a u e could a o psycho opic pa hogen g ow h, Lis e ia monocy ogenes being equen ly epo ed o a ec ulne able consume s (EFSA, 2018). Immunode icien consume s, such as young child en, p egnan women and elde ly people a e mo e suscep ible o oodbo ne illness han o he consume s; howe e , ulne abili y di e s g ea ly be ween hese g oups. The elde ly a e mo e exposed o oodbo ne diseases han heal hy adul s as esul o age-associa ed dec eased immuni y, gas o- in es inal ac changes, an ibio ic usage, malnu i ion, and seden a y li es yles (E ans & Redmond, 2015; Lund, 2015). The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion epo ed a 2.6 imes highe suscep ibili y o de eloping a se ious illness in he elde ly compa ed wi h he heal hy gene al popu- la ion, in he las decade (E ans & Redmond, 2018; 2015). Also, lis- e iosis a ec ed abou 2200 people in 2015, he p opo ion o cases in he o e 64 age g oup being 64% (EFSA, 2016). P egnan women a e conside ed 17 imes mo e likely o con ac lis e iosis han he heal hy gene al popula ion (Feng & B uhn, 2016). Then, pe sons wi h diabe es and immunode icien people a e 25 imes mo e likely o su e om lis e iosis (Feng & B uhn, 2016). Al hough no ulne able, an in e - es ing ca ego y o consume s is ep esen ed by young single men (< 30 yea s old). They a e conside ed high isk- ake s as hey a e mo e p one o dis ega d ood sa e y p ac ices a home compa ed wi h he abo e- men ioned ca ego ies (By d-B edbenne , Mau e , Whea ley, Co one, & Clancy, 2007). Mo eo e , ood handling beha iou o young adul s becomes impo an as hey migh be in ol ed in he u u e in aking ca e o hei household membe s ulne able o ood poisoning. Fu - he mo e, consume s hold speci ic pe cep ions o ulne abili y, isk and con ol in ela ion o hei own ood sa e y p ac ices, pe cep ions ha di e acco ding o age, gende , e hnici y, and educa ion (E ans & Redmond, 2019; Redmond & G i i h, 2004). The aim o his s udy was o collec in o ma ion on e ige a ion empe a u es, occu ence o L. monocy ogenes and s o age o e- ige a ed oods om di e en households in i e Eu opean coun ies (F ance, No way, Po ugal, Romania and UK) and e alua e he di e - ences be ween consume knowledge and p ac ices conside ing he high- isk popula ion. Tempe a u e moni o ing wi h da a logge s, placed in idges o a maximum o wo weeks, p o ided solid g ound o compa e alues. A ques ionnai e e alua ed he knowledge and pe cep ions o consume s ega ding e ige a ion empe a u e. This s udy is pa o a la ge esea ch p ojec (sa econsume.eu) ha aims o explo e con- sume s’ ood handling p ac ices om “ e ail o o k”, and o ind ways o educe he isk o oodbo ne illnesses among he Eu opean con- sume s. 2. Ma e ials and me hods 2.1. Rec ui men Fi een households om i e coun ies (No way, F ance, Po ugal, UK and Romania) we e ec ui ed o pa icipa e in a ansdisciplina y ieldwo k, leading o a o al o 75 households isi ed. Based on a call o ende , he ec ui men o olun ee s om he gene al public o da a collec ion was subcon ac ed o a p o essional se ice p o ide (No s a No ge AS, Oslo, No way). In each coun y, he ec ui men o pa ici- pan s was pe o med conside ing he maximum a ia ion in one a ea ela ed o ulne abili y, educa ion, income, li ing a ea. In Po ugal, he ci y o Po o and i s G ea e Me opoli an A ea was chosen, in F ance he s udy was conduc ed in Ange (Maine e Loi e), in UK, he isi s ha e been paid in medium sized households om he Midlands, in Romania, Gala i coun y was chosen, whe eas in No way he s udy a ea s e ched o u al and u ban a eas su ounding Oslo. Th ee g oup ypes we e conside ed: elde ly (ELD; > 65 yea s o age), amilies wi h in an s and/o p egnan women (YF), and young single men (YSM, 20–35 yea s old). All he olun ee s we e in o med abou he aim o he esea ch and all he da a we e collec ed wi h consen . 