The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o
p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning
Josep Ma ia Ve g
es
a
,
b
,
*
, Ai o Bu gue -Coca
a
,
b
, E hel Allu
e
a
,
b
, Isabel Exp
osi o
a
,
b
,
Miquel Gua diola
a
,
, Pa icia Ma ín
a
,
b
, Juan Ignacio Mo ales
a
,
b
, F ancesc Bu jachs
a
,
b
,
c
,
Dan Cabanes
d
,

Angel Ca ancho
e
, Josep Vall e dú
a
,
b
a
IPHES eIns i u Ca al
a de Paleoecologia Humana i E oluci
o Social, C/ Ma cel lí Domingo, s/n, 43007, Ta agona, Ca alonia, Spain
b
URV e

A ea de P ehis 
o ia, Facul a de Lle es, Uni e si a Ro i a i Vi gili, A . Ca alunya, 35, 43002, Ta agona, Ca alonia, Spain
c
ICREA eIns i uci
o Ca alana de Rece ca i Es udis A ança s, Ba celona, Ca alonia, Spain
d
Max Planck Ins i u e o E olu iona y An h opology, Plan Foods in Hominin Die a y Ecology Resea ch G oup, Deu sche Pla z 6, 04103, Leipzig, Ge many
e
UBU e

A ea de P ehis o ia, Dep . Ciencias His 
o icas y Geog a ía, Uni e sidad de Bu gos, Edificio IþDþI, Plaza Misael Ba~
nuelos s/n, 09001, Bu gos, Spain
Labo a oi e d’A ch
eologie e Peuplemen de l'A ique, D
epa emen de G
en
e ique e E olu ion, Uni 
e d'An h opologie, Uni e si 
e de Gen
e e, 12, ue
Gus a e-Re illiod 1227 Gen
e e, Swi ze land
a icle in o
A icle his o y:
A ailable online xxx
Keywo ds:
Expe imen al a chaeology
P ehis o y
Pas o alism
Fumie
Dung bu ning
G o es-be ge ies
abs ac
The esea ch o e e en ial da a on cu en li es ock con ex s is essen ial o co ec ly in e p e ing
a chaeological eco ds documen ed in p ehis o ic li es ock spaces. Expe imen al p og ammes such as
he one begun in 2014 in he Mas del Pepe pen (Rojals, Ta agona) has pe mi ed an unde s anding,
among o he ma e s, o old cha ac e is ics acco ding o he ype o li es ock, he seasonali y o occu-
pa ions and he d managemen . This s udy also con ibu es o he iden ifica ion o aphonomic p ocesses
ha ha e aken place and o de e mine he ep esen a i eness o he bo anical con en in he deposi , in
ela ion o he en i onmen and pas u e a eas. Finally, he dung bu ning expe imen s conduc ed ha e
p o ided da a ha will help o e eal he way manu e was ea ed in p ehis o ic old ca es.
©2016 Else ie L d and INQUA. All igh s ese ed.
1. In oduc ion
A chaeological si es ela ed o li es ock ac i i ies a e a majo
sou ce o in o ma ion o he unde s anding o p ehis o ic socie ies.
Se e al old ca e si es da ed om be ween he Neoli hic and B onze
Age in Eu ope a e cha ac e ised by he pe iodic bu ning o manu e
in o de o educe i s olume and o elimina e pa asi es (B ochie
e al., 1992; Cha les, 1998; Badal, 1999; Angelucci e al., 2009).
This ac i i y has been iden ified a nume ous si es: A ene Candide
in I aly (Maggi, 1997), Caune de Beles a; G o e An onnai e, in
F ance (A gan e al., 1991; B ochie e al., 1998) and Co a de les
Cend es (Badal, 1999), Los Husos (Alday-Ruiz e al., 2003), Co a
G an (Polo-Díaz e al., 2014), La Co a de la Guineu (Be gad
a e al.,
2005); El Mi 
on (Pe~
na-Choca o e al., 2005), and o he s on he
Ibe ian Peninsula.
This p ac ice led o a dis inc i e and complex se ies o s a i-
g aphic deposi s ha a e di ficul o s udy due o he di e en ac-
o s and phenomena in ol ed in hei o ma ion and also because
o he dynamic na u e o aphonomic p ocesses. The cha ac e isa-
ion o his sedimen ological o ma ion in animal enclosu es is
based on he iden ifica ion o ou c i e ia: p esence o mic o-
lamina ion, dung sphe uli es, au higenic phospha e and some
specific ypes o phy oli hs (Shahack-G oss e al., 2003, 2005;
Shahack-G oss, 2011).
Un il now, he s udy o penning p ac ices in p ehis o ic con ex s
has been app oached by di e en disciplines wi h impo an im-
plica ions o unde s anding he socio-economic p ac ices o ag o-
pas o al g oups (Shahack-G oss, 2011).
