The Mas del Pepet experimental programme for the study of prehistoric livestock practices: Preliminary data from dung burning

The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning Josep Ma ia Ve g es a , b , * , Ai o Bu gue -Coca a , b , E hel Allu e a , b , Isabel Exp osi o a , b , Miquel Gua diola a , , Pa icia Ma ín a , b , Juan Ignacio Mo ales a , b , F ancesc Bu jachs a , b , c , Dan Cabanes d ,  Angel Ca ancho e , Josep Vall e dú a , b a IPHES eIns i u Ca al a de Paleoecologia Humana i E oluci o Social, C/ Ma cel lí Domingo, s/n, 43007, Ta agona, Ca alonia, Spain b URV e  A ea de P ehis  o ia, Facul a de Lle es, Uni e si a Ro i a i Vi gili, A . Ca alunya, 35, 43002, Ta agona, Ca alonia, Spain c ICREA eIns i uci o Ca alana de Rece ca i Es udis A ança s, Ba celona, Ca alonia, Spain d Max Planck Ins i u e o E olu iona y An h opology, Plan Foods in Hominin Die a y Ecology Resea ch G oup, Deu sche Pla z 6, 04103, Leipzig, Ge many e UBU e  A ea de P ehis o ia, Dep . Ciencias His  o icas y Geog a ía, Uni e sidad de Bu gos, Edificio IþDþI, Plaza Misael Ba~ nuelos s/n, 09001, Bu gos, Spain Labo a oi e d’A ch eologie e Peuplemen de l'A ique, D epa emen de G en e ique e E olu ion, Uni  e d'An h opologie, Uni e si  e de Gen e e, 12, ue Gus a e-Re illiod 1227 Gen e e, Swi ze land a icle in o A icle his o y: A ailable online xxx Keywo ds: Expe imen al a chaeology P ehis o y Pas o alism Fumie Dung bu ning G o es-be ge ies abs ac The esea ch o e e en ial da a on cu en li es ock con ex s is essen ial o co ec ly in e p e ing a chaeological eco ds documen ed in p ehis o ic li es ock spaces. Expe imen al p og ammes such as he one begun in 2014 in he Mas del Pepe pen (Rojals, Ta agona) has pe mi ed an unde s anding, among o he ma e s, o old cha ac e is ics acco ding o he ype o li es ock, he seasonali y o occu- pa ions and he d managemen . This s udy also con ibu es o he iden ifica ion o aphonomic p ocesses ha ha e aken place and o de e mine he ep esen a i eness o he bo anical con en in he deposi , in ela ion o he en i onmen and pas u e a eas. Finally, he dung bu ning expe imen s conduc ed ha e p o ided da a ha will help o e eal he way manu e was ea ed in p ehis o ic old ca es. ©2016 Else ie L d and INQUA. All igh s ese ed. 1. In oduc ion A chaeological si es ela ed o li es ock ac i i ies a e a majo sou ce o in o ma ion o he unde s anding o p ehis o ic socie ies. Se e al old ca e si es da ed om be ween he Neoli hic and B onze Age in Eu ope a e cha ac e ised by he pe iodic bu ning o manu e in o de o educe i s olume and o elimina e pa asi es (B ochie e al., 1992; Cha les, 1998; Badal, 1999; Angelucci e al., 2009). This ac i i y has been iden ified a nume ous si es: A ene Candide in I aly (Maggi, 1997), Caune de Beles a; G o e An onnai e, in F ance (A gan e al., 1991; B ochie e al., 1998) and Co a de les Cend es (Badal, 1999), Los Husos (Alday-Ruiz e al., 2003), Co a G an (Polo-Díaz e al., 2014), La Co a de la Guineu (Be gad a e al., 2005); El Mi  on (Pe~ na-Choca o e al., 2005), and o he s on he Ibe ian Peninsula. This p ac ice led o a dis inc i e and complex se ies o s a i- g aphic deposi s ha a e di ficul o s udy due o he di e en ac- o s and phenomena in ol ed in hei o ma ion and also because o he dynamic na u e o aphonomic p ocesses. The cha ac e isa- ion o his sedimen ological o ma ion in animal enclosu es is based on he iden ifica ion o ou c i e ia: p esence o mic o- lamina ion, dung sphe uli es, au higenic phospha e and some specific ypes o phy oli hs (Shahack-G oss e al., 2003, 2005; Shahack-G oss, 2011). Un il now, he s udy o penning p ac ices in p ehis o ic con ex s has been app oached by di e en disciplines wi h impo an im- plica ions o unde s anding he socio-economic p ac ices o ag o- pas o al g oups (Shahack-G oss, 2011). Gene ally, hese kinds o accumula ions a e ich in a chae- obo anical ma e ial because hey we e o med by he epea ed bu ning o was e om di e en p ac ices, including ag icul u e, li es ock and domes ic ac i i ies (B ochie e al., 1992; Can i, 1999; Ve g es e al., 2008; Angelucci e al., 2009). A chaeobo any can he e o e con ibu e o add essing opics such as: econs uc ing pas ege a ion; de e mining he seasonali y o he occupa ions; *Co esponding au ho . Ins i u Ca al a de Paleoecologia Humana i E oluci o Social, C/ Ma cel lí Domingo, s/n, 43007, Ta agona, Ca alonia, Spain. E-mail add ess: jm[email p o ec ed] (J.M. Ve g es). Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec Qua e na y In e na ional jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/quain h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 1040-6182/©2016 Else ie L d and INQUA. All igh s ese ed. Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 gaining knowledge o he exis ing plan esou ces; obse ing he use o domes ic space, analyzing aphonomy and si e o ma ion p ocesses; o es managemen ; and he de ec ion o he p esence o domes ic axa linked o ag icul u e o o a ming p ac ices (Shahack-G oss e al., 2003, 2005; Albe and Hen y, 2004; Albe e al., 2008; Allu e e al., 2009; Cabanes e al., 2009; Po illo e al., 2009; Po illo and Albe , 2011; Lancelo i and Madella, 2012; Euba e al., 2016). Soil mic omo phology applied o old ca es has enabled some opics o be add essed, cha ac e ising he phases ha make up a comple e combus ion cycle and p o iding in o ma ion abou he aphonomy and o ma ion p ocesses o hese sequences (Be gad a, 1995, 2001; Macphail e al., 1997; Be gad a e al., 2005; Polo-Díaz and Fe n andez-E aso, 2010; Polo-Díaz e al., 2014). Se e al e hnoa chaeological s udies ha e documen ed pa e ns which can be ex apola ed o p ehis o ic con ex s o compa e and gene a e new hypo heses abou pas o alism and olding spaces (B ochie , 1983; Shahack-G oss e al., 2003; Ellio e al., 2014; Po illo e al., 2014) and he use o dung as a by-p oduc (Reddy, 1999; Silla, 2000; Zapa a Pe~ na e al., 2003). Some expe imen al a chaeological s udies ha e examined spe- cific issues (Macphail e al., 2004; Ve g es, 2011; Schepe s and Haas e , 2015). Howe e , a sys ema ic and comp ehensi e expe i- men al p og amme dedica ed o he s udy o he complexi y o he mul iple ac o s in ol ed in pas o alism and animal enclosu es has ye o be de eloped. The s udy o li es ock a eas, in pa icula hose managed di e en ly om ones known in his o ical imes, hus equi es expe imen al e e ence da a ha can con ibu e o se ou and con as hypo heses and es ablish mo e p ecise in e p e a ions o he a chaeological con ex . 2. The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p ojec The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme was se up in 2014, mo i a ed by he need o ob ain da a o in e p e p ehis o ic old ca e dynamics. The expe imen al p og am aims o cha ac e ise and in e p e he o ma ion p ocesses and human ac i i ies ela ed o li es ock managemen and pen con ex s (see below, Sec ion 2.3). One o he specific goals o he expe imen al p og am is ela ed o he in si u bu ning o dung in pens. Up o now, some expe imen s in ol ing he bu ning o dung heaps ha e been conduc ed and ha e p o ided da a leading o he iden ifica ion o some ele an a i- ables ela ed o he dung bu ning p ocess (Ve g es, 2011). Howe e , i is necessa y o add ess in si u bu ning o cha ac e ise he impac o combus ion on he subs a e whe e he bu ning e en ook place. In o de o esol e his specific p oblema ic, we p esen he e he p elimina y esul s om in si u dung combus ion, including in he Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og am. 2.1. The Mas del Pepe pen The a ea whe e he p ehis o ic li es ock expe imen al p og am was ca ied ou was in he Mas del Pepe pen, loca ed in he illage o Rojals, in he municipali y o Mon blanc (Ta agona, Ca alonia) (Fig.1). The Mas del Pepe pen is loca ed on he le bank o he Mas d'en Llo cli , a 880 m a.s.l. This was he old a mya d o he Pepe a mhouse, now in uins, and ecen ly e u bished o accommoda e he flock o Pe e Domenech. The enclosu e is a he oo o he cli wall. I encompasses a eas wi h di e en condi ions ha allow much o he a iabili y obse ed in he a chaeological si es. Be- ween hese a e wo spaces ha a e enclosed by walls which p e- en he la e al mo emen o manu e and ensu e ha he su aces emain fla and e en. The e is one co e ed a ea and one open-ai a ea. The o me p e en s ain and o he me eo ological condi ions om a ec ing he in e io o he pen. In addi ion, he e is a la ge space a ound he buildings ha includes a sloping a ea ha has been subjec ed o he phenomena o g a i y e osion, and ano he fla a ea su ounded by a me al pe ime e ence, whe e accumula ion phenomena a e commonplace. 