2.2. Time- empe a u e da a collec ion The ime- empe a u e p o iling was conduc ed om Feb ua y o June 2018, in he consume s’ domes ic ki chens o e a pe iod o up o 14 days. Da a logge s (Romania: RC5-USB, Eli ech, UK; F ance: The moBou on P oges-Plus, Willems, F ance; Po ugal: KOOLTRAK™ Kied ich, Ge many; UK and No way: EL-USB-2-LCD, Lasca elec onics L d, Salisbu y, UK) we e placed in e ige a o s, in he zone whe e he consume s s o ed highly isky oods such as eady- o-ea (RTE) oods. The da a logge s wi h esolu ion o 0.1–0.5 °C ope a ed in he ange o −30 °C–70 °C (F ance), −40 °C–85 °C (Romania, Po ugal), and −10 °C–40 °C (UK, No way) and pe o med measu emen s wi h a e- quency anging om 1 min (No way, UK), o 5 min (Po ugal and Romania) and o 1 h (F ance). A pa icula si ua ion was encoun e ed in Romania whe e, in h ee u al households, he empe a u e was mon- i o ed in a oom used by he elde lies o s o e ood (such as aw mea and RTE), as he idge was swi ched o in win e season o sa e en- e gy. 2.3. De ec ion o Lis e ia monocy ogenes A o al o 53 su aces we e swabbed om he idges in ou coun- ies (15 samples pe coun y in F ance, Romania and Po ugal, and 8 samples in No way) using SodiBox swab ab ics (320 × 175 mm) (Raisio Diagnos ic, Nieuwe ke k aan den IJssel, he Ne he lands) p e- mois ened wi h Ringe solu ion. Samples we e aken om he shel whe e consume s s o ed RTE oods, and om he ege able cabine /box ( he a ea analyzed was max. 400 cm 2 ). A e sampling, he clo hs we e placed in plas ic bags and anspo ed o he labo a o y in insula ed cold boxes (1–4 °C). Un il analysis, he samples we e kep unde e- ige a ion (less han 24 h). De ec ion o Lis e ia spp. was pe o med acco ding o he o icial me hod EN ISO 11290-1:1996 in Romania, No way and F ance and acco ding o ISO 11290-1:2017 in Po ugal. In Romania, es s based on la ex agglu ina ion (Oxoid, Wade Road, Basings oke, Hampshi e, UK) we e used o he con i ma ion o Lis e ia monocy ogenes, whe eas in Po ugal con i ma ion was made based on G am s aining, ca alase es , β hemolysis in blood aga , suga e men- a ion (xylose, hamnose, and manni ol) and CAMP es . 2.4. Da a analysis o ime- empe a u e p o ile P o iled ime- empe a u e da a we e analyzed using Mic oso Excel 2018. S a is ical analysis was conduc ed using Mini ab 19 (Mini ab LLC, S a e College, Pennsyl ania, USA) calcula ing desc ip i e s a is ical pa ame e s. Chi-squa e es was used o compa e equencies among g oup ca ego ies, e ige a o empe a u es, e ige a o age and e- ige a o loading. L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078 2 2.5. Ques ionnai e design and da a collec ion The Sa eConsume Household Su ey, conduc ed be ween Decembe 2018 and Ap il 2019 esul ed in a comp ehensi e da abase om which da a o i e EEA coun ies (F ance, UK, Po ugal, Romania and No way) we e selec ed (N = 5009). Sampling was based on a s a i ied andom design, wi h he educa ion le el o he a ge esponden as s a um a iable. Two ques ions ela ed o consume s' knowledge and pe cep ions on he idge empe a u e we e analyzed in his s udy. The in e nal eliabili y o he selec ed i ems was es ed using C onbach's alpha and he alue o 0.72 indica ed good in e nal consis ency. Responden s had he main o sha ed esponsibili y o ood shopping in households wi h: ELD (n = 1287), p egnan women (n = 318), YSM below 30 yea s old (n = 118) and immunode icien and diabe ic pe - sons (IDP) (n = 946). The da a we e analyzed wi h C oss abs' s a is ics conside ing educa ion le el as laye . S a is ical analysis was conduc ed wi h SPSS S a is ics 20 (IBM So wa e G oup, Chicago, IL). 3. Resul s and discussion 3.1. Demog aphic da a Table 1 p esen s he pa icipan s in he ield esea ch and hei households. The in es iga ed popula ion consis ed o 30% YSM households, 35% YF, and 35% ELD, 65% being om u ban a eas, and 50% ha ing e ia y educa ion and medium income. 3.2. Tempe a u e inside e ige a o s Re ige a o s o m an impo an link in he cold chain, and ep esen a signi ican ec o o domes ic oodbo ne illnesses (Hassan, Dimassi, & El Amin, 2015). In Table 2, he empe a u es eco ded inside he idges a e p esen ed. An a e age e ige a o empe a u e alue o 6.3 °C was calcula ed ou o he mean alues eco ded o he pa icipan s om F ance, ega dless o household ype. The esul s we e simila o wha was ound in o he s udies. Lagendjk, Asse e, De ens, & Ca pen ie , (2008) indica ed ha in one ou o ou F ench households, he a e age empe a u e o domes ic e ige a o s was abo e 8 °C and only 11% o e ige a o s we e wo king a ≤ 4 °C, whe eas Geppe (2011, p. 146) indica ed a mean eco ded empe a u e alue o 6.7 °C. In ano he s udy conduc ed in F ance, he au ho s moni o ed he empe