Gene ally, hese kinds o accumula ions a e ich in a chae-
obo anical ma e ial because hey we e o med by he epea ed
bu ning o was e om di e en p ac ices, including ag icul u e,
li es ock and domes ic ac i i ies (B ochie e al., 1992; Can i, 1999;
Ve g
es e al., 2008; Angelucci e al., 2009). A chaeobo any can
he e o e con ibu e o add essing opics such as: econs uc ing
pas ege a ion; de e mining he seasonali y o he occupa ions;
*Co esponding au ho . Ins i u Ca al
a de Paleoecologia Humana i E oluci
o
Social, C/ Ma cel lí Domingo, s/n, 43007, Ta agona, Ca alonia, Spain.
E-mail add ess: jm[email p o ec ed] (J.M. Ve g
es).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Qua e na y In e na ional
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/quain
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
1040-6182/©2016 Else ie L d and INQUA. All igh s ese ed.
Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12
Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g
es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
gaining knowledge o he exis ing plan esou ces; obse ing he
use o domes ic space, analyzing aphonomy and si e o ma ion
p ocesses; o es managemen ; and he de ec ion o he p esence
o domes ic axa linked o ag icul u e o o a ming p ac ices
(Shahack-G oss e al., 2003, 2005; Albe and Hen y, 2004; Albe
e al., 2008; Allu
e e al., 2009; Cabanes e al., 2009; Po illo e al.,
2009; Po illo and Albe , 2011; Lancelo i and Madella, 2012;
Euba e al., 2016).
Soil mic omo phology applied o old ca es has enabled some
opics o be add essed, cha ac e ising he phases ha make up a
comple e combus ion cycle and p o iding in o ma ion abou he
aphonomy and o ma ion p ocesses o hese sequences (Be gad
a,
1995, 2001; Macphail e al., 1997; Be gad
a e al., 2005; Polo-Díaz
and Fe n
andez-E aso, 2010; Polo-Díaz e al., 2014).
Se e al e hnoa chaeological s udies ha e documen ed pa e ns
which can be ex apola ed o p ehis o ic con ex s o compa e and
gene a e new hypo heses abou pas o alism and olding spaces
(B ochie , 1983; Shahack-G oss e al., 2003; Ellio e al., 2014;
Po illo e al., 2014) and he use o dung as a by-p oduc (Reddy,
1999; Silla, 2000; Zapa a Pe~
na e al., 2003).
Some expe imen al a chaeological s udies ha e examined spe-
cific issues (Macphail e al., 2004; Ve g
es, 2011; Schepe s and
Haas e , 2015). Howe e , a sys ema ic and comp ehensi e expe i-
men al p og amme dedica ed o he s udy o he complexi y o he
mul iple ac o s in ol ed in pas o alism and animal enclosu es has
ye o be de eloped.
The s udy o li es ock a eas, in pa icula hose managed
di e en ly om ones known in his o ical imes, hus equi es
expe imen al e e ence da a ha can con ibu e o se ou and
con as hypo heses and es ablish mo e p ecise in e p e a ions o
he a chaeological con ex .
2. The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p ojec
The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme was se up in 2014,
mo i a ed by he need o ob ain da a o in e p e p ehis o ic old
ca e dynamics. The expe imen al p og am aims o cha ac e ise and
in e p e he o ma ion p ocesses and human ac i i ies ela ed o
li es ock managemen and pen con ex s (see below, Sec ion 2.3).
One o he specific goals o he expe imen al p og am is ela ed
o he in si u bu ning o dung in pens. Up o now, some expe imen s
in ol ing he bu ning o dung heaps ha e been conduc ed and ha e
p o ided da a leading o he iden ifica ion o some ele an a i-
ables ela ed o he dung bu ning p ocess (Ve g
es, 2011). Howe e ,
i is necessa y o add ess in si u bu ning o cha ac e ise he impac
o combus ion on he subs a e whe e he bu ning e en ook place.
In o de o esol e his specific p oblema ic, we p esen he e he
p elimina y esul s om in si u dung combus ion, including in he
Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og am.
2.1. The Mas del Pepe pen
The a ea whe e he p ehis o ic li es ock expe imen al p og am
was ca ied ou was in he Mas del Pepe pen, loca ed in he illage
o Rojals, in he municipali y o Mon blanc (Ta agona, Ca alonia)
(Fig.1). The Mas del Pepe pen is loca ed on he le bank o he Mas
d'en Llo cli , a 880 m a.s.l. This was he old a mya d o he Pepe
a mhouse, now in uins, and ecen ly e u bished o accommoda e
he flock o Pe e Domenech. The enclosu e is a he oo o he cli
wall. I encompasses a eas wi h di e en condi ions ha allow
much o he a iabili y obse ed in he a chaeological si es. Be-
ween hese a e wo spaces ha a e enclosed by walls which p e-
en he la e al mo emen o manu e and ensu e ha he su aces
emain fla and e en. The e is one co e ed a ea and one open-ai
a ea. The o me p e en s ain and o he me eo ological
condi ions om a ec ing he in e io o he pen. In addi ion, he e
is a la ge space a ound he buildings ha includes a sloping a ea
ha has been subjec ed o he phenomena o g a i y e osion, and
ano he fla a ea su ounded by a me al pe ime e ence, whe e
accumula ion phenomena a e commonplace.
