Cognitive Style and Learning Strategies as Factors which Affect Academic Achievement of Brazilian University Students

disponí el em www.scielo.b /p c 105 Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s which A ec Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s Es ilo Cogni i o e Es a égias de Ap endizagem em Es udan es Uni e si á ios B asilei os: Repe cussões no Rendimen o Acadêmico Ca olina Tinaje o*, a, Sônia Ma ia Lemosb, Ma ga e e A aújob, M. José Fe acesa & M. Fe nanda Pá amoa aUni e sidad de San iago de Compos ela, San iago de Compos ela, España & bUni e sidade Lu e ana do B asil, Canoas, B asil Abs ac In he p esen s udy, he in luence o he cogni i e s yle called ield dependence-independence on aca- demic achie emen o B azilian uni e si y s uden s was explo ed as well as he media ing e ec o lea n- ing s a egies on ha in luence. Lea ning s a egies o 313 i s -yea uni e si y s uden s (189 women and 124 men; M age = 20.86, SD = 3.86) om di e en ields, wi h uppe , medium and lowe sco es on ield dependence-independence we e assessed on a sel - epo ques ionnai e and hei o e all academic ma ks in he i s yea we e egis e ed. Resul s o a eg ession analysis showed ha cogni i e s yle and lea ning s a egies signi ican ly con ibu ed o academic achie emen . A pa h analysis e ealed ha planning s a - egies media ed he in luence o cogni i e s yle on achie emen . Keywo ds: Field dependence-independence, cogni i e s yle, lea ning s a egies, sel - egula ed lea ning, academic achie emen . Resumo No p esen e es udo, a in luência do es ilo cogni i o dependência-independência de campo no endimen o acadêmico de es udan es uni e si á ios b asilei os oi explo ada, bem como o e ei o mediado das es a égias de ap endizagem nes a in luência. As es a égias de ap endizagem de 313 es udan es uni e si á ios de p imei o cu so (189 mulhe es e 124 homens, idade M=20,86, DP= 3,86) a pa i de di e en es domínios, com pon uações ele adas, in e mediá ias e baixas em dependência-independência de campo, o am a aliadas em um au o ques ioná io e as suas médias globais de endimen o acadêmico no p imei o ano o am egis adas. Resul ados de uma análise de eg essão mos a am que o es ilo cogni i o e as es a égias de ap endizagem con ibuem signi ica i amen e pa a o sucesso acadêmico. Uma pa h analysis e elou que as es a égias de planejamen o mediam a in luência do es ilo cogni i o na sua ealização. Pala as-cha e: Dependência-independência de campo, es ilo cogni i o, es a égias de ap endizagem, ap endizagem au o egulada, desempenho acadêmico. * Add ess: Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de la Educación, Uni e sidad de San iago de Compos ela, Facul ad de Psicología, Rúa Xosé Ma ía Suá ez Núñez, s/n, Campus Vida, San iago de Compos ela, España 15782. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]. Cogni i e s yles a e de ined as consis en pa e ns o unc ioning which a e mainly p esen in pe cep ual and in ellec ual ac i i y (Rayne & Riding 1997; Riding, 1997). They es ablish a quali a i e app oach o beha- io , in con as o he dominan quan i a i e app oach ou lined by ap i udinal dimensions (Messick, 1994). The e o e, going beyond he labels o pe sonal pe - o mance, hey desc ibe endencies o con on ing di e- en si ua ions, guiding he in e p e a ion o supe io i y o disad an age in ce ain ci cums ances and sugges ing ways o in e en ion. Field dependence-independence is conside ed one o he mos heu is ic cogni i e s yle cons uc s (Messick, 1996; P ice, 2004; S e nbe g, G igo enko, & Zahn, 2008; S e nbe g & Williams, 2002) and has been shown consis en ly o de e mine academic p o essional ajec o y (Guisande, Pá amo, Soa es, & Almeida, 2007a), he way eache s each (E ans, 2004) and he ype o in e ac ion be ween eache and s uden (Sa acho, 2000). Mo eo e , depending on he p oximi y o he ex emes o he dimension, indi iduals show di e se ways o in o ma ion p ocessing which seem o modula e hei academic achie emen . In ac , we can asse ha ield-dependence places s uden s a isk o poo school ou comes, whe eas ield-independence a o s a s uden ’s success (Cano, 2006; Danili & Reid, 2006; Ga on, Ball, & Dye , 2002; Hede ich, 2004; Tinaje o & Pá amo, 1997, 1998; Zhang Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica, 25 (1), 105-113. 