a u e in 119 domes ic e ige a o s and epo ed an a e age alue o 6.6 °C, minimum 0.9 °C and maximum 11.4 °C (Lague e, De ens, & Palagos, 2002), whe eas in he su ey conduc ed by ANSES (2017) wi h 5428 F ench households, 51% o idges had a empe a u e be ween 5 °C and 8 °C. Apa om F ance, in all he o he coun ies, he highes median empe a u es we e eco ded in ELD households, whe eas he lowes alues we e eco ded in YF households, whe e he median anged be- ween 3 °C and 5 °C. In UK and Po ugal, he median o a e age em- pe a u es in ELD e ige a o s was 6.2 °C and 6.4 °C, espec i ely, whe eas in No way and Romania, he calcula ed median was 7.5 °C. Al hough he median alues we e p e y simila in he e ige a o s o ELD om Romania and No way, based on he hi d qua ile i can be obse ed ha 75% o he ELDs om Romania ha e e ige a o em- pe a u es o less han 9.4 °C, whe eas in No way, he hi d qua ile is 8.3 °C, indica ing ha he ELDs om Romania could be mo e exposed o ood sa e y isks. As shown by o he indings (James e al., 2017), i is no uncommon o ind e ige a o s om households wo king abo e 6 °C. In a s udy conduc ed by Te ps a e al., 2005) in he Ne he lands wi h h ee household ypes (adul s, amilies wi h child en unde ou yea s old, and elde lies), mos o he elde lies had hei idges wo king abo e 7 °C. A s udy conduc ed in UK (E ans & Redmond, 2015) ound ha 50% o he ood s o ed in he cen al compa men , and 85% o he ood s o ed in he doo , was s o ed a e ige a o empe a u es o > 5 °C in elde ly households. In Po ugal, o YSM and YF households, he median empe a u e was simila (5 °C), whe eas in No way and Romania, small di e ences (bu no signi ican ones; p> 0.05) we e no iced. A compa ison be- ween household ypes shows ha in ou ou o i e coun ies, he smalles sp ead o he da a alues was egis e ed o he YF g oup, demons a ing a mo e homogenous cooling en i onmen and hus a be e capaci y o p e en he isk o empe a u e abuse. The same compa ison be ween household ypes, ega dless o he coun y, shows ha he median e ige a o empe a u e o he ELD g oup is sig- ni ican ly highe (p< 0.01) han o he YF and YSM g oups and his makes he elde ly he mos exposed ca ego y o ood isk. Despi e conside ing YSM g oup as high isk- ake s, he pa icipan s included in his s udy demons a ed ca e ulness in keeping hei idges cool, al- hough he in es iga o s could no de e mine i he eason behind his was a conce n abou ood sa e y o p e e ence o no ha ing wa m bee . An o e all compa ison be ween coun ies e eals ha ega dless o household ype, he lowes a e age empe a u e was moni o ed in he idges o UK households, whe e he median a ied om 3 °C (YF) o 6.2 °C (ELD). The a e age empe a u e epo ed so a in UK e- ige a o s anged be ween 4.4 °C and 5.2 °C (E ans, Fos e , & B own, 2014; Geppe , 2011, p. 146), while he minimum and he maximum mean we e −0.6 °C and 10.4 °C (E ans e al., 2014). The esul s e- po ed o he UK in ou s udy a e hus in close ag eemen wi h hose epo ed by E ans e al. (2014). Table 1 Desc ip ion o he households (n = 75) pa icipa ing in he s udy. Household desc ip ion Coun y To al no. (%) F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way G oup ca ego y YSM 5 5 3 5 5 23 (30) YF 5 5 6 5 5 26 (35) ELD 5 5 6 5 5 26 (35) Li ing a ea U ban 7 13 11 9 9 49 (65) Ru al 8 2 4 6 6 26 (35) Educa ion P ima y 5 3 5 5 0 18 (24) Seconda y 7 3 2 4 3 19 (25) Te ia y 3 8 8 6 12 37 (49) ns 0 1 0 0 0 1 (1) Income a Low 3 4 3 5 3 18 (24) Medium 9 9 10 6 6 40 (53) High 3 2 2 3 4 14 (19) ns 0 0 0 1 2 3 (4) ns-no speci ied. a F ance - low: < 1100 €; medium: 1100–2500 €; high: > 2500€; UK - low: < 1200 €; medium: 1200–2500 €; high: > 2500 €; Po ugal - low: < 750 €; medium: 750–2000 €; high: > 2000 €; Romania - low: < 350 €; medium: 350–750 €; high: > 750 €; No way - low: < 2000 €; medium: 2000–3200 €; high: > 3200 € L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078 3 Based on Table 2, i can be seen ha 20% o he e ige a o s we e ope a ing a empe a u es lowe han 4 °C, 43.6% we e wo king be- ween 4 and 6 °C and 36.4% o e 6 °C. The lowes pe cen age o households whe e e ige a o empe a u e was ound abo e 6 °C was in Po ugal (26.7%) and he highes in F ance (53.3%). In o he s udies, conduc ed in he UK and F ance, abou 70% o he e ige a o s we e unning a empe a u es highe han 5 °C (ANSES, 2017; James & E ans, 1992), whe eas in Po ugal, 70% we e unning a empe a u es abo e 6 °C (Aze edo e al., 2005). 