2.2. Li es ock and pas u e a eas
The Mas del Pepe he d consis ed o 400 heads o li es ock,
made up o app oxima ely 350 goa s and 50 sheep (Fig. 2). The flock
g azed in he eas e n sec o o he Na u al A ea o Na ional In e es
(PNIN) o Poble (Ta agona, Ca alonia), in o de o con ol he
unde g ow h. This ac i i y is pa o a go e nmen o es -fi e p e-
en ion plan. This in ol es adi ional ex ensi e g azing, wi h he
he d accompanied by a shephe d who s ays in he pen du ing he
nigh . This p ac ice o s aying in he pen is seasonal and usually
s a s in Ap il/May and las s un il Oc obe /No embe .
The ege a ion o he a ea is open woodland o Que cus ilex-
cocci e a and Que cus pubescens ha includes Genis a sco pius,Ulex
pa iflo us,Cis us albidus,Ruscus aculea us,Smilax aspe a,Eupho bia
dend oides, Rubia pe eg ina,B achypodium sp., Pinus sp. and o he
cha ac e is ic species o scle ophyllous b ush and g asses ypical o
Medi e anean mixed-oak o es s.
2.3. The objec i es o he Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og am
The expe imen al p og am has included a se ies o expe imen s
in ended o p o ide in o ma ion on a wide ange o a iables o
managing li es ock and enclosu es. I is a long- e m p ojec , p o-
mo ed by he Ins i u Ca al
a de Paleoecologia Humana i E oluci
o
Social (IPHES), wi h he suppo o he Na u al A ea o Na ional
In e es o Poble as he managing body. He e we p esen he main
esea ch objec i es ha a e add essed. Al hough hey a e desc ibed
indi idually o acili a e he o ganisa ion o in o ma ion, many o
hem ac ually o e lap and expe imen s and analysis we e sha ed.
The expe imen al p ojec is cu en ly in p og ess. Since 2014 we
ha e de eloped annual expe imen al fieldwo k sessions, du ing he
pe iod when he pen is abandoned. We a e ca ying ou gene al
sampling, including a chaeobo any, mic omo phology, a chae-
omagne ism and humidi y samples, ep esen a i e o be o e and
a e he in si u dung bu ning. Also, we a e pe o ming a numbe o
expe imen s in ela ion o he analysis o spa ial dis ibu ion, si e
o ma ion p ocesses and dung accumula ion a es, inside he pen.
In his sec ion we in oduce he p incipal aims o he expe i-
men al p ojec , o which we ha e, a p esen , only p elimina y
esul s conce ning he in si u dung combus ion.
2.3.1. Es ima e o he a e o dung accumula ion
Based on he olume o dung accumula ed, we do no cu en ly
ha e eliable da a o o e an es ima e abou he ela ionship be-
ween he numbe o li es ock and he leng h o s ay in he
enclosu e necessa y o gene a e deposi s simila o hose docu-
men ed in he a chaeological si es. Ou aim is he e o e o s udy he
a e o dung deposi ion in he pen acco ding o he occupied a ea,
he ime span o he occupa ion and how many heads o li es ock
he e we e.
The documen a ion o he olume o exc emen accumula ed
du ing he li es ock's s ay is ca ied ou by compa ing 3D models o
he floo o he pen be o e he a i al o he flock and a e i s de-
pa u e. The 3D models a e gene a ed om da a cap u ed wi h a
FARO Focus 3D lase scanne . This p ocedu e allows o ob ain p e-
cise nume ical da a o he olume ic inc ease o he deposi s o e
ime. Based on he a iable olume o was e, he numbe o li e-
s ock and he leng h o s ay in he enclosu e, an accu a e pic u e o
he amoun o was e deposi ed by he animals daily in he pen can
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e122
Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g
es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
be made. Va iables s emming om he ype o li es ock, plan
en i onmen as well as he wea he , among o he s, a e o cou se
aken in o accoun . All o hese possibili ies a ec ed he deposi ion
a e, and i is necessa y o collec da a om di e en yea s and
places o cap u e p ocess a iabili y.
This p ocedu e is also used o calcula ing he educ ion in he
olume o dung ma e ial by combus ion. In addi ion, he aim is o
de elop dung dis ibu ion models acco ding o he elie cha ac-
e is ics ob ained om 3D da a dis ibu ion. This allows us o
es ima e o he influence o opog aphical ea u es in he accu-
mula ion a es o dung in he di e en sec o s o he pen and o
ex apola e he da a o he a chaeological si es. The Mas del Pepe
pen is he e o e pe ec ly adap ed o his kind o wo k since i has
se e al a eas wi h di e en elie s and slopes, hus allowing o he
examina ion o a high deg ee o a iabili y.
2.3.2. The polished ock wall
The animals in con ac wi h he walls o he pens (bo h he man-
made and na u al ones), caused he polishing o hei su aces
(B ochie e al., 1992). Polished bands we e dis ibu ed di e en ly
depending on he animal's physical ea u es (heigh , u ype, e c.).
Thei dis ibu ion also a ied acco ding o whe he o no he
accumula ed dung had been emo ed since his ac o e ec i ely
modified he heigh o he animals.
