disponí el em www.scielo.b /p c
105
Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s which A ec
Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s
Es ilo Cogni i o e Es a égias de Ap endizagem em Es udan es Uni e si á ios
B asilei os: Repe cussões no Rendimen o Acadêmico
Ca olina Tinaje o*, a, Sônia Ma ia Lemosb, Ma ga e e A aújob,
M. José Fe acesa & M. Fe nanda Pá amoa
aUni e sidad de San iago de Compos ela, San iago de Compos ela, España
& bUni e sidade Lu e ana do B asil, Canoas, B asil
Abs ac
In he p esen s udy, he in luence o he cogni i e s yle called ield dependence-independence on aca-
demic achie emen o B azilian uni e si y s uden s was explo ed as well as he media ing e ec o lea n-
ing s a egies on ha in luence. Lea ning s a egies o 313 i s -yea uni e si y s uden s (189 women and
124 men; M age = 20.86, SD = 3.86) om di e en ields, wi h uppe , medium and lowe sco es on ield
dependence-independence we e assessed on a sel - epo ques ionnai e and hei o e all academic ma ks
in he i s yea we e egis e ed. Resul s o a eg ession analysis showed ha cogni i e s yle and lea ning
s a egies signi ican ly con ibu ed o academic achie emen . A pa h analysis e ealed ha planning s a -
egies media ed he in luence o cogni i e s yle on achie emen .
Keywo ds: Field dependence-independence, cogni i e s yle, lea ning s a egies, sel - egula ed lea ning,
academic achie emen .
Resumo
No p esen e es udo, a in luência do es ilo cogni i o dependência-independência de campo no endimen o
acadêmico de es udan es uni e si á ios b asilei os oi explo ada, bem como o e ei o mediado das es a égias
de ap endizagem nes a in luência. As es a égias de ap endizagem de 313 es udan es uni e si á ios de
p imei o cu so (189 mulhe es e 124 homens, idade M=20,86, DP= 3,86) a pa i de di e en es domínios,
com pon uações ele adas, in e mediá ias e baixas em dependência-independência de campo, o am a aliadas
em um au o ques ioná io e as suas médias globais de endimen o acadêmico no p imei o ano o am
egis adas. Resul ados de uma análise de eg essão mos a am que o es ilo cogni i o e as es a égias de
ap endizagem con ibuem signi ica i amen e pa a o sucesso acadêmico. Uma pa h analysis e elou que as
es a égias de planejamen o mediam a in luência do es ilo cogni i o na sua ealização.
Pala as-cha e: Dependência-independência de campo, es ilo cogni i o, es a égias de ap endizagem,
ap endizagem au o egulada, desempenho acadêmico.
* Add ess: Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de
la Educación, Uni e sidad de San iago de Compos ela,
Facul ad de Psicología, Rúa Xosé Ma ía Suá ez Núñez,
s/n, Campus Vida, San iago de Compos ela, España
15782. E-mail: [email p o ec ed].
Cogni i e s yles a e de ined as consis en pa e ns o
unc ioning which a e mainly p esen in pe cep ual and
in ellec ual ac i i y (Rayne & Riding 1997; Riding,
1997). They es ablish a quali a i e app oach o beha-
io , in con as o he dominan quan i a i e app oach
ou lined by ap i udinal dimensions (Messick, 1994).
The e o e, going beyond he labels o pe sonal pe -
o mance, hey desc ibe endencies o con on ing di e-
en si ua ions, guiding he in e p e a ion o supe io i y
o disad an age in ce ain ci cums ances and sugges ing
ways o in e en ion.
Field dependence-independence is conside ed one o
he mos heu is ic cogni i e s yle cons uc s (Messick,
1996; P ice, 2004; S e nbe g, G igo enko, & Zahn, 2008;
S e nbe g & Williams, 2002) and has been shown
consis en ly o de e mine academic p o essional ajec o y
(Guisande, Pá amo, Soa es, & Almeida, 2007a), he way
eache s each (E ans, 2004) and he ype o in e ac ion
be ween eache and s uden (Sa acho, 2000). Mo eo e ,
depending on he p oximi y o he ex emes o he
dimension, indi iduals show di e se ways o in o ma ion
p ocessing which seem o modula e hei academic
achie emen . In ac , we can asse ha ield-dependence
places s uden s a isk o poo school ou comes, whe eas
ield-independence a o s a s uden ’s success (Cano,
2006; Danili & Reid, 2006; Ga on, Ball, & Dye , 2002;
Hede ich, 2004; Tinaje o & Pá amo, 1997, 1998; Zhang
Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica, 25
(1), 105-113.