2.2. Li es ock and pas u e a eas The Mas del Pepe he d consis ed o 400 heads o li es ock, made up o app oxima ely 350 goa s and 50 sheep (Fig. 2). The flock g azed in he eas e n sec o o he Na u al A ea o Na ional In e es (PNIN) o Poble (Ta agona, Ca alonia), in o de o con ol he unde g ow h. This ac i i y is pa o a go e nmen o es -fi e p e- en ion plan. This in ol es adi ional ex ensi e g azing, wi h he he d accompanied by a shephe d who s ays in he pen du ing he nigh . This p ac ice o s aying in he pen is seasonal and usually s a s in Ap il/May and las s un il Oc obe /No embe . The ege a ion o he a ea is open woodland o Que cus ilex- cocci e a and Que cus pubescens ha includes Genis a sco pius,Ulex pa iflo us,Cis us albidus,Ruscus aculea us,Smilax aspe a,Eupho bia dend oides, Rubia pe eg ina,B achypodium sp., Pinus sp. and o he cha ac e is ic species o scle ophyllous b ush and g asses ypical o Medi e anean mixed-oak o es s. 2.3. The objec i es o he Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og am The expe imen al p og am has included a se ies o expe imen s in ended o p o ide in o ma ion on a wide ange o a iables o managing li es ock and enclosu es. I is a long- e m p ojec , p o- mo ed by he Ins i u Ca al a de Paleoecologia Humana i E oluci o Social (IPHES), wi h he suppo o he Na u al A ea o Na ional In e es o Poble as he managing body. He e we p esen he main esea ch objec i es ha a e add essed. Al hough hey a e desc ibed indi idually o acili a e he o ganisa ion o in o ma ion, many o hem ac ually o e lap and expe imen s and analysis we e sha ed. The expe imen al p ojec is cu en ly in p og ess. Since 2014 we ha e de eloped annual expe imen al fieldwo k sessions, du ing he pe iod when he pen is abandoned. We a e ca ying ou gene al sampling, including a chaeobo any, mic omo phology, a chae- omagne ism and humidi y samples, ep esen a i e o be o e and a e he in si u dung bu ning. Also, we a e pe o ming a numbe o expe imen s in ela ion o he analysis o spa ial dis ibu ion, si e o ma ion p ocesses and dung accumula ion a es, inside he pen. In his sec ion we in oduce he p incipal aims o he expe i- men al p ojec , o which we ha e, a p esen , only p elimina y esul s conce ning he in si u dung combus ion. 2.3.1. Es ima e o he a e o dung accumula ion Based on he olume o dung accumula ed, we do no cu en ly ha e eliable da a o o e an es ima e abou he ela ionship be- ween he numbe o li es ock and he leng h o s ay in he enclosu e necessa y o gene a e deposi s simila o hose docu- men ed in he a chaeological si es. Ou aim is he e o e o s udy he a e o dung deposi ion in he pen acco ding o he occupied a ea, he ime span o he occupa ion and how many heads o li es ock he e we e. The documen a ion o he olume o exc emen accumula ed du ing he li es ock's s ay is ca ied ou by compa ing 3D models o he floo o he pen be o e he a i al o he flock and a e i s de- pa u e. The 3D models a e gene a ed om da a cap u ed wi h a FARO Focus 3D lase scanne . This p ocedu e allows o ob ain p e- cise nume ical da a o he olume ic inc ease o he deposi s o e ime. Based on he a iable olume o was e, he numbe o li e- s ock and he leng h o s ay in he enclosu e, an accu a e pic u e o he amoun o was e deposi ed by he animals daily in he pen can J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e122 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 be made. Va iables s emming om he ype o li es ock, plan en i onmen as well as he wea he , among o he s, a e o cou se aken in o accoun . All o hese possibili ies a ec ed he deposi ion a e, and i is necessa y o collec da a om di e en yea s and places o cap u e p ocess a iabili y. This p ocedu e is also used o calcula ing he educ ion in he olume o dung ma e ial by combus ion. In addi ion, he aim is o de elop dung dis ibu ion models acco ding o he elie cha ac- e is ics ob ained om 3D da a dis ibu ion. This allows us o es ima e o he influence o opog aphical ea u es in he accu- mula ion a es o dung in he di e en sec o s o he pen and o ex apola e he da a o he a chaeological si es. The Mas del Pepe pen is he e o e pe ec ly adap ed o his kind o wo k since i has se e al a eas wi h di e en elie s and slopes, hus allowing o he examina ion o a high deg ee o a iabili y. 2.3.2. The polished ock wall The animals in con ac wi h he walls o he pens (bo h he man- made and na u al ones), caused he polishing o hei su aces (B ochie e al., 1992). Polished bands we e dis ibu ed di e en ly depending on he animal's physical ea u es (heigh , u ype, e c.). Thei dis ibu ion also a ied acco ding o whe he o no he accumula ed dung had been emo ed since his ac o e ec i ely modified he heigh o he animals. This cha ac e isa ion can help o iden i y he animal ha p o- duced he polishing in a chaeological con ex s and con ibu e o he unde s anding o manu e managemen (Ve g es and Mo ales, 2016) and he in ensi y o use o he si e o li es ock. This in o - ma ion is especially ele an in cases whe e he sedimen a y de- posi has disappea ed, as i cons i u es he only emaining e idence o he pas use o his space as a old. To ca y ou his polishing s udy we placed ock agmen s in di e en places in he pen. The su aces o hese agmen s we e p e