3.3. Re ige a o s ime p o ile ope a ing a empe a u es abo e 6 °C Time- empe a u e p o ile o e ige a o s is a good ood sa e y in- dica o as i shows he eal luc ua ions o he eco ded empe a u es and gi es a be e unde s anding o he ood sa e y isks ela ed o consume p ac ices. Few s udies ha e in es iga ed he ime- empe a- u e p o ile o domes ic e ige a o s. Fo example, E ans and Redmond (2016) showed ha no e ige a o om B i ish households ope a ed a ≤ 5 °C o 6.5 days o s udy, while in 91% o he du a ion, he mean empe a u e exceeded 5 °C. Table 3 shows he pe cen ages o ime when domes ic ki chen e ige a o s ope a ed a empe a u es highe han 6 °C. In mo e han 75% o he du a ion o he p o iling s udy, abou hal o he F ench households and a hi d o No wegian households had hei e ige a o s ope a ing abo e 6 °C. EFSA ecommends e ige a- ion empe a u es below 5 °C, simila o Food S anda d Agency in he UK (EFSA, 2018), while in No way, he maximum ecommended em- pe a u e is 4 °C (Røss oll, Jacobsen, Ueland, Eina G anum, & Langs ud, 2010). In 4 ou o 15 UK households, e ige a o s eco ded empe a u es abo e 6 °C o less han o equal o 1% o he o al ime. In 40% o he Romanian households, up o 25% o he moni o ed s o age ime empe a u e was abo e 5 °C. The du a ion o empe a u e abo e he h eshold alue in households is wo isome conside ing ha L. monocy ogenes, bu also some o he pa hogens p esen in low numbe in RTE oods, could o e g ow, i he oppo uni y occu s. As indica ed p e iously, some amilies belonging o he Romanian ELD g oup li ing in u al a ea swi ch o hei e ige a o s du ing win e , and use he coldes oom o he house o s o e pe ishable oods, such as aw mea o RTE. Fig. 1 illus a es an example on how ime- empe a u e a ia ion occu s when using a cool oom, a he han a e ige a o , o s o ing ood. Al hough he median empe a u e alue was 3.7 °C, om Fig. 1 can be seen ha , due o a ying ou doo empe a u es, o abou hal o he eco ded ime (168 h), he ac ual empe a u e was abo e 6 °C. These da a highligh he isk o which hose who emb ace such a p ac ice a e exposed. Mo eo e , 168 h o empe a u e abuse ou o he wo weeks s o age ime, which could be assimila ed wi h he a e age ime o s o ing oods in he idges a home, would allow, in he wo s case scena io, he subs an ial g ow h o L. monocy ogenes, as demons a ed by ecen challenge s udies made o e ige a ed s o age a he e aile s (Ceuppens, Van Boxs ael, Wes yn, De lieghe e, & Uy endaele, 2016). E en i he epo ed g ow h a e a 6 °C is low, an inc ease by a ac o o 100 in ce ain dai y o mea ma ices could endange ulne able g oups. 3.4. Age o e ige a o s Di e ences ela ed o he age o e ige a o s exis be ween coun- ies and household ypes (Table 4). In he ec ui men c i e ia o consume s om No way and F ance, ha ing an old e ige a o was a speci ic equi emen . Howe e , as his equi emen was no sha ed by he o he coun ies, no all he selec ed pa icipan s had old e- ige a o s and we can he e o e no conside esul s based on his c i e ion. In Romania, in all ELD's households, he e ige a o had an a e age age o abo e en yea s. In No way, h ee ou o i e ELD households had he e ige a o o mo e han en yea s, whe eas in Po ugal only in one ELD household was he e ige a o less han i e yea s old. In case o YF households, ega dless o coun y ype, he highes pe cen age was calcula ed o idges aged less han i e yea s. In No way and Po ugal, in mos o he YSM households, he e- ige a o age was be ween 6 and 10 yea s, whe eas in Romania, 3 ou o 5 idges in hese households we e less han i e yea s old. O e all, 30% o he o al numbe o households had a e ige a o wi h an age o less o equal o 5 yea s, 19% be ween 6 and 10 yea s, and 21% o e 10 yea s, while 30% ha e no been epo ed. O he s udies ca ied ac oss Eu ope e ealed ha in Se bian households, 45% o e ige a o s we e up o 5-yea s-old, 36% we e up o 10 yea s old and 19% o e 10 yea s old (Janjic e al., 2016), and in F ance, up o 66% o households had a e ige a o olde han i e yea s (Lague e e al., 2002; Ma klinde e al., 2004). While some su eys epo ed ha age has a signi ican in luence on e ige a o