106
& S e nbe g, 2005). The same e ec s ha e been obse ed
o B azilian accoun ing s uden s (Oli ei a, Oli ei a, &
Souza, 2009). The in luence o cogni i e s yle on
achie emen o s uden s om o he uni e si y discipli-
nes and om lowe educa ional le els emains unexplo ed
in B azilian con ex .
The esea ch on in o ma ion p ocessing and i s ela ion
o cogni i e s yle, has e ealed some ends ha could
explain di e ences in achie emen . Field-independen
indi iduals, who a e cha ac e ized by con idence in
in e nal e e ences and in hei own c i e ia, end o assu-
me an analy ical app oach owa ds in o ma ion ha allows
hem o b eak i down in o i s componen pa s and
es uc u e i acco ding o hei needs. This appea s o
enable spon aneous mul iple ope a ions using he
in o ma ion, such as classi ying i o gene a ing ela ed
in e ences and hypo heses. As a consequence, indi iduals
wi h a ield-independen s yle a e conside ed ac i e
p ocesso s (Guisande, Pá amo, Tinaje o, & Almeida,
2007b; Rozencwajg, 1991; Tsakanikos, 2006).
In con as , indi iduals wi h a ield-dependen s yle a e
mo e sensi i e o ex e nal clues and hus end o ake
in o ma ion exac ly as i is p esen ed o hem, and in wha
appea s o be an e o o cap u e he s uc u e o his
in o ma ion, hey no mally a end o i s global aspec s.
This endency is an obs uc ion o in ellec ual asks ha
demand ocus on isola ed elemen s wi hin a pe cep i e
o symbolic whole – as in he pe cep ual disembedding
asks used as measu es o cogni i e s yle – o in hose
ha in ol e es uc u ing o in o ma ion. Mo eo e , he
global app oach a o s a passi e, expec an a i ude in
he ace o in ellec ual asks (Bake & Dwye , 2005; S.
Y. Chen, Magoulas, & Mac edie, 2004; Handal &
He ing on, 2004).
Apa om hese gene al desc ip ions, we need da a on
he speci ic pe o mance o indi iduals in an educa io-
nal con ex as ela ed o ield-dependen and ield-
independen cogni i e s yles. They would enable us o
design aining p og ams o subjec s wi h di e en
cogni i e s yles and o adjus he ins uc ional design o
hem. A way o app oaching his issue would be explo-
ing he ela ionship be ween ield dependence-indepen-
dence and lea ning s a egies, which a e ega ded as
essen ial o academic achie emen ; hei aining is
conside ed one o he main means o educing academic
ailu e (Bo ucho i ch, 1999; Ma ín, Ga cía, To bay, &
Rod íguez, 2008; Pin ich & De G oo , 1990; Pocinho,
2010; V ug & Oo , 2008).
Fo he momen , he a ailable da a on he ela ionship
o cogni i e s yle wi h lea ning s a egies a e mainly
de i ed om esea ch ocusing on o he aspec s, like
academic achie emen , cogni i e p ocessing, o adap a-
ion o ins uc ional me hods and ma e ials. Ne e heless,
he indings allow ad ancemen o speci ic hypo heses.
In o de o p o ide an o e iew o he cu en s a e o
empi ical knowledge, we’ll ake as e e ences he classi-
ica ions made by Danse eu (1985), Ki by (1984) and
Weins ein and Maye (1986), gi en he suppo hey ha e
ecei ed and hei cohe ence wi h he la es models o
academic lea ning. Basing on hei simila i ies, we may
dis inguish h ee ypes o lea ning s a egies: suppo o
esou ces managemen s a egies, cogni i e s a egies
o mic o-s a egies and me a-cogni i e s a egies o
mac o-s a egies.