This cha ac e isa ion can help o iden i y he animal ha p o-
duced he polishing in a chaeological con ex s and con ibu e o
he unde s anding o manu e managemen (Ve g
es and Mo ales,
2016) and he in ensi y o use o he si e o li es ock. This in o -
ma ion is especially ele an in cases whe e he sedimen a y de-
posi has disappea ed, as i cons i u es he only emaining e idence
o he pas use o his space as a old.
To ca y ou his polishing s udy we placed ock agmen s in
di e en places in he pen. The su aces o hese agmen s we e
p e iously documen ed wi h a 3D digi al mic oscope (Hi ox KH-
8700). The e idence o he ecu en loss o he oughness o he
su ace o he ocks documen ed wi h 3D images p o ided in o -
ma ion ela ing o he heigh o he polishing ma ks, he numbe o
animals and he leng h o hei s ay in he pen.
Fig. 1. Loca ion map o he Mas del Pepe pen.
Fig. 2. The Mas del Pepe flock is o med by 350 goa s and 50 sheep and he landscape
o he Na u al A ea o Na ional In e es (PNIN) o Poble is ypical o a Medi e anean
mixed-oak o es .
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 3
Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g
es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
2.3.3. S udy o plan emains
Palaeobo anical da a ob ained om he s udy o dung eco e ed
om a chaeological si es is used o de elop paleoen i onmen al
econs uc ions, es ima es o he die o he animals, cha ac e isa-
ion o he ype o li es ock and iden ifica ion o human ac i i ies
ela ed o he managemen o plan esou ces, among o he s
(B yan and Holloway, 1983; G eig, 1989; A gan e al., 1991; Dio ,
1991; Badal, 1999; Thi
ebaul , 2005; Shahack-G oss, 2011). I is
hus essen ial o know how much o he su ounding ege a ion is
ep esen ed in he dung, in wha p opo ions i is ep esen ed, and
wha we e he agen s con ibu ing o i s inco po a ion in o he
deposi . Wi h hese objec i es in mind, we designed a pilo p o-
g am ha includes he ollowing s eps:
- Bo anical in en o y o he neighbou ing a eas and he pas u e
zones.
- Obse a ion o he pollen ain in he a ea o he pen by ins alling
a ificial pollen aps and samples o na u al aps (mosses).
- Elabo a ing e e ence collec ions o phy oli hs o he mos
abundan axa in he s udy a ea.
- Analyzing he pollen, NPPs (non-pollen palynomo phs), phy o-
li hs and cha coal p esen in he dung deposi s.
Once all o he ele an da a has been ob ained, he plan species
p esen in he old may be compa ed wi h hose documen ed in he
en i onmen and he pas u e a eas. I is hen possible o es ablish
how many o he species p esen in he flock's a ea o influence a e
ep esen ed in he pen, and i he pe cen ages obse ed a e eliable
o no . This da a is o c i ical impo ance o de e mine he bias
exis ing be ween he pic u e o he plan communi y om he
bo anical s udy o he deposi s and he eal composi ion o he local
and egional ege a ion. I also con ibu es o cla i ying he ole o
he di e en agen s in ol ed in he o ma ion o he dung accu-
mula ion (Fig. 3). Mo e de ailed paleoen i onmen al
in e p e a ions can hus be ca ied ou in o de o iden i y, in a
mo e eliable way, he beha iou o pas o alis s on li es ock man-
agemen , ood supply ( om ga he ing o ag icul u e), among o he
issues.
On he o he hand, he s udy o non-pollen palynomo phs
(NPPs) allows us o e alua e he mic o-en i onmen al condi ions
du ing he dung accumula ion, mainly om a local poin o iew.
This includes: he exis ence o wa e accumula ion zones, a eas
wi h p esence o decaying o ganic ma e , ca bonaceous ho izons,
e osi e episodes, e c. As a esul , we ound ha , con a y o wha
was expec ed, he p esence o hese mic o- emains was gene ally
low in bu n p ehis o ic pens. The main hypo hesis o his poo
ep esen a ion is ha sys ema ic bu ning e idenced in he
a chaeological eco dings e ec i ely educed he accumula ion o
dung and cleaned he pens. The NPPs also p o ided da a conce n-
ing he in e eb a es, such as associa ed li es ock pa asi es.
The wo k plan ela ed o he s udy o phy oli hs and o he mic o
emains is based on he analysis o he dung deposi s du ing all
s ages o he p ocess: he p io plan consump ion by he he d;
aeces deposi ion; compac ion/e osion; and he bu ning o accu-
mula ed deb is. In addi ion o his, he p esence o calcium-oxala e,
o med in he ae ial pa s o a la ge numbe o plan s in con ex s o
confinemen , has been linked wi h a he d's die when dico yle-
donous lea es a e p o ided as odde o consumed du ing g azing
(B ochie , 1983). In addi ion, he p esence in hese con ex s o
sphe uli es, calcium ca bona es o med in he diges i e ac o
he bi o es, was one o he main ino ganic ma ke s used o iden i y
and cha ac e ise he pens (Can i, 1997, 1998, 1999).