iously documen ed wi h a 3D digi al mic oscope (Hi ox KH- 8700). The e idence o he ecu en loss o he oughness o he su ace o he ocks documen ed wi h 3D images p o ided in o - ma ion ela ing o he heigh o he polishing ma ks, he numbe o animals and he leng h o hei s ay in he pen. Fig. 1. Loca ion map o he Mas del Pepe pen. Fig. 2. The Mas del Pepe flock is o med by 350 goa s and 50 sheep and he landscape o he Na u al A ea o Na ional In e es (PNIN) o Poble is ypical o a Medi e anean mixed-oak o es . J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 3 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 2.3.3. S udy o plan emains Palaeobo anical da a ob ained om he s udy o dung eco e ed om a chaeological si es is used o de elop paleoen i onmen al econs uc ions, es ima es o he die o he animals, cha ac e isa- ion o he ype o li es ock and iden ifica ion o human ac i i ies ela ed o he managemen o plan esou ces, among o he s (B yan and Holloway, 1983; G eig, 1989; A gan e al., 1991; Dio , 1991; Badal, 1999; Thi ebaul , 2005; Shahack-G oss, 2011). I is hus essen ial o know how much o he su ounding ege a ion is ep esen ed in he dung, in wha p opo ions i is ep esen ed, and wha we e he agen s con ibu ing o i s inco po a ion in o he deposi . Wi h hese objec i es in mind, we designed a pilo p o- g am ha includes he ollowing s eps: - Bo anical in en o y o he neighbou ing a eas and he pas u e zones. - Obse a ion o he pollen ain in he a ea o he pen by ins alling a ificial pollen aps and samples o na u al aps (mosses). - Elabo a ing e e ence collec ions o phy oli hs o he mos abundan axa in he s udy a ea. - Analyzing he pollen, NPPs (non-pollen palynomo phs), phy o- li hs and cha coal p esen in he dung deposi s. Once all o he ele an da a has been ob ained, he plan species p esen in he old may be compa ed wi h hose documen ed in he en i onmen and he pas u e a eas. I is hen possible o es ablish how many o he species p esen in he flock's a ea o influence a e ep esen ed in he pen, and i he pe cen ages obse ed a e eliable o no . This da a is o c i ical impo ance o de e mine he bias exis ing be ween he pic u e o he plan communi y om he bo anical s udy o he deposi s and he eal composi ion o he local and egional ege a ion. I also con ibu es o cla i ying he ole o he di e en agen s in ol ed in he o ma ion o he dung accu- mula ion (Fig. 3). Mo e de ailed paleoen i onmen al in e p e a ions can hus be ca ied ou in o de o iden i y, in a mo e eliable way, he beha iou o pas o alis s on li es ock man- agemen , ood supply ( om ga he ing o ag icul u e), among o he issues. On he o he hand, he s udy o non-pollen palynomo phs (NPPs) allows us o e alua e he mic o-en i onmen al condi ions du ing he dung accumula ion, mainly om a local poin o iew. This includes: he exis ence o wa e accumula ion zones, a eas wi h p esence o decaying o ganic ma e , ca bonaceous ho izons, e osi e episodes, e c. As a esul , we ound ha , con a y o wha was expec ed, he p esence o hese mic o- emains was gene ally low in bu n p ehis o ic pens. The main hypo hesis o his poo ep esen a ion is ha sys ema ic bu ning e idenced in he a chaeological eco dings e ec i ely educed he accumula ion o dung and cleaned he pens. The NPPs also p o ided da a conce n- ing he in e eb a es, such as associa ed li es ock pa asi es. The wo k plan ela ed o he s udy o phy oli hs and o he mic o emains is based on he analysis o he dung deposi s du ing all s ages o he p ocess: he p io plan consump ion by he he d; aeces deposi ion; compac ion/e osion; and he bu ning o accu- mula ed deb is. In addi ion o his, he p esence o calcium-oxala e, o med in he ae ial pa s o a la ge numbe o plan s in con ex s o confinemen , has been linked wi h a he d's die when dico yle- donous lea es a e p o ided as odde o consumed du ing g azing (B ochie , 1983). In addi ion, he p esence in hese con ex s o sphe uli es, calcium ca bona es o med in he diges i e ac o he bi o es, was one o he main ino ganic ma ke s used o iden i y and cha ac e ise he pens (Can i, 1997, 1998, 1999). Ano he aim o his app oach is o moni o he aphonomic agen s in ol ed in he p ocess and o add ess specific opics ega ding he o ma ion o he deposi s. This s udy p o ides us wi h in o ma ion abou he ep esen a i eness o he esul s in ela ion o exis ing ege a ion and he impac o di e en apho- nomic agen s, allowing us o es ablish c i e ia conce ning he ype Fig. 3. Bo anical diag am objec i es. a) S udy o he cu en landscape wi h pollen aps and bo anical analysis. b) Documen ing he plan s consumed by he he d. Elabo a ing e e ence collec ions. c) Analysis o he