Suppo o esou ces managemen s a egies a e de i-
ned as hose applied o bo h pe sonal and con ex ual con-
di ions o lea ning asks and modula ing pupils’ le els o
engagemen . These s a egies include mo i a ional and
oli ional con ol, en i onmen al s uc u ing, and help-
seeking ac i i ies (Danse eu, 1985; Ki by, 1984; Pin ich,
Smi h, Ga cía, & McKeachie, 1991; Ve mun , 1996;
Weins ein & Maye , 1986; Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons,
1990). S udies on adap i e eaching ha e b ough ou
mo i a ional di e ences due o cogni i e s yle such as
di e en ial e ec s o compe i i e si ua ions, incen i es
and eedback on lea ning (Boloco sky, 1980; Ennis,
1991). Ne e heless, o he momen , da a a e lacking
abou he ela ion o ield-dependence wi h he use o
suppo s a egies as hose a o emen ioned.
Cogni i e s a egies o mic o-s a egies a e used o
encode, comp ehend, and e ie e da a o a ain speci ic
lea ning goals (Danse eu, 1985; Ki by, 1984; Pin ich e
al., 1991; Ve mun , 1996; Weins ein & Maye , 1986;
Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons, 1990). They encompass
ep oduc ion, selec ion, elabo a ion, and o ganiza ion
ac i i ies. Some s udies ha e e ealed ha ield-dependen
s uden s a e mo e p one o use ep oduc ion s a egies
compa ed o o he s, whe he he lea ning ma e ial is
simple, such as a wo d lis , o complex, such as a digi al
cou se (F ank & Keene, 1993; Liu & Reed, 1994); ha
is, hey end o simply epea he in o ma ion o ally o
men ally. Cu en ly, nei he he ela ion o he cogni i e
s yle wi h use o his s a egy, no he consequences o
e ie al, ha e ye been explo ed.
Using selec ion s a egies, s uden s sepa a e ele an
om seconda y, edundan , o con using in o ma ion, o
acili a e a deepe p ocessing o he o me ; ela ed ac ions
comp ise no e- aking and summa izing. When s uden s
wi h ield-dependen and ield-independen cogni i e
s yles a e compa ed in ela ion o no e- aking skills on
w i en ex s, he g oups p oduce simila ly p ecise and
o ganized no es (Annis, 1979; Kiew a & F ank, 1986;
S e n & Hassanein, 1992) and, in ac , he e ie al by
bo h g oups is equally enhanced by no e- aking (Ricka ds,
Fajen, Sulli an, & Gillespie, 1997). Howe e , when no-
es mus be aken om o al speech, s uden s wi h ield-
independen s yle used ewe wo ds han hose wi h ield-
dependen s yle, sugges ing ha he o me lean on
p e ious knowledge o a g ea e ex en (F ank, 1984).
This idea i s Feh enbach’s (1994) da a abou summa-
ies o w i en ex s, which sugges ha s uden s wi h
ield-independen s yle a e no only mo e p one o spon-
aneously summa ies school ma e ials, bu hey a e mo e
accu a e when in i ed o use his s a egy and, as a
107
Tinaje o, C., Lemos, S. M., A aújo, M., Fe aces, M. J. & Pá amo, M. F. (2012). Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s
which A ec Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s.
consequence, hey emembe mo e o al in o ma ion.
S uden s use elabo a ion s a egies when hey add
meaning o he lea ning ma e ial by making symbolic
cons uc ions. Simple and complex elabo a ion a e
commonly dis inguished, he i s consis ing o o ming
an in eg a ed whole ( o example an image o a sen ence)
associa ing pieces o he in o ma ion o be e ained (as
i ems on a lis ). On he o he hand, complex elabo a ion
consis s o ela ing new ma e ial o p e ious knowledge
logically o by analogy (Danse eu, 1985; Ki by, 1984;
Pin ich e al., 1991; Ve mun , 1996; Weins ein & Maye ,
1986; Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons, 1990). S udies on
simple elabo a ion s a egies, such as isual image y o
e bal associa ion, sugges ha ield-independen
lea ne s a e mo e p one o au onomously use his ype
o p ocess (Co son, Ve ie & Bucic, 2009; James &
Moo e, 1991; Tsakanikos, 2006), and when ins uc ions
o pe o m hem a e gi en, e en ion imp o es o a
g ea e ex en among hose wi h ield-independen s yle
in he case o image y s a egies (Ca ie , Joseph, Key,
& LaC oix, 1983; Pie ce, 1980).