empe a u e (Janjic e al., 2016), in ou s udy he e was no signi ican co ela ion be ween he eco ded empe a u e and e ige a o s' age (p > 0.05). Ou esul s a e in ag eemen wi h he s udy o Hassan e al. (2015). Table 2 Tempe a u es (°C) measu ed inside idges in di e en coun ies and household ypes. Household ype Pa ame e Coun y O e all a e age F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way YSM Median 6.3 4.5 5 5 4.8 5.1 Q1 5.4 3.6 – 3.8 4 4.2 Q3 7.2 5.3 – 6.3 5.8 6.2 min 3.7 3.4 4.1 3.1 1.2 3.1 max 8.3 8.2 4.9 8.3 8 7.5 YF Median 6.3 3 5 4.8 4.5 4.7 Q1 5.6 2 – 2.9 4 3.6 Q3 6.9 3.7 – 6.1 5.5 5.6 min 4.4 1.1 3.2 1.8 3.6 2.8 max 7.5 4.7 8 8.2 5.5 6.8 ELD Median 6.3 6.2 6.4 7.4 7.6 6.8 Q1 5.5 5.8 – 5 6 5.6 Q3 7 7.4 – 9.4 8.3 8.0 min 4.8 4.5 3.8 3.5 3.1 3.9 max 8.2 9.2 9.1 12.3 8.8 9.5 % be ween < 4 °C 6.7 25 20 26.7 21.4 20 4–6 °C 40 41.7 53.3 40 42.9 43.6 > 6 °C 53.3 33.3 26.7 33.3 35.7 36.4 O e all a e age empe a u e 6.3 4.6 5.5 5.7 5.6 Q1- he median o he lowe hal o he da a se ; Q3- he median o he uppe hal o he da a se . L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078 4 In addi ion, Table 4 shows ha mos o he pa icipan s, ega dless o coun y o consume g oup, had idges ha do no ha e a em- pe a u e display. Mo eo e , many consume s we e no su e on how o se he empe a u e in hei idges. Some indica ed hey used as e- e ence he sensa ion o coldness a e ouching a be e age con aine o moni o empe a u e, o he s hough ha he 1 o 5 scale he mos a indica o signaled empe a u es, and hey hus adjus ed he gage o 1, which in ac was he wa mes idge se ing. I is well known ha o- day's e ige a o s ha e lo s o unique op ions and ea u es, he ol- lowing being ela ed o ood sa e y: (1) Inne su aces coa ed wi h sil e ions a emp ing o con ol he ans e o mic oo ganisms o ood, howe e , he e ec i eness o such coa ing should be u he in- es iga ed (Kampmann e al., 2008); (2) Tempe a u e displays on doo s allowing consume s o moni o he empe a u e inside he idge wi hou opening i s doo (ac ual empe a u e) and o se he empe a- u e o speci ic alues (se empe a u e); (3) Re ige a o empe a u e ala m announcing when he doo is opened o when he empe a u e inside he idge is abo e he se empe a u e; (4) Compa men s wi h small icons ep esen ing speci ic ood o he coldes zone o helping consume s o iden i y he bes place o keep ood and o a oid c oss con amina ion. These ep esen some easons ha a e impo an om he ood sa e y pe spec i e du ing s o age o ood a low empe a u es and en i le us o suppo he idea o ha ing new idges in ou house- holds. In ac , he p obabili y o socie y e olu ion owa ds a wo ld con olled by he In e ne o all hings would no only make ou e- ige a o s sma e and able o le us know when ce ain i ems a e missing, bu also could wa n consume s when empe a u es a e abo e he h eshold alue. 3.5. Numbe o e ige a o s- eeze s The mos common ype o e ige a o obse ed in ou s udy was a combined e ige a o - eeze (Table 5). Excep ing Po ugal, whe e e e y household in ol ed in he s udy had jus one, a compa ison be- ween coun ies e eals ha he numbe o combined e ige a o - eeze de ices is dependen on household ype. Fo example, in Table 3 Time p o ile o e ige a o s ope a ing a empe a u es highe han 6 °C. Household ype % o ime ope a ing a empe a u es highe han 6 °C Numbe o e ige a o s exceeding ecommended empe a u e o indica ed % o ime To al no.(%) F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way YSM ≤1 0 2 1 0 1 4 (5) 2–25 1 1 1 3 1 7 (9) 26–50 1 0 1 1 1 4 (5) 51–75 1 1 0 1 0 3 (4) > 75 2 1 0 0 1 4 (5) ns 0 0 0 0 1 1(1) YF ≤1 0 2 1 1 1 5 (7) 2–25 2 1 4 2 3 12 (17) 26–50 0 0 0 1 1 2 (3) 51–75 0 0 0 0 0 0 > 75 3 0 1 1 0 5 (7) ns 0 2 0 0 0 2(3) ELD ≤1 0 0 1 0 0 1(1) 2–25 2 2 2 1 0 7 (9) 26–50 0 1 0 2 0 3 (4) 51–75 1 0 0 1 0 2 (3) > 75 2 0 3 1 4 10 (13) ns 0 2 0 0 1 3 (4) To al 15 15 15 15 15 75 ns-no speci ied. Fig. 1. Time- empe a u e p o ile o a oom used as e ige a o du ing win e season. L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078 5 No way and Romania, all pa icipan s om YSM g oup had one com- bined e ige a o - eeze in hei households, whe eas, in F ance and UK, wo ou o i e pa icipan s had one combined e ige a o - eeze and an ex a eeze . In F ance and UK, mos o he households o