Ano he aim o his app oach is o moni o he aphonomic
agen s in ol ed in he p ocess and o add ess specific opics
ega ding he o ma ion o he deposi s. This s udy p o ides us
wi h in o ma ion abou he ep esen a i eness o he esul s in
ela ion o exis ing ege a ion and he impac o di e en apho-
nomic agen s, allowing us o es ablish c i e ia conce ning he ype
Fig. 3. Bo anical diag am objec i es. a) S udy o he cu en landscape wi h pollen aps and bo anical analysis. b) Documen ing he plan s consumed by he he d. Elabo a ing
e e ence collec ions. c) Analysis o he dung deposi s composi ion. d) Analysis and cha ac e iza ion o aphonomic agen s and hei impac on he bo anical assemblage.
Compa a i e s udy be ween he final bo anical assemblage and he cu en landscape and he plan esou ces consumed by animals.
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e124
Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g
es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
o li es ock om da a abou hei die (goa s, sheep, e c.).
Fu he mo e, i allows us o de ec an h opogenic inpu s o plan
esou ces (p o ision o odde , bedding o animals, e c.).
The s udy o plan mac o- emains aims o explain he o ma ion
p ocesses o hese assemblages in a chaeological con ex s. In his
con ex , mixed bo anical ma e ials om ag icul u al ac i i ies, uel
and odde , as well as o he ma e ials such as building supplies o
wood om domes ic ac i i ies, a e usually mixed in he heaps
ound (A gan e al.,1991; Zapa a e al., 2003; Euba e al., Rod íguez
e al., 2016). The s udy o plan mac o- emains, including cha coal
and seeds, helps us o gain an unde s anding o di e ences in he
p ese a ion o he ma e ials, while an analysis o he dung con en
makes i possible o analyse he odde ing p ocess.
2.3.4. Mic omo phological analysis
A e seasonal pe iod o use o he enclosu e by he animals, we
collec samples o ob ain hin pe og aphic sec ions o he
mic omo phological analysis o he deposi s. The samples a e
collec ed bo h om bu n a eas and om a eas una ec ed by dung
heaping and combus ion. These expe imen al samples o m a pa
o a e e ence collec ion elabo a ed o pe mi he iden ifica ion and
in e p e a ion o mic omo phological ea u es om p ehis o ic
he ding acili ies.
The hin sec ion expe imen al ma e ial p o ides high- esolu ion
pa ame e s o he cha ac e isa ion o h ee key aspec s in he
o ma ion p ocesses o a chaeological pen deposi s: su ace c us s
de i ed om subae ial exposu e ela ed o pe iods o abandonmen
o a pen; compac ion, ela ed o he ac ion o li es ock du ing hei
s ay; and combus ion esidues, bo h in si u and dis u bed.
2.3.5. S udy o he dispe sion o he ma e ial
Ano he p oblema ic ela ing o a chaeological pens is he
spa ial dispe sion o he ma e ial, gi en he e y dynamic con ex
whe e he objec s may ha e been displaced bo h ho izon ally and
e ically. The e a e cases documen ed o a chaeological con ex s
whe e i is clea ha he e has been ansloca ion and mixing o
objec s, oge he wi h o he s whe e he ma e ial seems no o ha e
been displaced.
To documen he condi ions o de e mining one o ano he o
hese si ua ions, we pe iodically placed g oups o objec s in he pen
a e a i al he animals (mainly s one ools, po e y and skele al
emains). The objec s a e deposi ed on he su ace, in a ious a eas
o he pen ha p esen di e en opog aphic ea u es.
The objec s a e a ached o one o mo e agmen s o me al
pla es (depending on he size and possibili y o ac u ing) and a e
numbe ed o easy iden ifica ion and loca ion. The elemen s ha
a e co e ed and hidden by he animals can hus be loca ed wi h he
aid o a me al de ec o . Thei h ee-dimensional posi ion is eco -
ded wi h a To al S a ion, a he ime o abandonmen and hen
moni o ed pe iodically: when he he d lea es he pen; be o e and
a e heaping and dung bu ning. The da a on he mo emen o he
objec s allows us o iden i y he mos likely con ex associa ed wi h
he ansloca ion pa e ns, including he mixing o ma e ials o
mo e s able con ex s. In addi ion, he da a collec ed allows us o
e alua e he a iabili y in he deg ee o displacemen o he objec s,
while aking in o accoun hei physical cha ac e is ics. The esul s
should help esea che s o es ablish c i e ia o es ima e he
displacemen su e ed by he objec s in a chaeological si es.
2.3.6. Taphonomy
Thanks o a ious p og ammed expe imen s, we will ob ain a
wide ange o objec s well known in aphonomic p ocesses. Once
he expe imen s comple e, hese objec s will become pa o a
e e ence collec ion ha will be use ul o in e p e ing he changes
obse ed in a chaeological ma e ials (bone and bo anical emains,
ce amics, and s one emains).
To acili a e he iden ifica ion and documen a ion o he modi-
fica ions unde gone by he objec s, hey a e pho og aphically
documen ed and, in cases whe e changes a e mic oscopic, wi h he
aid o op ical and elec on mic oscopes, ob aining high esolu ion
moulds and cas s.