dung deposi s composi ion. d) Analysis and cha ac e iza ion o aphonomic agen s and hei impac on he bo anical assemblage. Compa a i e s udy be ween he final bo anical assemblage and he cu en landscape and he plan esou ces consumed by animals. J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e124 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 o li es ock om da a abou hei die (goa s, sheep, e c.). Fu he mo e, i allows us o de ec an h opogenic inpu s o plan esou ces (p o ision o odde , bedding o animals, e c.). The s udy o plan mac o- emains aims o explain he o ma ion p ocesses o hese assemblages in a chaeological con ex s. In his con ex , mixed bo anical ma e ials om ag icul u al ac i i ies, uel and odde , as well as o he ma e ials such as building supplies o wood om domes ic ac i i ies, a e usually mixed in he heaps ound (A gan e al.,1991; Zapa a e al., 2003; Euba e al., Rod íguez e al., 2016). The s udy o plan mac o- emains, including cha coal and seeds, helps us o gain an unde s anding o di e ences in he p ese a ion o he ma e ials, while an analysis o he dung con en makes i possible o analyse he odde ing p ocess. 2.3.4. Mic omo phological analysis A e seasonal pe iod o use o he enclosu e by he animals, we collec samples o ob ain hin pe og aphic sec ions o he mic omo phological analysis o he deposi s. The samples a e collec ed bo h om bu n a eas and om a eas una ec ed by dung heaping and combus ion. These expe imen al samples o m a pa o a e e ence collec ion elabo a ed o pe mi he iden ifica ion and in e p e a ion o mic omo phological ea u es om p ehis o ic he ding acili ies. The hin sec ion expe imen al ma e ial p o ides high- esolu ion pa ame e s o he cha ac e isa ion o h ee key aspec s in he o ma ion p ocesses o a chaeological pen deposi s: su ace c us s de i ed om subae ial exposu e ela ed o pe iods o abandonmen o a pen; compac ion, ela ed o he ac ion o li es ock du ing hei s ay; and combus ion esidues, bo h in si u and dis u bed. 2.3.5. S udy o he dispe sion o he ma e ial Ano he p oblema ic ela ing o a chaeological pens is he spa ial dispe sion o he ma e ial, gi en he e y dynamic con ex whe e he objec s may ha e been displaced bo h ho izon ally and e ically. The e a e cases documen ed o a chaeological con ex s whe e i is clea ha he e has been ansloca ion and mixing o objec s, oge he wi h o he s whe e he ma e ial seems no o ha e been displaced. To documen he condi ions o de e mining one o ano he o hese si ua ions, we pe iodically placed g oups o objec s in he pen a e a i al he animals (mainly s one ools, po e y and skele al emains). The objec s a e deposi ed on he su ace, in a ious a eas o he pen ha p esen di e en opog aphic ea u es. The objec s a e a ached o one o mo e agmen s o me al pla es (depending on he size and possibili y o ac u ing) and a e numbe ed o easy iden ifica ion and loca ion. The elemen s ha a e co e ed and hidden by he animals can hus be loca ed wi h he aid o a me al de ec o . Thei h ee-dimensional posi ion is eco - ded wi h a To al S a ion, a he ime o abandonmen and hen moni o ed pe iodically: when he he d lea es he pen; be o e and a e heaping and dung bu ning. The da a on he mo emen o he objec s allows us o iden i y he mos likely con ex associa ed wi h he ansloca ion pa e ns, including he mixing o ma e ials o mo e s able con ex s. In addi ion, he da a collec ed allows us o e alua e he a iabili y in he deg ee o displacemen o he objec s, while aking in o accoun hei physical cha ac e is ics. The esul s should help esea che s o es ablish c i e ia o es ima e he displacemen su e ed by he objec s in a chaeological si es. 2.3.6. Taphonomy Thanks o a ious p og ammed expe imen s, we will ob ain a wide ange o objec s well known in aphonomic p ocesses. Once he expe imen s comple e, hese objec s will become pa o a e e ence collec ion ha will be use ul o in e p e ing he changes obse ed in a chaeological ma e ials (bone and bo anical emains, ce amics, and s one emains). To acili a e he iden ifica ion and documen a ion o he modi- fica ions unde gone by he objec s, hey a e pho og aphically documen ed and, in cases whe e changes a e mic oscopic, wi h he aid o op ical and elec on mic oscopes, ob aining high esolu ion moulds and cas s. 2.3.7. A chaeomagne ism The magne ic p ope ies p esen in he dung accumula ion ela ed o he inc ease in hea caused by combus ion we e analysed o unde s and hei beha iou (Ca ancho e al., 2016). This da a is use ul as a e e ence o s udies ha a e being conduc ed on dung bu ning in p ehis o ic pens and ha a e aimed a ob aining da a abou geomagne ic secula a ia ion, aphonomic al e a ions o ash deposi s, and o de e mining he maximum empe a u es eached (Ca ancho e al., 2012, 2013). 