YF g oup had one combined e ige a o - eeze , whe eas in Romania and No way, 3 ou o 5 households had an ex a eeze o e ige a o . Abou 15% o ELD households had mo e han one e ige a o ; a pe cen age ha is highe han o he YF and YSM g oups, amongs which only 12% and 6% espec i ely had mo e han one e ige a o o eeze . Ha ing an ex a- e ige a o in he household does no necessa ily mean a sa e cold chain, as i could in ol e s o ing ood o a longe ime, which in u n could esul s in p oblems wi h he appliances, and highe exposu e o isk o pa hogens g ow h. 3.6. Loading p ac ices The e ige a o s loading capaci y was es ima ed based on he oc- cupied olume o he i ems inside idge. The idge was conside ed ull and o e packed i mo e han 75% o idge olume was occupied; hal ull i a ound 50% o he idge olume was occupied and qui e emp y i less han 25% o he idge olume was occupied. Mos o he elde ly om No way, Po ugal and F ance had hei idges almos ull, whe eas in he UK, all kep hei idges hal ull (Table 6). On he o he hand, Romanian ELD kep hei idges hal ull o qui e emp y. In win e imes, in u al a eas, his si ua ion can be explained by s o ing pe ishable ood ou side idge in he cooles oom o he house. A compa ison be ween coun ies, ega dless o household ype e eals ha in Romania 11 ou o 15 in es iga ed household had he idge hal ull o qui e emp y, whe eas in he o he coun ies he e ige a o was in mos cases ull and o e packed. O e all, in mo e han hal o he in es iga ed households, he e- ige a o s we e ull and o e packed and a hi d o hem we e hal ull. Re ige a o s ha a e packed oo igh ly wi h ood es ic he cool ai om ci cula ing and e ige a ion empe a u e canno be achie ed. Also, he igh packing could inc ease ood- o- ood c oss-con amina ion isk (By d-B edbenne e al., 2007). The wa me spo s om he idge could a o he g ow h o L. monocy ogenes. In ou s udy, e ige a o loading could no be co ela ed wi h eco ded empe a u es and hese indings a e in ag eemen wi h o he s udies (Janjic e al., 2016). On he o he hand, cold ood al eady s o ed in he e ige a o con ibu es o e ige a o empe a u e s abili y, whe eas an emp y o pa ly emp y idge migh lead o la ge empe a u e a ia ions. In addi ion, he empe a u e o he ood ha is going o be s o ed in he idge is also impo an . Fo ins ance, cooling o bo les wi h liquids equi es much mo e ene gy han ai cooling (Belman-Flo es, Ba oso-Maldonado, Rod íguez-Muñoz, & Camacho-Vázquez, 2015; James Ona inde, & James, 2017). Table 4 Re ige a o cha ac e is ics: age and empe a u e display. Household ype Pa ame e Coun y To al no.(%) F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way Age o e ige a o s YSM ≤5 2 1 1 3 – 7(9) 6–10 – – 2 – 3 5(7) > 10 1 – – 2 – 3(4) ns 2 4 – – 2 8(11) YF ≤5 2 – 4 3 2 11(14) 6–10 1 – 2 2 1 6(8) > 10 – 1 – – – 1(1) ns 2 4 – – 2 8(11) ELD ≤5 2 – 1 – 2 5(7) 6–10 1 – 2 – – 3(4) > 10 2 – 2 5 3 12(16) ns – 5 1 – – 6(8) To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100) Tempe a u e display YSM Yes 0 1 0 2 0 3(4) No 5 2 3 3 5 18(24) ns – 2 – – – 2(3) YF Yes 2 1 1 2 3 9(12) No 3 1 5 3 2 14(18) ns – 3 – – – 3(4) ELD Yes 2 1 1 0 2 6(8) No 3 1 5 5 3 17(23) ns – 3 – – – 3(4) To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100) Table 5 Numbe s o e ige a o s and eeze s pe household. Household ype Coun y To al no.(%) F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way YSM 1 a 2 3 3 5 5 18(24) 2 2 2 0 0 0 4(5) > 2 1 0 0 0 0 1(1) YF 1 a 3 3 6 2 2 16(21) 2 2 1 0 2 3 8(11) > 2 0 0 0 1 0 1(1) ns 0 1 0 0 0 1(1) ELD 1 a 2 2 6 3 1 14(19) 2 2 0 0 1 2 5(7) > 2 1 2 0 1 2 6(8) ns 0 1 0 0 0 1(1) To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100) a Combine e ige a o / eeze ; ns - no speci ied. L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078 6 3.7. P esence o Lis e ia monocy ogenes F om he o al o 53 e ige a o s sampled in ou s udy, Lis e ia monocy ogenes was con i med in h ee e ige a o s: one belonging o YSM (Romania), one o YF (Romania), and one o ELD (Po ugal). In ano he idge om Po ugal Lis e ia was p esen , bu i was no con- i med as L. monocy ogenes. P e alence o Lis e ia spp. in domes ic e- ige a o s has al eady been demons a ed in di e en coun ies. Fo example, in Po ugal om a o al o 86 samples, incidence o L. monocy ogenes