2.3.7. A chaeomagne ism
The magne ic p ope ies p esen in he dung accumula ion
ela ed o he inc ease in hea caused by combus ion we e analysed
o unde s and hei beha iou (Ca ancho e al., 2016). This da a is
use ul as a e e ence o s udies ha a e being conduc ed on dung
bu ning in p ehis o ic pens and ha a e aimed a ob aining da a
abou geomagne ic secula a ia ion, aphonomic al e a ions o ash
deposi s, and o de e mining he maximum empe a u es eached
(Ca ancho e al., 2012, 2013).
3. The dung combus ion expe imen
The p ac ice o bu ning dung heaps in p ehis o ic pens loca ed
in ock shel e s o ca es has been widely documen ed, and is one o
he mos cha ac e is ic ea u es o his ype o sedimen a y deposi .
Howe e , he e is no expe imen al da a a ailable o help us o
in e p e he phenomena obse ed in a chaeological eco ds. Some
s udies ha e been done, bu hey ha e been conduc ed by bu ning
dung away om he pens which does no allow o documen he
ole o he subs a e in he de elopmen o combus ion (Ve g
es,
2011).
One o he main goals o his expe imen was o documen he
he mal cu e o dung bu ning and o ela e he empe a u es
eached o he colou ange o he ashes. The aim was o obse e
how some o he a iables, such as humidi y and dung shape
(al eady obse ed expe imen ally in p e ious app oaches ou side a
pen), a ec ed he combus ion p ocess. Mos o hese a iables
de e mined he de elopmen o he combus ion. This is he case o
dung conse a ion, he shape o he exc emen s and he deg ee o
mois u e (Ve g
es, 2011). The aim was hus o define unde wha
condi ions he combus ion was limi ed o he piled-up dung, he
mos common si ua ion in a chaeological eco ds, and a wha
momen he fi e sp ead o he subs a e, causing o al o pa ial
bu ning o he emaining deposi s.
Ano he highly ele an aspec was he es ing o hypo heses
ega ding he necessa y condi ions ha ensu ed he p ese a ion o
he ashes once he flock occupied he space again. So, i
Fig. 4. Incine a ing p ocess o he heaps du ing he 2014 expe imen al field season.
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 5
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es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032

accumula ions o ash we e a ec ed by he ansi o li es ock we
documen ed he changes and modifica ions su e ed and hei
e olu ion. The objec i e was o ob ain da a o es ablish he ime
span be ween he occupa ion and he abandonmen o he pen and
iden i y ela ed li es ock managemen p ac ices.
4. Ma e ials and me hods
To ca y ou he expe imen we used di e en p ocedu es and
echnical equipmen ha will be desc ibed in he ollowing pa a-
g aphs. P io o he heaping p ocess, he su ace was scanned using
Fig. 5. 3D model o he Mas del Pepe pen wi h he loca ion o he expe imen al heaps and humidi y samples om he 2014 and 2015 expe imen al field season (uppe ). 3D model
p ofile o he Mas del Pepe pen (middle). In e nal iew o he Mas del Pepe pen a e bu ning du ing he 2015 field season (bo om).
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e126
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es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
a FARO Focus 3D scan lase . This p ocedu e was epea ed when he
bu ning was finished. The aim o his p ocedu e was o quan i y he
educ ion in olume o he dung.
Be o e bu ning, he dung heaps we e sampled o calcula e hei
ela i e humidi y. This measu emen was ca ied ou by weighing
he sample wi h p ecision scales once i had been collec ed and
hen epea ing he p ocess a e lea ing he sample in a mu fle
u nace a 50

C o 18 days. The ligh ing o he heaps was ca ied
ou using d ied Que cus ilex b anches ha we e pu on and nex o
he piles (Fig. 4). The b anches we e li using d ied g asses. As
obse ed in p e ious expe imen s, his igni ion me hod is he bes
o e all when he humidi y a e o he heaps is high.
Tempe a u es we e eco ded wi h digi al he mome e s
(models TL-309 and PCE-T 390) wi h ype K he mocouples
(Ch omel-Alumel). In he 2014 expe imen , wo he mome e s
we e fixed o each heap; one a he base in a cen al posi ion in
con ac wi h he soil (p obe 1) and a second one in he middle o
he pile (p obe 2). Fo he second expe imen ano he one was also
placed in he side (p obe 3). In addi ion, 2 ae ial he mome e s
we e placed in he enclosu e's ceiling (p obes 4a and 4b) o mea-
su e gasses and he he mal inc ease in he in e io o he
enclosu e.
Wea he o ecas da a, including empe a u e and ela i e ai
humidi y, du ing he pe iod he expe imen was ca ied ou we e
aken by he me eo ological s a ion a Rojals. This is si ua ed
1650 m om he enclosu e, a 975 m a.s.l. and 100 m abo e he
enclosu e.
5. Resul s
Up o now, wo expe imen s o bu ning dung ma e ial accu-
mula ed inside he Mas del Pepe enclosu e ha e been conduc ed;
one in 2014 and one in 2015.
5.1. The 2014 combus ion expe imen
The fi s expe imen was ca ied ou on he dung deposi s
accumula ed du ing he li es ock's s ays in 2011, 2012 and 2013.