Da a abou complex elabo a ion a e mo e cla i ying
abou he lea ning p ocess. S uden s wi h ield-dependen
s yle ob ain be e sco es on analogies es s when pai s o
ela ed wo ds a e gi en (Johnson & Rosano, 1993). Those
wi h ield-independen s yle, howe e , show g ea e ease
a gene a ing analogous concep s by hemsel es, based
on hei p io knowledge (An onie i & Giole a, 1994;
Johnson & Rosano, 1993); in ac , hey seem mo e p one
o use, ans e , and modi y hei own p io concep s (Al-
Jubaili, 2002; Coch an & Da is, 1987; Kang, Scha mann,
Noh, & Koh, 2005; Spi o & Ti e, 1980). Pe haps his
endency is also in ol ed in he way s uden s wi h
di e en cogni i e s yles use he sel -ques ioning s a egy.
S uden s wi h ield-independen s yle a e mo e speci ic
when gene a ing ques ions abou ex s o be lea ned,
al hough his cha ac e is ic is no associa ed wi h be e
esul s on ecall (Adejumo, 1983).
O ganiza ional s a egies a e he iden i ica ion o
assignmen o s uc u e o new ma e ial, o example, by
ou lining, clus e ing, concep mapping o ske ching a
ne wo k o diag am o he impo an ideas (Danse eu,
1985; Ki by, 1984; Pin ich e al., 1991; Ve mun , 1996;
Weins ein & Maye , 1986; Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons,
1990). S uden s wi h ield-independen s yle ha e shown
a g ea e endency o use his ype o s a egy: speci ically,
o a clus e ing s a egy, ei he applied o d awings o o
ex s (Cowa d & Lange, 1979; F ank & Keene, 1993)
and o ne wo king o making diag ams o memo izing
a ex (Emme , Cli o d, & Gwye , 2003; Feh enbach,
1994; Kah z, 1999). Ne e heless, his wide s uc u ing
endency does no lead o be e e ie al, excep in he
case o g aphical da a ecall (Cowa d & Lange, 1979;
Lipsky, 1989; O’Conno & Blowe s, 1980).
Finally, some au ho s ha e shown in e es in me a-
cogni i e s a egies o mac os a egies which include
ac i i ies ha help s uden s in hei lea ning planning,
moni o ing, and e alua ion. An associa ion o ield-
dependence wi h he desi e o plan and moni o one’s own
lea ning has been egis e ed, as well as a g ea e e iciency
o hese p ocesses (Ab aham, 1983; Bou in & Chinien,
1992; Liu & Reed, 1994). In ac , s uden s wi h ield-
independen s yle main ain a g ea e consciousness o hei
lea ning expe iences and hei pe sonal ole in hem
(Bou in & Chinien, 1992).
The p esen wo k aims o p o ide da a on he in luence
o cogni i e s yle academic achie emen in B azilian
s uden popula ion and o e alua e he possible p edic i e
alue o he cogni i e s yle dimensions and lea ning
s a egies on academic achie emen ; besides p oposing
an explana o y model o achie emen aking in o accoun
he a iables men ioned abo e.
Me hod
Pa icipan s
The sample selec ed in his s udy consis ed o 313 i s
yea uni e si y s uden s aged be ween 17 and 30 (M =
20.86, SD = 3.86). They a ended cou ses in: Ag icul u e,
Adminis a ion, A chi ec u e, Biology, Accoun ing, Law,
En i onmen al Enginee ing, Mechanical Enginee ing,
Elec ical Enginee ing, Chemical Enginee ing, Ci il
Enginee ing, Nu sing, Physio he apy, Psychology,
Chemis y and In o ma ion Sys ems. They we e s uden s
a Manaus Uni e si y Cen e /AM and om he Ins i u e
o Uni e si y Educa ion in I umbia a/GO.
Ins umen s
Field Dependence-independence. The G oup
Embedded Figu es Tes (Wi kin, Ol man, Raskin, & Ka p,
1971) was adminis e ed a e been ansla ed in o
Po uguese. The es consis s o a bookle con aining 25
complex geome ic designs, so ed in o h ee sec ions. The
i s sec ion consis s o se en di e en designs as p ac ice
o he ac ual es , which consis s o wo sec ions, each
one comp ising nine complex igu es. The las page o
he bookle con ains eigh simple igu es. The ask consis s
o inding and ma king he indica ed simple designs wi hin
he complex designs. The pa icipan is gi en a maximum
o i e minu es o comple e each o he wo las sec ions.