was abou 3.5% (Aze edo e al., 2005). Lis e ia innocua was iden i ied in 1% samples collec ed om Po uguese and F ench e ige a o s (Aze edo e al., 2005; Dieule eux Collobe , Do ey, & Guix, 2005) and up o 2.4% in I aly (Vega a e al., 2014). Kennedy e al. (2005) concluded ha u ban householde s' e- ige a o s in I eland a e mo e likely o ha e pa hogens han u al householde s, while young adul s unde 25 yea s o age a e e en mo e likely o ha e one o mo e ex a pa hogens p esen in hei e- ige a o s. Al hough his s udy was pe o med o a ela i ely low numbe o households, posi i e samples we e ound bo h in u ban and u al e ige a o s. Despi e he incidence o pa hogens, such as Lis e ia monocy ogenes, is low, mic obiological esul s co ela ed o e- ige a o s’ empe a u e indica e he possibili y o psycho ophic pa- hogen g ow h (James e al., 2017). To be e ela e he incidence o lis e iosis in ulne able g oups wi h empe a u e a ia ions in con- sume s' e ige a o s, la ge scale expe imen s a e equi ed o isk as- sessmen . The p esence o Lis e ia spp. in he idge can be associa ed wi h s o age o RTE and unwashed ege ables (B ee & Baumga ne , 1992; James e al., 2017) and/o wi h poo hygiene (Mak abi, Jamnejad, & Fa ama zian, 2013). To a oid c oss-con amina ion, i is impo an o wash ege ables be o e placing hem in he idge, o s o e all he ood packed, and o equen ly clean he e ige a o . 3.8. Ques ionnai e da a The ques ionnai e assessed he knowledge abou e ige a ion empe a u e and he pe cei ed empe a u e o he e ige a o s con- side ing he educa ion le el o he esponden s and was answe ed by esponden s om households wi h ulne able pe sons. A qua e o he answe s coming om households wi h ELD, ha ing a low educa ion le el, showed lack o knowledge on he e ige a ion empe a u e ha is supposed o be in he idge (Fig. 2A) and indica ed ha esponden s we e no awa e o he eal empe a u e in hei e ige a o s (Fig. 2B). Howe e , anging om 11 o 17%, acco ding o hei le el o educa- ion, esponden s om households wi h ELD conside ed ha he em- pe a u e should be abo e 6 °C. The knowledge le el (Fig. 2A) was co ela ed wi h he pe cei ed alues o empe a u e (Fig. 2B) (R 2 = 0.525, p < 0.001). In he case o households wi h IDP ha ing a low educa ion le el, he pe cen age o he people who did no know he e ige a ion em- pe a u es was simila o he one egis e ed o ELD (Fig. 2C). Howe e , in his case, he pe cen age o he people who did no ha e he knowledge o he e ige a ion empe a u e was 24.4% o he people wi h low educa ion, and in e sely co ela ed wi h he le el o educa- ion, being 13.3% o people wi h high educa ion. The op imis ic bias p obably is p esen since he pe cep ion was be e han he knowledge (Fig. 2D) and he e was co ela ion be ween pe cep ions and knowledge (R 2 = 0.626 and p < 0.000). I appea s ha esponden s om households wi h IDP a e mo e awa e han ELD on he e ige a ion empe a u es, howe e , he e is an impo an pe cen age ha do no possess he knowledge, o is mis aking he e ige a ion empe a u es and his could mo e likely expose hem o isks. The s udy a ge ed also households wi h p egnan women (n = 318) and YSM (n = 118), bu segmen a ion was less ele an o hese cases since he sample was oo small compa ed o he o he g oups (ELD n = 1287; IDP n = 946). None heless, only in 13.2% o he households whe e p egnan women li e, esponden s we e no awa e o he em- pe a u e in hei idges and in 13.9% we e unde he imp ession ha empe a u e in hei idges should be abo e 6 °C. F om he o al numbe o households wi h YSM, 18.6% we e no awa e on he em- pe a u e in hei idge and 9.32% conside ed he igh alue being abo e 6 °C. The pe cei ed alues a e lowe demons a ing again he alidi y o he hypo hesis o op imis ic bias. Ou esul s demons a ed ha ELD is he mos exposed ca ego y o ood sa e y isks and he less educa ed ones a e mo e exposed han all he o he ca ego ies. Thus, s a egies ocussed on he sa e y o he cold chain should sepa a ely y o add ess he mos ulne able ca ego ies and in his case he age could be a ba ie in communica ion, bu also echnology, while he in ica e wo ld in which we a e li ing and un- doub edly he dispa i ies wi hin he Eu opean consume s could com- plica e mo e his e o . Mo eo e , a en ion should be paid o he IDP ca ego y ha should be pe iodically eminded on he impo ance o keeping e ige a o a he igh empe a u es. The o he ca ego ies o ulne able pe sons should ecei e an equal in e es and he low educa ed ones should no be le ou side he edu- ca ional ci cle. 4. Conclusions Fo he i s ime, in es iga ion o e ige a ion empe a u e in i e Eu opean coun ies, conduc ed in households wi h ulne able g oups and high isk- ake s, is epo ed. A posi i e inding was ha young men Table 6 Re ige a o loading capaci y. Household ype Coun y To al no.