3. The dung combus ion expe imen The p ac ice o bu ning dung heaps in p ehis o ic pens loca ed in ock shel e s o ca es has been widely documen ed, and is one o he mos cha ac e is ic ea u es o his ype o sedimen a y deposi . Howe e , he e is no expe imen al da a a ailable o help us o in e p e he phenomena obse ed in a chaeological eco ds. Some s udies ha e been done, bu hey ha e been conduc ed by bu ning dung away om he pens which does no allow o documen he ole o he subs a e in he de elopmen o combus ion (Ve g es, 2011). One o he main goals o his expe imen was o documen he he mal cu e o dung bu ning and o ela e he empe a u es eached o he colou ange o he ashes. The aim was o obse e how some o he a iables, such as humidi y and dung shape (al eady obse ed expe imen ally in p e ious app oaches ou side a pen), a ec ed he combus ion p ocess. Mos o hese a iables de e mined he de elopmen o he combus ion. This is he case o dung conse a ion, he shape o he exc emen s and he deg ee o mois u e (Ve g es, 2011). The aim was hus o define unde wha condi ions he combus ion was limi ed o he piled-up dung, he mos common si ua ion in a chaeological eco ds, and a wha momen he fi e sp ead o he subs a e, causing o al o pa ial bu ning o he emaining deposi s. Ano he highly ele an aspec was he es ing o hypo heses ega ding he necessa y condi ions ha ensu ed he p ese a ion o he ashes once he flock occupied he space again. So, i Fig. 4. Incine a ing p ocess o he heaps du ing he 2014 expe imen al field season. J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 5 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 accumula ions o ash we e a ec ed by he ansi o li es ock we documen ed he changes and modifica ions su e ed and hei e olu ion. The objec i e was o ob ain da a o es ablish he ime span be ween he occupa ion and he abandonmen o he pen and iden i y ela ed li es ock managemen p ac ices. 4. Ma e ials and me hods To ca y ou he expe imen we used di e en p ocedu es and echnical equipmen ha will be desc ibed in he ollowing pa a- g aphs. P io o he heaping p ocess, he su ace was scanned using Fig. 5. 3D model o he Mas del Pepe pen wi h he loca ion o he expe imen al heaps and humidi y samples om he 2014 and 2015 expe imen al field season (uppe ). 3D model p ofile o he Mas del Pepe pen (middle). In e nal iew o he Mas del Pepe pen a e bu ning du ing he 2015 field season (bo om). J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e126 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 a FARO Focus 3D scan lase . This p ocedu e was epea ed when he bu ning was finished. The aim o his p ocedu e was o quan i y he educ ion in olume o he dung. Be o e bu ning, he dung heaps we e sampled o calcula e hei ela i e humidi y. This measu emen was ca ied ou by weighing he sample wi h p ecision scales once i had been collec ed and hen epea ing he p ocess a e lea ing he sample in a mu fle u nace a 50  C o 18 days. The ligh ing o he heaps was ca ied ou using d ied Que cus ilex b anches ha we e pu on and nex o he piles (Fig. 4). The b anches we e li using d ied g asses. As obse ed in p e ious expe imen s, his igni ion me hod is he bes o e all when he humidi y a e o he heaps is high. Tempe a u es we e eco ded wi h digi al he mome e s (models TL-309 and PCE-T 390) wi h ype K he mocouples (Ch omel-Alumel). In he 2014 expe imen , wo he mome e s we e fixed o each heap; one a he base in a cen al posi ion in con ac wi h he soil (p obe 1) and a second one in he middle o he pile (p obe 2). Fo he second expe imen ano he one was also placed in he side (p obe 3). In addi ion, 2 ae ial he mome e s we e placed in he enclosu e's ceiling (p obes 4a and 4b) o mea- su e gasses and he he mal inc ease in he in e io o he enclosu e. Wea he o ecas da a, including empe a u e and ela i e ai humidi y, du ing he pe iod he expe imen was ca ied ou we e aken by he me eo ological s a ion a Rojals. This is si ua ed 1650 m om he enclosu e, a 975 m a.s.l. and 100 m abo e he enclosu e. 5. Resul s Up o now, wo expe imen s o bu ning dung ma e ial accu- mula ed inside he Mas del Pepe enclosu e ha e been conduc ed; one in 2014 and one in 2015. 