The es sco e is he o al numbe o igu es co ec ly
loca ed. The alpha coe icien o he G oup Embedded
Figu es Tes has been epo ed as .82 (Wi kin e al., 1971).
Kepne and Neima k (1984) epo ed es - e es eliabili y
coe icien s o e h ee di e en in e als as be ween.78
and .92. Addi ionally, he G oup Embedded Figu es Tes
exhibi ed c i e ion alidi y by co ela ions wi h he
Embedded Figu es Tes and he Rod and F ame Tes
(Wi kin e al., 1971).
Academic Achie emen . Achie emen was measu ed by
he mean ma ks (compu ed on a scale om 0 o 10)
ob ained by he s uden s du ing he i s semes e .
Lea ning S a egies. S a egies we e assessed using he
Lea ning and S udy In en o y (LSSI; Weins ein, 1987),
Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica, 25
(1), 105-113.
108
ansla ed in o Po uguese by Figuei a and adap ed by
Ba alo (2006). This ques ionnai e is based on Weins ein
and Maye (1986)’s model and has eached g ea
di usion. I consis s o 77 ques ions dis ibu ed in o he
ollowing g ouping ca ego ies: (a) Anxie y, which co e s
conce n abou school and academic achie emen – wi h
a minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40; (b) A i ude,
which ela es o he alues ha s uden s a ibu e o school
and o he in e es o academic success in o de o ob ain
good jobs – wi h a minimum sco e o 7 and maximum o
35; (c) Concen a ion, which seeks o assess he abili y
ha he s uden has o di ec his/he a en ion and keep i
in academic ac i i ies – wi h a minimum sco e o 8 and
maximum o 40; (d) Mo i a ion, aims o e alua e
mo i a ional and oli ional con ol s a egies, ha is, he
sel -discipline and s eng h o wo k wi h de e mina ion,
and o e alua e i s sel -disposi ion o mee academic
equi emen s – wi h a minimum sco e o 9 and up o 45;
(e) S udy Auxilia ies, which seeks o examine he le el o
use o o ganiza ion s a egies – wi h a minimum sco e o
8 and maximum o 40; ( ) Time o ganiza ion, which seeks
o assess he ime managemen p inciples applica ion o
academic si ua ions; (g) In o ma ion P ocessing, which
aims a e alua ing he use o complex de elopmen
s a egies – wi h a minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o
40; (h) Selec ion o Main Ideas, which includes he
e alua ion o he abili y o iden i y wha in o ma ion is
o g ea e ele ance in a ex – wi h a minimum sco e o
6 and maximum o 30; (i) Ve i ica ion, which has he
pu pose o planning he s udy and assessmen es s –
wi h minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40; (j) Sel -
checking, which aims o e alua e he abili y o e ise
he ma e ial o be lea ned as well as o moni o he
unde s anding o his ma e ial – wi h a minimum sco e o
8 and maximum o 40.
Ba alo (2006) epo s in e nal consis ency a es
be ween .76 and .78 o he a ious subscales, and
co ela ion coe icien s be ween subscales o .12 and .62.
In he p esen s udy sample in e nal consis ency alues
o α = .90 o he scale and be ween .65 and .77 o
subscales we e ob ained.
P ocedu e
The esea ch p ojec had been submi ed o he E hics
Commi ee om Lu he an Uni e si y Cen e o Manaus
and he Lu he an Ins i u e o Uni e si y Educa ion in
I umbia a espec i ely and we e app o ed unde p o ocol
numbe s 017/2010 and 050/2010.
A e being old by eache s ha pa icipa ing in he
s udy would no in ol e any isk, and ha hei iden i ies
would be p ese ed, s uden s signed a F ee and Clea
Consen Fo m (FCCF). All es s we e adminis e ed in one-
hou sessions, ollowing he same o de o all
pa icipan s. The G oup Embedded Figu es Tes was
applied i s , o p e en an e ec o a igue p oduced in
he execu ion o he LASSI, since he la e akes abou
40 minu es o comple e.