106 & S e nbe g, 2005). The same e ec s ha e been obse ed o B azilian accoun ing s uden s (Oli ei a, Oli ei a, & Souza, 2009). The in luence o cogni i e s yle on achie emen o s uden s om o he uni e si y discipli- nes and om lowe educa ional le els emains unexplo ed in B azilian con ex . The esea ch on in o ma ion p ocessing and i s ela ion o cogni i e s yle, has e ealed some ends ha could explain di e ences in achie emen . Field-independen indi iduals, who a e cha ac e ized by con idence in in e nal e e ences and in hei own c i e ia, end o assu- me an analy ical app oach owa ds in o ma ion ha allows hem o b eak i down in o i s componen pa s and es uc u e i acco ding o hei needs. This appea s o enable spon aneous mul iple ope a ions using he in o ma ion, such as classi ying i o gene a ing ela ed in e ences and hypo heses. As a consequence, indi iduals wi h a ield-independen s yle a e conside ed ac i e p ocesso s (Guisande, Pá amo, Tinaje o, & Almeida, 2007b; Rozencwajg, 1991; Tsakanikos, 2006). In con as , indi iduals wi h a ield-dependen s yle a e mo e sensi i e o ex e nal clues and hus end o ake in o ma ion exac ly as i is p esen ed o hem, and in wha appea s o be an e o o cap u e he s uc u e o his in o ma ion, hey no mally a end o i s global aspec s. This endency is an obs uc ion o in ellec ual asks ha demand ocus on isola ed elemen s wi hin a pe cep i e o symbolic whole – as in he pe cep ual disembedding asks used as measu es o cogni i e s yle – o in hose ha in ol e es uc u ing o in o ma ion. Mo eo e , he global app oach a o s a passi e, expec an a i ude in he ace o in ellec ual asks (Bake & Dwye , 2005; S. Y. Chen, Magoulas, & Mac edie, 2004; Handal & He ing on, 2004). Apa om hese gene al desc ip ions, we need da a on he speci ic pe o mance o indi iduals in an educa io- nal con ex as ela ed o ield-dependen and ield- independen cogni i e s yles. They would enable us o design aining p og ams o subjec s wi h di e en cogni i e s yles and o adjus he ins uc ional design o hem. A way o app oaching his issue would be explo- ing he ela ionship be ween ield dependence-indepen- dence and lea ning s a egies, which a e ega ded as essen ial o academic achie emen ; hei aining is conside ed one o he main means o educing academic ailu e (Bo ucho i ch, 1999; Ma ín, Ga cía, To bay, & Rod íguez, 2008; Pin ich & De G oo , 1990; Pocinho, 2010; V ug & Oo , 2008). Fo he momen , he a ailable da a on he ela ionship o cogni i e s yle wi h lea ning s a egies a e mainly de i ed om esea ch ocusing on o he aspec s, like academic achie emen , cogni i e p ocessing, o adap a- ion o ins uc ional me hods and ma e ials. Ne e heless, he indings allow ad ancemen o speci ic hypo heses. In o de o p o ide an o e iew o he cu en s a e o empi ical knowledge, we’ll ake as e e ences he classi- ica ions made by Danse eu (1985), Ki by (1984) and Weins ein and Maye (1986), gi en he suppo hey ha e ecei ed and hei cohe ence wi h he la es models o academic lea ning. Basing on hei simila i ies, we may dis inguish h ee ypes o lea ning s a egies: suppo o esou ces managemen s a egies, cogni i e s a egies o mic o-s a egies and me a-cogni i e s a egies o mac o-s a egies. Suppo o esou ces managemen s a egies a e de i- ned as hose applied o bo h pe sonal and con ex ual con- di ions o lea ning asks and modula ing pupils’ le els o engagemen . These s a egies include mo i a ional and oli ional con ol, en i onmen al s uc u ing, and help- seeking ac i i ies (Danse eu, 1985; Ki by, 1984; Pin ich, Smi h, Ga cía, & McKeachie, 1991; Ve mun , 1996; Weins ein & Maye , 1986; Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons, 1990). S udies on adap i e eaching ha e b ough ou mo i a ional di e ences due o cogni i e s yle such as di e en ial e ec s o compe i i e si ua ions, incen i es and eedback on lea ning (Boloco sky, 1980; Ennis, 1991). Ne e heless, o he momen , da a a e lacking abou he ela ion o ield-dependence wi h he use o suppo