5.1. The 2014 combus ion expe imen The fi s expe imen was ca ied ou on he dung deposi s accumula ed du ing he li es ock's s ays in 2011, 2012 and 2013. Du ing ha pe iod, no cleaning o he dung was ca ied ou . On 10 h Ma ch 2014, ou dung heaps we e piled up a he ou e /open ai pa o he enclosu e (pile 2014-1) and h ee heaps unde he oo (heaps 2014-2, 3 and 4) (Fig. 5). We decided o make a single pile ou side because o he ain all om he p e ious days ha caused a 70% humidi y le el (Fig. 6: samples 14-H3 and 14-H4) which migh ha e p e en ed ligh ing. The inne mos pa s o he dung heaps we e clea ly d ie wi h humidi y alues o a ound 25% (Fig. 6: samples 14-H1 and 14-H2). A he op o he heaps wo defined laye s could be obse ed, a supe ficial one o med by disagg ega ed and loose dung lying o e a second laye o a compac , lamina ed dung laye co e ing he en i e su ace o he enclosu e. This supe ficial laye was deposi ed du ing he las s ay o he li es ock be ween May and No embe 2013. A small pi dug in o he dung deposi pe mi ed a p io analysis o he bu ning p ocess o al e na e loose and compac ed dung o be Fig. 6. Humidi y con ol samples co esponding o 2014 and 2015 expe imen al field season. Pe cen ages o humidi y and emaining ma e . J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 7 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 epea ed unde nea h as a consequence o he di e en seasonal isi s o he li es ock. Piles we e buil up wi h he loose dung o obse e i he fi e would be limi ed o he heaps o would p opaga e o he compac laye unde nea h. Heaps unde he oo a ea we e loca ed nex o he en ance (2014-2), in he cen al a ea (2014-3) and he hi d one was in he inne pa nex o he wall (2014-4). The combus ion p ocess o he piles was begun on he mo ning o 11 h Ma ch 2014. As expec ed, he heap loca ed in he ou e pa o he enclosu e did no bu n a all. The high le el o humidi y did no allow he fi e o sp ead om he b anches. The heaps loca ed inside he enclosu e s a ed bu ning immedia ely, slowly, wi hou a flame and c ea ing abundan smoke, as is usual in dung-bu ning p ocesses (Fig. 7). A e a ew hou s he combus ion sp ead ou o he compac ed dung laye . This was isible on he su ace as a a deepe laye , showed by he p esence o small uma oles in a eas whe e no combus ion was isible. The combus ion sp ead slowly o he en i e enclosu e, as is s anda d in dung combus ion p ocesses: slow ou wa d sp ead, low o no flames (small flames o abou a ew cen ime es ha come ou o he fissu es) and a la ge amoun o low- empe a u e smoke. A e 42 h he fi e was pu ou by fi emen a e he u al agen in he a ea ecei ed an eme gency call. The smoke om he enclosu e, seen some kilome es away, c ea ed an ale . The p essu ised wa e used o pu ou he fi e almos en i ely des oyed he ash deposi and he dung ha was s ill bu ning. The mal da a ob ained show ha he maximum empe a u e did no exceed 600  C and also ha he empe a u e inc ease was slow and g adual. Only p obe 2 om he 2014-2 pile wen clea ly abo e he he mal poin o inflexion. We canno be su e o he maximum empe a u es o he o he p obes, bu hey we e p ob- ably he same as hose obse ed in p e ious expe imen s. Maximum empe a u es we e he same as expe imen al da a ha showed ha non-deg aded dung, wi h s uc u es ha did no allow ai ci cula ion (loose and lamina ed, compac ed dung), did no exceed 650  C and oscilla ed be ween 500 and 650  C(Ve g es, 2011). Du ing his expe imen we obse ed ha he posi ion o he heap in he inne a ea a ec ed he combus ion p ocess. The 2014-2 heap, loca ed nex o he en ance, eco ded he as es combus ion and a sligh fluc ua ion o he he mal cu e. The 2014-3 pile, loca ed a he en ance o he enclosu e/pen, eco ded a slowe empe a u e inc ease, and he combus ion o 2014-4 heap, loca ed in he inne a ea, was he slowes . These di e ences occu ed as a consequence o he en e ing o a he modynamic ai flow gene a ed by combus ion. The ou pu o smoke h ough he op o he access opening gene a ed a s eam o ai in ake a he bo om: oxygen o combus ion. I mainly a ec ed he 2014-2 heap, which was jus in on o he doo ; i a ec ed he 2014-3 heaps loca ed in he cen al pa o a lesse ex en ; and a ec ed he 2014-4 heaps loca ed a he bo om e y li le. 5.2. The 2015 combus ion expe imen The second expe imen was ca ied ou on he dung deposi ed du ing he 2014 May o No embe season and on op o he emains om he p e ious expe imen . Du ing he 2014 expe imen he uppe a ea o he enclosu e was no a ec ed by combus ion and so he dung accumula ions om 2011 o 2013 we e s ill he e. In con as , he dung in he lowe a ea had bu n i egula ly. In he places whe e he e we e heaps, he combus ion was almos o al, whe eas only he uppe laye o he es we e a ec ed. In he a ea o maximal combus ion he e we e soil dep essions as a consequence o he educ ion in olume o he dung a e combus ion. The wa e used o pu ou he fi e d agged he combus ion esidues and unbu n dung o he dep essions, gene a ing a laye o mixed ma