Da a Analysis and Resul s
The i s objec i e o his s udy was o p o ide da a on
he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen
in B azilian college s uden s. The sample was di ided in o
h ee g oups ( hi ds), acco ding o sco es on he G oup
Embedded Figu es Tes . The lowe hi d o he dis i-
bu ion, consis ing o hose indi iduals whose sco es
we e be ween 0 and 3 (90 s uden s) was conside ed he
ield-dependen g oup. A he op, we e loca ed ield-
independen s uden s, wi h sco es be ween 9 and 18 (86
indi iduals). Finally, an in e media e g oup was dis in-
guished which was con o med by 137 s uden s wi h sco es
be ween 4 and 8.
An Analysis o Va iance (ANOVA) was used o com-
pa e mean ma ks o ield-dependen , ield-independen
and in e media e s uden s; signi ican di e ences we e
ob ained (F (2, 309) = 8.77, p = .0001). Pos hoc con as s
showed signi ican di e ences be ween ield-independen
and ield-dependen g oups (MI - Md = .640, p = .002)
and be ween he ield-dependen and in e media e g oups
(MD - MIN = -.630, p = .001). Howe e , no signi ican
di e ences we e obse ed be ween he ield-indepen-
den and in e media e g oups. Acco ding o hese da a,
ield-dependen s uden s ob ained poo e academic achie-
emen han he o he wo g oups examined.
In o de o analyze he p edic i e alue o bo h cogni i e
s yle and lea ning s a egies in academic achie emen , a
linea eg ession analysis was conduc ed, using he
successi e s eps me hod, aking cogni i e s yle and sco es
on each LASSI subscale as independen a iables and he
academic achie emen as dependen a iable. Mo eo e ,
in o de o check whe he he sample o he p esen s udy
con ained a ypical alues, Cook’s s a is ic was applied and
in luence alues we e calcula ed esul ing in a maximum
sco e o .01 (i mus be less han 1) and an in luence poin
o .050 was ob ained (i mus n’ exceed 5); we may hen
assume ha he sample doesn’ con ain a ypical alues. The
esul s o his analysis a e shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Resul s o Linea Reg ession Analysis ha P edic s he
Academic Achie emen
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Ve i ica ion .416* .342* .317*
Mo i a ion .176* .178*
GEFT .140*
F60.74* 34.49 25.87
G.L 311 311 311
R2.173 .198 .217
Δ
R2.173 .026 .019
*p<.0001.
Acco ding o he analysis esul s, h ee a iables
signi ican ly a ec he academic achie emen (cogni i e
109
Tinaje o, C., Lemos, S. M., A aújo, M., Fe aces, M. J. & Pá amo, M. F. (2012). Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s
which A ec Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s.
s yle, planning s a egies, and mo i a ional and oli ional
con ol s a egies), accoun ing o 21% o he a iance.
Planning s a egies showed he g ea e e ec . Basing on
hese esul s, we p oposed an explana o y model o
achie emen , conside ing cogni i e s yle, oli ional and
mo i a ional con ol s a egies, and planning s a egies.
A s uc u al equa ions analysis (pa h-analysis) was
applied using he AMOS p og am, in o de o p o e i s
i ness. S anda dized es ima es a e shown in Figu e 1, as
well as a iance explained by he model and eg ession
weigh s o independen a iables. As no ed, e i ica ion
s a egies (β = .31) ha e a di ec and posi i e in luence,
ollowed by he GEFT a iable (β = .15), which also ac s
indi ec ly modula ed by he Ve i ica ion s a egies (.14 x
.31 = .043). An o e all e ec o .15 + .043 = .019 was
ob ained.
The mos commonly used indica o s acco ding o
Ben le (1990) a e: χ2 / gl (i s alue mus be less han 2;
in he p esen analysis a alue o 1.24 was ob ained), GFI
(Goodness o Fi Index: a alue close o 1 indica es a
good adjus men , a alue o .99 was ob ained), CFI
(Compa a i e Fi index: a alue close o 1 indica es a good
adjus men , a alue o .98 was ob ained) and RMSEA
(an index ela ed o deg ees o eedom: a alue less han
.05 indica es a good adjus men , a alue o .028 was
ob ained in he p esen s udy).