s a egies as hose a o emen ioned. Cogni i e s a egies o mic o-s a egies a e used o encode, comp ehend, and e ie e da a o a ain speci ic lea ning goals (Danse eu, 1985; Ki by, 1984; Pin ich e al., 1991; Ve mun , 1996; Weins ein & Maye , 1986; Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons, 1990). They encompass ep oduc ion, selec ion, elabo a ion, and o ganiza ion ac i i ies. Some s udies ha e e ealed ha ield-dependen s uden s a e mo e p one o use ep oduc ion s a egies compa ed o o he s, whe he he lea ning ma e ial is simple, such as a wo d lis , o complex, such as a digi al cou se (F ank & Keene, 1993; Liu & Reed, 1994); ha is, hey end o simply epea he in o ma ion o ally o men ally. Cu en ly, nei he he ela ion o he cogni i e s yle wi h use o his s a egy, no he consequences o e ie al, ha e ye been explo ed. Using selec ion s a egies, s uden s sepa a e ele an om seconda y, edundan , o con using in o ma ion, o acili a e a deepe p ocessing o he o me ; ela ed ac ions comp ise no e- aking and summa izing. When s uden s wi h ield-dependen and ield-independen cogni i e s yles a e compa ed in ela ion o no e- aking skills on w i en ex s, he g oups p oduce simila ly p ecise and o ganized no es (Annis, 1979; Kiew a & F ank, 1986; S e n & Hassanein, 1992) and, in ac , he e ie al by bo h g oups is equally enhanced by no e- aking (Ricka ds, Fajen, Sulli an, & Gillespie, 1997). Howe e , when no- es mus be aken om o al speech, s uden s wi h ield- independen s yle used ewe wo ds han hose wi h ield- dependen s yle, sugges ing ha he o me lean on p e ious knowledge o a g ea e ex en (F ank, 1984). This idea i s Feh enbach’s (1994) da a abou summa- ies o w i en ex s, which sugges ha s uden s wi h ield-independen s yle a e no only mo e p one o spon- aneously summa ies school ma e ials, bu hey a e mo e accu a e when in i ed o use his s a egy and, as a 107 Tinaje o, C., Lemos, S. M., A aújo, M., Fe aces, M. J. & Pá amo, M. F. (2012). Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s which A ec Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s. consequence, hey emembe mo e o al in o ma ion. S uden s use elabo a ion s a egies when hey add meaning o he lea ning ma e ial by making symbolic cons uc ions. Simple and complex elabo a ion a e commonly dis inguished, he i s consis ing o o ming an in eg a ed whole ( o example an image o a sen ence) associa ing pieces o he in o ma ion o be e ained (as i ems on a lis ). On he o he hand, complex elabo a ion consis s o ela ing new ma e ial o p e ious knowledge logically o by analogy (Danse eu, 1985; Ki by, 1984; Pin ich e al., 1991; Ve mun , 1996; Weins ein & Maye , 1986; Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons, 1990). S udies on simple elabo a ion s a egies, such as isual image y o e bal associa ion, sugges ha ield-independen lea ne s a e mo e p one o au onomously use his ype o p ocess (Co son, Ve ie & Bucic, 2009; James & Moo e, 1991; Tsakanikos, 2006), and when ins uc ions o pe o m hem a e gi en, e en ion imp o es o a g ea e ex en among hose wi h ield-independen s yle in he case o image y s a egies (Ca ie , Joseph, Key, & LaC oix, 1983; Pie ce, 1980). Da a abou complex elabo a ion a e mo e cla i ying abou he lea ning p ocess. S uden s wi h ield-dependen s yle ob ain be e sco es on analogies es s when pai s o ela ed wo ds a e gi en (Johnson & Rosano, 1993). Those wi h ield-independen s yle, howe e , show g ea e ease a gene a ing analogous concep s by hemsel es, based on hei p io knowledge (An onie i & Giole a, 1994; Johnson & Rosano, 1993); in ac , hey seem mo e p one o use, ans e , and modi y hei own p io concep s (Al- Jubaili, 2002; Coch an & Da is, 1987; Kang, Scha mann, Noh, & Koh, 2005; Spi o & Ti e, 1980). Pe haps his endency is also in ol ed in he way s uden s wi h di e en cogni i e s yles use he sel -ques ioning s a egy. S uden s wi h ield-independen s yle a e mo e speci ic when gene a ing ques ions abou ex s o be lea ned, al hough his cha ac e is ic is no associa ed wi h be e esul s on ecall (Adejumo, 1983). O ganiza ional s a egies a e he iden i ica ion o assignmen o s uc u e o new