e ials. These dep essions we e no o ally co e ed and he su ace emained i egula . The i egula su ace and he slope ( he dep essions we e loca ed on he lowe pa ) caused he dung deposi ed du ing 2014 o be dis ibu ed he e ogeneously o e he enclosu e's su ace. I was p e e en ially accumula ed in he dep essed a eas un il hey we e en i ely co e ed, whe eas in he uppe pa o he enclosu e ha was no a ec ed by combus ion he e was no inc ease in he deposi s. Summing up, a he beginning o he expe imen , he dung deposi s showed wo di e en a eas: one loca ed in he uppe pa o he enclosu e o med by dung om 2012 o 2013, deposi ed on he bed ock, and ano he , o med almos en i ely o dung om he 2014 season and loca ed in he lowe pa o he enclosu e, laying o e he laye gene a ed a e he ex inc ion o he fi e. The la e consis ed o a mix u e o combus ion esidues and dung. Fo he 2015 expe imen we made 9 piles wi h he loose dung om he su ace and he compac ed and lamina ed laye below (Fig. 5). In he hal uppe a ea o he enclosu e his ha d laye was p obably made up o deposi ions om 2013, whe eas he lowe pa was om ones om 2014. The mal da a we e con olled om wo heaps, heap 2015-1 and heap 2015-2. Heaps 2015-1 and 2015-2 we e loca ed in he lowe a ea whe e mos o he dung accumu- la ed in 2014. Howe e heap 2015-1 was no a ec ed by he p e- ious combus ion and had dung om 2011 o 2013, whe eas o heap 2015-2 all he dung was om 2014. The mean humidi y o heaps 2015-1 (Fig. 6: samples 15-H1 and 15-H2) and 2015-2 (Fig. 6: samples 15-H4 and 15-H5) was 43.79%, wi h a maximum o 45.39% o heap 2015-1 and 46.59% o heap 2015-2. The alues o he subs a e we e 52.4% and 54.2% (Fig. 6: samples 15-H3 and 15-H6). The combus ion o he uppe a ea o he enclosu e sp ead ou owa ds he dung deposi s on which hey lay, made up o dung om 2011 o 2013. This dung bu n comple ely down o he bed ock. In con as , in he lowe pa combus ion was limi ed o he heaped dung and a small a ea o he pe ime e . The he mal da a om he wo con olled heaps show some di e ences (Fig. 8) Heap 2015-1 shows e y simila alues o 451, 515 and 544 o p obes 1, 2 and 3, whe eas heap 2015-2 showed alues o 565, 809 and 1,369  C o p obes 1, 2 and 3. In heap 2015-1 he e we e empe a u e oscilla ions ha we e p obably ela ed o he olume ha he heap los . The maximal empe a u e eached a he base o he heap (p obe 1) was he same as ha o he s a ing poin o he uppe p obes (p obes 2 and 3). Du ing he las phase a new inc ease in he empe a u e a he base was eco ded in he same way p io o he final dec ease. Fig. 7. The 2014-2 dung heaps du ing he combus ion p ocess. J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e128 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032 This phenomenon was basically ela ed o he ac ha as a consequence o he g adual loss o olume du ing he bu ning p ocess he he mome e mo ed e ically and eloca ed o places whe e he e was s ill combus ion. This mo emen and he conse- quen he mal oscilla ion was he same as ha which he ma e ials in he dung unde wen . The same p ocess allows o an explana ion o he oscilla ion o p obes 1 and 2 om heap 2015-2, bu no o he s ong fluc ua ions o p obe 3. In his case i was p obably due o he e ec o he wind. I s loca ion a he pe ime e o a heap exposed o he ex e io makes his he mos likely possibili y. In he o he cases, ai flow canno be disca ded as a cause o he mal oscilla ion, such as wind o d augh s gene a ed by he combus ion he modynamics inside he enclosu e. Bu in any case, hey a e less impo an and a e di ficul o dis inguish om he ones p oduced by he mo emen o he p obes. The case o p obe 3 is abno mal as i s opped eco ding da a a e eco ding a empe a u e o 1,369  C. This alue is e y di e en om hose documen ed in p e ious dung expe imen s. We he e o e do no ha e an explana ion o his da a, bu i could be an e o in he measu emen . The ae ial p obe eached a maximum empe a u e o 69.7  C du ing he ime ha he b anches we e bu ning. Du ing he dung combus ion he ae ial p obe oscilla ed be ween 40 and 20  C. The combus ion o heap 2015-1 s a ed on Ma ch 2nd 2015 a 11:30 and empe a u es we e con olled un il 7:45 on Ma ch 16 h Fig. 8. The mal da a om he hea ing p ocess 2015-1 and 2015-2. The X axis indica es he hou s and he Y axis he empe a u e in C. J.M. Ve g es e al. / Qua e na y In e na ional xxx (2016) 1e12 9 Please ci e his a icle in p ess as: Ve g es, J.M., e al., The Mas del Pepe expe imen al p og amme o he s udy o p ehis o ic li es ock p ac ices: P elimina y da a om dung bu ning, Qua e na y In e na ional (2016), h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.quain .2016.01.032