Finally he possible media ing ole o planning s a egies
in he ela ionship o cogni i e s yle wi h academic
achie emen was examined. A linea eg ession analysis
Figu e 1. S anda dized es ima es co esponding o he explana o y model o academic
achie emen .
was pe o med in h ee s eps (Ba on & Kenny, 1986 –
see Figu e 2). The i s one made possible o con i m he
ela ionship be ween he p edic ing a iable (cogni i e
s yle) and he dependen one ( he academic achie emen
– β = .058, p = .0001). The second one shows a cogni i e
s yle signi ican in luence on planning s a egies (media o
a iable – β = .267, p = .003). In he hi d s ep, he
in luence o lea ning s a egies on academic achie emen
was shown (β = .073, p = .0001). The Sobel es (1982)
con i med he signi ican e ec o he media ion p oposed
om he explana o y model (Z = 3.08, p = .001) and i
allowed o speci y ha he con ibu ion o cogni i e s yle,
mode a ed by he s a egies, was 8% o he o al a iance.
Figu e 2. Linea eg ession analysis pe o med o he sco es on planning s a egies,
cogni i e s yle and academic achie emen .
Mo i a ion
A chie emen
Ve i ica ion
E2
GEFT
E3
.15
.14 .31
.43
.15
A chie emen
Ve i ica ion
GEFT
.73
.267
.058

Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica, 25
(1), 105-113.
110
Discussion
The in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie-
emen was analyzed bo h wi h e e ence o speci ic
subjec s, as well as o o e all achie emen . The da a
a ailable indica e ha ield-dependen s uden s consis-
en ly ob ain wo se esul s han hei ield-independen
classma es. This end has been obse ed in di e en
educa ional le els and has been con i med wi h samples
om se e al cul u e o igins (Cano, 2006; Danili & Reid,
2006; Ga on e al., 2002; Hede ich, 2004; Oli ei a e al.,
2009; Tinaje o & Pá amo, 1997, 1998; Zhang &
S e nbe g, 2005). Howe e , we sca cely ha e da a o
B azilian s uden s. In acco dance wi h p e ious in es i-
ga ions, esul s om he p esen s udy show ha B azilian
college s uden s wi h high sco es on ield-dependence
ob ain lowe achie emen han hei pee s wi h lowe and
in e media e sco es. These esul s encou age he exami-
na ion o he p ocesses which de e mine he in luence o
cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen and places a
subs an ial pa o s uden popula ion a isk o academic
ailu e.
As no ed in he in oduc ion, in es iga ions ha e been
ca ied ou on how ield-dependen and ield-independen
indi iduals p ocess in o ma ion (Bake & Dwye , 2005;
S. Y. Chen e al., 2004; Guisande e al., 2007b; Handal &
He ing on, 2004; Rozencwajg, 1991; Tsakanikos, 2006).
Howe e , he e is a conside able gap be ween hese
in es iga ions and hose explo ing he ela ionship be -
ween ield dependence-independence and academic
achie emen . S udies om he in o ma ion p ocessing
poin o iew do no usually conside he implica ions o
hei esul s o educa ion. In he la e ype o s udy, he e
a e gene ally no a emp s o elucida e he speci ic p o-
cesses ha o igina e he obse ed di e ences in achie-
emen . Es ablishing links be ween bo h ypes o cogni-
i e s yle mani es a ions would se e as a good basis o
he design o aining p og ams o hose s a egies in
which ield-dependen s uden s show disad an age. A ew
a emp s ha e been made in his line (see e.g. Ludwig &
Lachni , 2004; Pennings, 1991; Rush & Moo e, 1991);
al hough o e ing p omising esul s, hey ha e been
limi ed o de ining cha ac e is ics o ield dependence-
independence (such as pe cep i e disembedding o analy-
ical p ocessing). O he measu es wi h g ea e ecological
alidi y emain unexplo ed.
The eg ession analysis pe o med in his s udy con-
i ms he p edic i e powe o ield dependence-indepen-
dence ega ding academic achie emen and e eals a
signi ican con ibu ion o sco es on LASSI subscales o
Mo i a ion and Ve i ica ion. App op ia e alues o in e nal
consis ency we e ob ained o he s udy sample wi h his
ques ionnai e.
Mo i a ion subscale measu es he s uden s’ abili y o
use mo i a ional and oli ional con ol s a egies, while
Ve i ica ion co e s i ems abou planning s udding and
assessmen es s. Bo h ypes o p ocesses ha e consis-
en ly been shown o ela e o academic achie emen
(Duckwo h & Seligman, 2008; G eene, Mille , C owson,
Duke, & Akey, 2004; No a, So esi, & Zimme man, 2004).