ma e ial, o example, by ou lining, clus e ing, concep mapping o ske ching a ne wo k o diag am o he impo an ideas (Danse eu, 1985; Ki by, 1984; Pin ich e al., 1991; Ve mun , 1996; Weins ein & Maye , 1986; Zimme man & Ma inez-Pons, 1990). S uden s wi h ield-independen s yle ha e shown a g ea e endency o use his ype o s a egy: speci ically, o a clus e ing s a egy, ei he applied o d awings o o ex s (Cowa d & Lange, 1979; F ank & Keene, 1993) and o ne wo king o making diag ams o memo izing a ex (Emme , Cli o d, & Gwye , 2003; Feh enbach, 1994; Kah z, 1999). Ne e heless, his wide s uc u ing endency does no lead o be e e ie al, excep in he case o g aphical da a ecall (Cowa d & Lange, 1979; Lipsky, 1989; O’Conno & Blowe s, 1980). Finally, some au ho s ha e shown in e es in me a- cogni i e s a egies o mac os a egies which include ac i i ies ha help s uden s in hei lea ning planning, moni o ing, and e alua ion. An associa ion o ield- dependence wi h he desi e o plan and moni o one’s own lea ning has been egis e ed, as well as a g ea e e iciency o hese p ocesses (Ab aham, 1983; Bou in & Chinien, 1992; Liu & Reed, 1994). In ac , s uden s wi h ield- independen s yle main ain a g ea e consciousness o hei lea ning expe iences and hei pe sonal ole in hem (Bou in & Chinien, 1992). The p esen wo k aims o p o ide da a on he in luence o cogni i e s yle academic achie emen in B azilian s uden popula ion and o e alua e he possible p edic i e alue o he cogni i e s yle dimensions and lea ning s a egies on academic achie emen ; besides p oposing an explana o y model o achie emen aking in o accoun he a iables men ioned abo e. Me hod Pa icipan s The sample selec ed in his s udy consis ed o 313 i s yea uni e si y s uden s aged be ween 17 and 30 (M = 20.86, SD = 3.86). They a ended cou ses in: Ag icul u e, Adminis a ion, A chi ec u e, Biology, Accoun ing, Law, En i onmen al Enginee ing, Mechanical Enginee ing, Elec ical Enginee ing, Chemical Enginee ing, Ci il Enginee ing, Nu sing, Physio he apy, Psychology, Chemis y and In o ma ion Sys ems. They we e s uden s a Manaus Uni e si y Cen e /AM and om he Ins i u e o Uni e si y Educa ion in I umbia a/GO. Ins umen s Field Dependence-independence. The G oup Embedded Figu es Tes (Wi kin, Ol man, Raskin, & Ka p, 1971) was adminis e ed a e been ansla ed in o Po uguese. The es consis s o a bookle con aining 25 complex geome ic designs, so ed in o h ee sec ions. The i s sec ion consis s o se en di e en designs as p ac ice o he ac ual es , which consis s o wo sec ions, each one comp ising nine complex igu es. The las page o he bookle con ains eigh simple igu es. The ask consis s o inding and ma king he indica ed simple designs wi hin he complex designs. The pa icipan is gi en a maximum o i e minu es o comple e each o he wo las sec ions. The es sco e is he o al numbe o igu es co ec ly loca ed. The alpha coe icien o he G oup Embedded Figu es Tes has been epo ed as .82 (Wi kin e al., 1971). Kepne and Neima k (1984) epo ed es - e es eliabili y coe icien s o e h ee di e en in e als as be ween.78 and .92. Addi ionally, he G oup Embedded Figu es Tes exhibi ed c i e ion alidi y by co ela ions wi h he Embedded Figu es Tes and he Rod and F ame Tes (Wi kin e al., 1971). Academic Achie emen . Achie emen was measu ed by he mean ma ks (compu ed on a scale om 0 o 10) ob ained by he s uden s du ing he i s semes e . Lea ning S a egies. S a egies we e assessed using he Lea ning and S udy In en o y (LSSI; Weins ein, 1987), Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica, 25 (1), 105-113. 