Du ing ha pe iod, no cleaning o he dung was ca ied ou . On
10 h Ma ch 2014, ou dung heaps we e piled up a he ou e /open
ai pa o he enclosu e (pile 2014-1) and h ee heaps unde he
oo (heaps 2014-2, 3 and 4) (Fig. 5). We decided o make a single
pile ou side because o he ain all om he p e ious days ha
caused a 70% humidi y le el (Fig. 6: samples 14-H3 and 14-H4)
which migh ha e p e en ed ligh ing.
The inne mos pa s o he dung heaps we e clea ly d ie wi h
humidi y alues o a ound 25% (Fig. 6: samples 14-H1 and 14-H2).
A he op o he heaps wo defined laye s could be obse ed, a
supe ficial one o med by disagg ega ed and loose dung lying o e
a second laye o a compac , lamina ed dung laye co e ing he
en i e su ace o he enclosu e. This supe ficial laye was deposi ed
du ing he las s ay o he li es ock be ween May and No embe
2013.
A small pi dug in o he dung deposi pe mi ed a p io analysis
o he bu ning p ocess o al e na e loose and compac ed dung o be
Fig. 6. Humidi y con ol samples co esponding o 2014 and 2015 expe imen al field season. Pe cen ages o humidi y and emaining ma e .
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 7
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es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
epea ed unde nea h as a consequence o he di e en seasonal
isi s o he li es ock. Piles we e buil up wi h he loose dung o
obse e i he fi e would be limi ed o he heaps o would p opaga e
o he compac laye unde nea h. Heaps unde he oo a ea we e
loca ed nex o he en ance (2014-2), in he cen al a ea (2014-3)
and he hi d one was in he inne pa nex o he wall (2014-4).
The combus ion p ocess o he piles was begun on he mo ning
o 11 h Ma ch 2014. As expec ed, he heap loca ed in he ou e pa
o he enclosu e did no bu n a all. The high le el o humidi y did
no allow he fi e o sp ead om he b anches. The heaps loca ed
inside he enclosu e s a ed bu ning immedia ely, slowly, wi hou a
flame and c ea ing abundan smoke, as is usual in dung-bu ning
p ocesses (Fig. 7). A e a ew hou s he combus ion sp ead ou o
he compac ed dung laye . This was isible on he su ace as a a
deepe laye , showed by he p esence o small uma oles in a eas
whe e no combus ion was isible. The combus ion sp ead slowly o
he en i e enclosu e, as is s anda d in dung combus ion p ocesses:
slow ou wa d sp ead, low o no flames (small flames o abou a ew
cen ime es ha come ou o he fissu es) and a la ge amoun o
low- empe a u e smoke.
A e 42 h he fi e was pu ou by fi emen a e he u al agen in
he a ea ecei ed an eme gency call. The smoke om he enclosu e,
seen some kilome es away, c ea ed an ale . The p essu ised wa e
used o pu ou he fi e almos en i ely des oyed he ash deposi
and he dung ha was s ill bu ning.
The mal da a ob ained show ha he maximum empe a u e
did no exceed 600

C and also ha he empe a u e inc ease was
slow and g adual. Only p obe 2 om he 2014-2 pile wen clea ly
abo e he he mal poin o inflexion. We canno be su e o he
maximum empe a u es o he o he p obes, bu hey we e p ob-
ably he same as hose obse ed in p e ious expe imen s.
Maximum empe a u es we e he same as expe imen al da a ha
showed ha non-deg aded dung, wi h s uc u es ha did no allow
ai ci cula ion (loose and lamina ed, compac ed dung), did no
exceed 650

C and oscilla ed be ween 500 and 650

C(Ve g
es,
2011).
Du ing his expe imen we obse ed ha he posi ion o he
heap in he inne a ea a ec ed he combus ion p ocess. The 2014-2
heap, loca ed nex o he en ance, eco ded he as es combus ion
and a sligh fluc ua ion o he he mal cu e. The 2014-3 pile,
loca ed a he en ance o he enclosu e/pen, eco ded a slowe
empe a u e inc ease, and he combus ion o 2014-4 heap, loca ed
in he inne a ea, was he slowes . These di e ences occu ed as a
consequence o he en e ing o a he modynamic ai flow gene a ed
by combus ion. The ou pu o smoke h ough he op o he access
opening gene a ed a s eam o ai in ake a he bo om: oxygen o
combus ion. I mainly a ec ed he 2014-2 heap, which was jus in
on o he doo ; i a ec ed he 2014-3 heaps loca ed in he cen al
pa o a lesse ex en ; and a ec ed he 2014-4 heaps loca ed a he
bo om e y li le.
5.2. The 2015 combus ion expe imen
The second expe imen was ca ied ou on he dung deposi ed
du ing he 2014 May o No embe season and on op o he emains
om he p e ious expe imen .