In he p esen s udy, cogni i e s yle and lea ning s a-
egies join ly explained he 21% o a iabili y on acade-
mic achie emen , an app eciable pe cen age i we con-
side he mul iplici y o si ua ional and pe sonal ac o s
wi h po en ial in luence, such as cogni i e skills (Rohde
& Thompson, 2006) o amily ela ionships (Fan & M.
Chen, 2001).
The p ocessing mode and o he pe sonal cha ac e is-
ics ela ed o cogni i e s yle seem o be condi ioning he
in e ac ion be ween he subjec s’ pe o mance as lea ne s
and educa ional con ex ual ac o s, p edic ably con o -
ming s able and consis en pa e ns o beha io associa ed
wi h eaching-lea ning si ua ion; hey could be a ec i e,
cogni i e and/o me a-cogni i e ypes o pa e ns. Thus,
we should pose he media o o mode a o ole ha mo-
i a ional and oli ional con ol s a egies and planning
s a egies could exe on he in luence o cogni i e s yle
on academic achie emen .
In he p esen s udy, an explana o y model o acade-
mic achie emen was sugges ed, aking in o accoun
cogni i e s yle and lea ning s a egies, and i was con i -
med h ough pa h analysis, suppo ing ha planning
s a egies could ac as a mode a ing a iable in he
in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen .
Planning is a me a-cogni i e p ocess p esen in sel -
egula ed lea ning, which includes se ing objec i es and
planning s a egies, con en s and con ex ual esou ces o
be used du ing he academic ask (Pin ich, 2002;
Zimme man, 2002). In a s udy by Liu and Reed (1994)
wi h a uni e si y sample, ield-independen s uden s
we e ound o impose a pe sonal sequence on a compu e
cou se hey had o ollow, while hei ield dependen
classma es ollowed he sequence es ablished by he
cou se. These esul s a e consis en wi h hose ob ained
in he p esen s udy, which has e ealed ha ield
independence a o s he use o planning s a egies.
In addi ion, he di e en ial endency o plan own lea -
ning, seems o e lec in academic achie emen , ac ing as
mode a o on he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic
success o ailu e. I has been sugges ed ha con idence
in he in e nal e e ences which cha ac e izes ield-inde-
penden subjec s is mo e in ha mony wi h me a-cogni i e
unc ioning: his could lead o an ea lie and mo e e i-
cien de elopmen o me acogni i e abili ies (Bou in &
Chinien, 1992; Da is & Coch an, 1990; Liu & Reed,
1994). I his is he case and conside ing he esul s o
his s udy, speci ic aining in planning s a egies om
p ima y educa ion le els should be ega ded as an
immedia e s ep in a ending lea ning di e si y due o
cogni i e s yle in academic con ex s. Se e al p oposals
o eaching p og ams ha e been made wi h his aim,
co e ing objec i es o mula ion, p ocedu es selec ion and
sel -compe ence belie s, among o he s (see o example
Núñez e al., 2011; P essley & Ha is, 2006).
111
Tinaje o, C., Lemos, S. M., A aújo, M., Fe aces, M. J. & Pá amo, M. F. (2012). Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s
which A ec Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s.
S udies o explo e he e ec i eness o hese p oposals
wi h ield-dependen and ield-independen s uden s and
i s in luence on academic achie emen o hese subjec s
a e clea ly needed. In he ligh o he esul s o his
esea ch, he media ing ole o lea ning s a egies in he
in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen
should be also analyzed in p e-uni e si y educa ional
le els.
A g ea e impac o cogni i e s yle h ough lea ning
s a egies should be expec ed on less expe ienced s uden s,
as sugges ed by da a a ailable on he ela ionship be ween
ield dependence-independence and lea ning s a egies
ha was summa ized in he in oduc ion and ob ained
mos ly wi h s uden s om p ima y educa ion. I his was
suppo ed, a plausible line o p og ess in he in es iga ion
should be o de e mine whe he cogni i e s yle akes pa
on he mani es a ion o p oduc ion de iciency and
u iliza ion de iciency which a e bo h pa o he no ma i e
p ocess o s a egies acquisi ion (Schneide , Hünne kop ,
& K on-Spe l, 2007).
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Recebido: 17/03/2011
1ª e isão: 06/06/2011
Acei e inal: 21/06/2011