(%) F ance UK Po ugal Romania No way YSM Hal ull 1 2 1 3 1 8 (11) Full and o e packed 4 2 1 2 2 11 (14) Qui e emp y – 1 – – 2 3 (4) Ns – – 1 – – 1(1) YF Hal ull – 2 1 2 1 6(8) Full and o e packed 5 3 3 1 3 15(20) Qui e emp y – – – 2 – 2(3) ns – – 2 – 1 3(4) ELD Hal ull 1 4 1 2 – 8(11) Full and o e packed 4 – 4 1 4 13(17) Qui e emp y – – – 2 – 2(3) ns – 1 1 – 1 3(4) To al 15 15 15 15 15 75(100) ns-no speci ied. L. Dumi așcu, e al. Food Con ol 111 (2020) 107078 7 a e no con i med o be isk- ake s in ela ion o cooling p ac ices, and amilies wi h young child en and immunode icien pe sons appea o be he mos awa e abou e ige a ion p ac ices. Meanwhile, inadequa e e ige a ion p ac ices may con ibu e owa ds highe incidences o illnesses, such as lis e iosis, in he ELD popula ion. The decisions o low-income ca ego y o elde ly in Romania o swi ch he idge o du ing he win e , and in di e en coun ies o no in es in new e- ige a o equipmen , can be conside ed o inc ease ood isks. The mic obiological esul s indica ed a low p e alence o L. monocy ogenes ac oss he in es iga ed coun ies, wi h a ew cases ound in Romanian households. A sui able ques ionnai e demons a ed ha elde ly pe sons wi h low educa ion a e he mos suscep ible g oup o ood isks om all he ulne able ca ego ies and ha a ge ed s a egies should di e en ly add ess each suscep ible ca ego y. These indings indica e ha mo e e o is needed in e ms o legisla ion aimed o egula e speci ic e- qui emen s o domes ic e ige a o s. The ma ke should also suppo hese sa e y ini ia i es by p o iding easy access o ins umen s o moni o ing empe a u e inside he idge o edesigning idges o be mo e use - iendly wi h consume s in espec o empe a u e con ol ( empe a u e gadge s easy o ead, apps, wa ning signs and ala ms, cold ai ci cula ion). Meanwhile, he documen a ion ha comes wi h new idges should also con ain in o ma ion on op imum idge empe a- u es and s o age ad ice. To educe he ood sa e y isk a home, educa ion and commu- nica ion campaigns emains he bes ool o add ess ulne able con- sume s ac oss Eu ope, i messages a e ailo ed o each coun y speci ic p oblems and co e he whole di e si y o consume s. Fo example, speci ic guidance on e ige a ion empe a u es should be p o ided, in each coun y by he na ional ood sa e y au ho i ies. CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen Lo edana Dumi așcu: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Anca Ioana Nicolau: Concep ualiza ion, Supe ision, W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Co ina Neagu: W i ing - o iginal d a . Pie ine Didie : W i ing - e- iew & edi ing. Isabelle Maî e: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Ch is ophe Nguyen-The: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Silje Elisabe h Skuland: Fo mal analysis. T ond Mø e ø: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Sol eig Langs ud: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Monica T uninge : In es iga ion. Paula Teixei a: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Vânia Fe ei a: In es iga ion. Lydia Ma ens: W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Daniela Bo da: W i ing - o iginal d a , Fo mal analysis. Acknowledgmen s This esea ch was suppo ed by he Ho izon 2020 p ojec Sa eConsume (G an Ag eemen No. 727580). Joachim Scholde e and his eam a e acknowledged o designing and o ganizing he consume su ey. Re e ences ANSES (2017). É ude indi iduelle na ionale des consomma ions alimen ai es 3 (INCA 3). A is de l'Anses, Rappo d’expe ise collec i eh ps://www.anses. /en/sys em/ iles/ NUT2014SA0234Ra.pd . Aze edo, I., Regalo, M., Mena, C., Almeida, G., Ca nei o, L., Teixei a, P., e al. (2005). 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