Du ing he 2014 expe imen he uppe a ea o he enclosu e was
no a ec ed by combus ion and so he dung accumula ions om
2011 o 2013 we e s ill he e. In con as , he dung in he lowe a ea
had bu n i egula ly. In he places whe e he e we e heaps, he
combus ion was almos o al, whe eas only he uppe laye o he
es we e a ec ed. In he a ea o maximal combus ion he e we e
soil dep essions as a consequence o he educ ion in olume o he
dung a e combus ion. The wa e used o pu ou he fi e d agged
he combus ion esidues and unbu n dung o he dep essions,
gene a ing a laye o mixed ma e ials. These dep essions we e no
o ally co e ed and he su ace emained i egula . The i egula
su ace and he slope ( he dep essions we e loca ed on he lowe
pa ) caused he dung deposi ed du ing 2014 o be dis ibu ed
he e ogeneously o e he enclosu e's su ace. I was p e e en ially
accumula ed in he dep essed a eas un il hey we e en i ely
co e ed, whe eas in he uppe pa o he enclosu e ha was no
a ec ed by combus ion he e was no inc ease in he deposi s.
Summing up, a he beginning o he expe imen , he dung
deposi s showed wo di e en a eas: one loca ed in he uppe pa
o he enclosu e o med by dung om 2012 o 2013, deposi ed on
he bed ock, and ano he , o med almos en i ely o dung om he
2014 season and loca ed in he lowe pa o he enclosu e, laying
o e he laye gene a ed a e he ex inc ion o he fi e. The la e
consis ed o a mix u e o combus ion esidues and dung.
Fo he 2015 expe imen we made 9 piles wi h he loose dung
om he su ace and he compac ed and lamina ed laye below
(Fig. 5). In he hal uppe a ea o he enclosu e his ha d laye was
p obably made up o deposi ions om 2013, whe eas he lowe
pa was om ones om 2014. The mal da a we e con olled om
wo heaps, heap 2015-1 and heap 2015-2. Heaps 2015-1 and 2015-2
we e loca ed in he lowe a ea whe e mos o he dung accumu-
la ed in 2014. Howe e heap 2015-1 was no a ec ed by he p e-
ious combus ion and had dung om 2011 o 2013, whe eas o
heap 2015-2 all he dung was om 2014.
The mean humidi y o heaps 2015-1 (Fig. 6: samples 15-H1 and
15-H2) and 2015-2 (Fig. 6: samples 15-H4 and 15-H5) was 43.79%,
wi h a maximum o 45.39% o heap 2015-1 and 46.59% o heap
2015-2. The alues o he subs a e we e 52.4% and 54.2% (Fig. 6:
samples 15-H3 and 15-H6).
The combus ion o he uppe a ea o he enclosu e sp ead ou
owa ds he dung deposi s on which hey lay, made up o dung
om 2011 o 2013. This dung bu n comple ely down o he
bed ock. In con as , in he lowe pa combus ion was limi ed o
he heaped dung and a small a ea o he pe ime e .
The he mal da a om he wo con olled heaps show some
di e ences (Fig. 8) Heap 2015-1 shows e y simila alues o 451,
515 and 544 o p obes 1, 2 and 3, whe eas heap 2015-2 showed
alues o 565, 809 and 1,369

C o p obes 1, 2 and 3.
In heap 2015-1 he e we e empe a u e oscilla ions ha we e
p obably ela ed o he olume ha he heap los . The maximal
empe a u e eached a he base o he heap (p obe 1) was he same
as ha o he s a ing poin o he uppe p obes (p obes 2 and 3).
Du ing he las phase a new inc ease in he empe a u e a he base
was eco ded in he same way p io o he final dec ease.
Fig. 7. The 2014-2 dung heaps du ing he combus ion p ocess.
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e128
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es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032
This phenomenon was basically ela ed o he ac ha as a
consequence o he g adual loss o olume du ing he bu ning
p ocess he he mome e mo ed e ically and eloca ed o places
whe e he e was s ill combus ion. This mo emen and he conse-
quen he mal oscilla ion was he same as ha which he ma e ials
in he dung unde wen .
The same p ocess allows o an explana ion o he oscilla ion o
p obes 1 and 2 om heap 2015-2, bu no o he s ong fluc ua ions
o p obe 3. In his case i was p obably due o he e ec o he wind.
I s loca ion a he pe ime e o a heap exposed o he ex e io
makes his he mos likely possibili y.
In he o he cases, ai flow canno be disca ded as a cause o
he mal oscilla ion, such as wind o d augh s gene a ed by he
combus ion he modynamics inside he enclosu e. Bu in any case,
hey a e less impo an and a e di ficul o dis inguish om he
ones p oduced by he mo emen o he p obes.
The case o p obe 3 is abno mal as i s opped eco ding da a
a e eco ding a empe a u e o 1,369

C. This alue is e y
di e en om hose documen ed in p e ious dung expe imen s.
We he e o e do no ha e an explana ion o his da a, bu i could
be an e o in he measu emen .
The ae ial p obe eached a maximum empe a u e o 69.7

C
du ing he ime ha he b anches we e bu ning. Du ing he dung
combus ion he ae ial p obe oscilla ed be ween 40 and 20

C.
The combus ion o heap 2015-1 s a ed on Ma ch 2nd 2015 a
11:30 and empe a u es we e con olled un il 7:45 on Ma ch 16 h
Fig. 8. The mal da a om he hea ing p ocess 2015-1 and 2015-2. The X axis indica es he hou s and he Y axis he empe a u e in C.
J.M. Ve g
es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 9
Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g
es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices:
P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032