108 ansla ed in o Po uguese by Figuei a and adap ed by Ba alo (2006). This ques ionnai e is based on Weins ein and Maye (1986)’s model and has eached g ea di usion. I consis s o 77 ques ions dis ibu ed in o he ollowing g ouping ca ego ies: (a) Anxie y, which co e s conce n abou school and academic achie emen – wi h a minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40; (b) A i ude, which ela es o he alues ha s uden s a ibu e o school and o he in e es o academic success in o de o ob ain good jobs – wi h a minimum sco e o 7 and maximum o 35; (c) Concen a ion, which seeks o assess he abili y ha he s uden has o di ec his/he a en ion and keep i in academic ac i i ies – wi h a minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40; (d) Mo i a ion, aims o e alua e mo i a ional and oli ional con ol s a egies, ha is, he sel -discipline and s eng h o wo k wi h de e mina ion, and o e alua e i s sel -disposi ion o mee academic equi emen s – wi h a minimum sco e o 9 and up o 45; (e) S udy Auxilia ies, which seeks o examine he le el o use o o ganiza ion s a egies – wi h a minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40; ( ) Time o ganiza ion, which seeks o assess he ime managemen p inciples applica ion o academic si ua ions; (g) In o ma ion P ocessing, which aims a e alua ing he use o complex de elopmen s a egies – wi h a minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40; (h) Selec ion o Main Ideas, which includes he e alua ion o he abili y o iden i y wha in o ma ion is o g ea e ele ance in a ex – wi h a minimum sco e o 6 and maximum o 30; (i) Ve i ica ion, which has he pu pose o planning he s udy and assessmen es s – wi h minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40; (j) Sel - checking, which aims o e alua e he abili y o e ise he ma e ial o be lea ned as well as o moni o he unde s anding o his ma e ial – wi h a minimum sco e o 8 and maximum o 40. Ba alo (2006) epo s in e nal consis ency a es be ween .76 and .78 o he a ious subscales, and co ela ion coe icien s be ween subscales o .12 and .62. In he p esen s udy sample in e nal consis ency alues o α = .90 o he scale and be ween .65 and .77 o subscales we e ob ained. P ocedu e The esea ch p ojec had been submi ed o he E hics Commi ee om Lu he an Uni e si y Cen e o Manaus and he Lu he an Ins i u e o Uni e si y Educa ion in I umbia a espec i ely and we e app o ed unde p o ocol numbe s 017/2010 and 050/2010. A e being old by eache s ha pa icipa ing in he s udy would no in ol e any isk, and ha hei iden i ies would be p ese ed, s uden s signed a F ee and Clea Consen Fo m (FCCF). All es s we e adminis e ed in one- hou sessions, ollowing he same o de o all pa icipan s. The G oup Embedded Figu es Tes was applied i s , o p e en an e ec o a igue p oduced in he execu ion o he LASSI, since he la e akes abou 40 minu es o comple e. Da a Analysis and Resul s The i s objec i e o his s udy was o p o ide da a on he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen in B azilian college s uden s. The sample was di ided in o h ee g oups ( hi ds), acco ding o sco es on he G oup Embedded Figu es Tes . The lowe hi d o he dis i- bu ion, consis ing o hose indi iduals whose sco es we e be ween 0 and 3 (90 s uden s) was conside ed he ield-dependen g oup. A he op, we e loca ed ield- independen s uden s, wi h sco es be ween 9 and 18 (86 indi iduals). Finally, an in e media e g oup was dis in- guished which was con o med by 137 s uden s wi h sco es be ween 4 and 8. An Analysis o Va iance (ANOVA) was used o com- pa e mean ma ks o ield-dependen , ield-independen and in e media e s uden s; signi ican di e ences we e ob ained (F (2, 309) = 8.77, p = .0001). Pos hoc con as s showed signi ican di e ences be ween ield-independen and ield-dependen g oups (MI - Md = .640, p = .002) and be ween he ield-dependen and in e media e g oups (MD - MIN = -.630, p = .001). Howe e , no signi ican di e ences we e obse ed be ween he ield-indepen- den and in e media e g oups. Acco ding o hese da a, ield-dependen s uden s ob ained poo e academic achie- emen han he o he wo g oups examined. In o de o analyze he p edic i e alue o bo h cogni i e s yle and lea ning s a egies in academic achie emen , a linea eg ession analysis was conduc ed, using he successi e s eps me hod, aking cogni i e s yle and sco es on each LASSI subscale as independen a iables and he academic achie emen as dependen a iable. Mo eo e , in o de o check whe he he sample o he p esen s udy con ained a ypical alues, Cook’s s a is ic was applied and in luence alues we e calcula ed esul ing in a maximum sco e o .01 (i mus be less han 1) and an in luence poin o .050 was ob ained (i mus n’ exceed 5); we may hen assume ha he sample doesn’ con ain a ypical alues. The esul s o his analysis a e shown in Table 1. Table 1 Resul s o Linea Reg ession Analysis ha P edic s he Academic Achie emen Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Ve i ica ion .416* .342* .317* Mo i a ion .176* .178* GEFT .140* F60.74* 34.49 25.87 G.L 311 311 311 R2.173 .198 .217 Δ R2.173 .026 .019 *p<.0001. Acco ding o he analysis esul s, h ee a iables signi ican ly a ec he academic achie emen (cogni i e 109 Tinaje o, C., Lemos, S. M., A aújo, M., Fe aces, M. J. & Pá amo, M. F. (2012). Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s which A ec Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s. s yle, planning s a egies, and mo i a ional and oli ional con ol s a egies), accoun ing o 21% o he a iance. Planning s a egies showed he g ea e e ec . Basing on hese esul s, we p oposed an explana o y model o achie emen , conside ing cogni i e s yle, oli ional and mo i a ional con ol s a egies, and planning s a egies. A s uc u al equa ions analysis (pa h-analysis) was applied using he AMOS p og am, in o de o p o e i s i ness. S anda dized es ima es a e shown in Figu e 1, as well as a iance explained by he model and eg ession weigh s o independen a iables. As no ed, e i ica ion s a egies (β = .31) ha e a di ec and posi i e in luence, ollowed by he GEFT a iable (β = .15), which also ac s indi ec ly modula ed by he Ve i ica ion s a egies (.14 x .31 = .043). An o e all e ec o .15 + .043 = .019 was ob ained. The mos commonly used indica o s acco ding o Ben le (1990) a e: χ2 / gl (i s alue mus be less han 2; in he p esen analysis a alue o 1.24 was ob ained), GFI (Goodness o Fi Index: a alue close o 1 indica es a good adjus men , a alue o .99 was ob ained), CFI (Compa a i e Fi index: a alue close o 1 indica es a good adjus men , a alue o .98 was ob ained) and RMSEA (an index ela ed o deg ees o eedom: a alue less han .05 indica es a good adjus men , a alue o .028 was ob ained in he p esen s udy). Finally he possible media ing ole o planning s a egies in he ela ionship o cogni i e s yle wi h academic achie emen was examined. A linea eg ession analysis Figu e 1. S anda dized es ima es co esponding o he explana o y model o academic achie emen . was pe o med in h ee s eps (Ba on & Kenny, 1986 – see Figu e 2). The i s one made possible o con i m he ela ionship be ween he p edic ing a iable (cogni i e s yle) and he dependen one ( he academic achie emen – β = .058, p = .0001). The second one shows a cogni i e s yle signi ican in luence on planning s a egies (media o a iable – β = .267, p = .003). In he hi d s ep, he in luence o lea ning s a egies on academic achie emen was shown (β = .073, p = .0001). The Sobel es (1982) con i med he signi ican e ec o he media ion p oposed om he explana o y model (Z = 3.08, p = .001) and i allowed o speci y ha he con ibu ion o cogni i e s yle, mode a ed by he s a egies, was 8% o he o al a iance. Figu e 2. Linea eg ession analysis pe o med o he sco es on planning s a egies, cogni i e s yle and academic achie emen . Mo i a ion A chie emen Ve i ica ion E2 GEFT E3 .15 .14 .31 .43 .15 A chie emen Ve i ica ion GEFT .73 .267 .058 Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica, 25 (1), 105-113. 110 Discussion The in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie- emen was analyzed bo h wi h e e ence o speci ic subjec s, as well as o o e all achie emen . The da a a ailable indica e ha ield-dependen s uden s consis- en ly ob ain wo se esul s han hei ield-independen classma es. This end has been obse ed in di e en educa ional le els and has been con i med wi h samples om se e al cul u e o igins (Cano, 2006; Danili & Reid, 2006; Ga on e al., 2002; Hede ich, 2004; Oli ei a e al., 2009; Tinaje o & Pá amo, 1997, 1998; Zhang & S e nbe g, 2005). Howe e , we sca cely ha e da a o B azilian s uden s. In acco dance wi h p e ious in es i- ga ions, esul s om he p esen s udy show ha B azilian college s uden s wi h high sco es on ield-dependence ob ain lowe achie emen han hei pee s wi h lowe and in e media e sco es. These esul s encou age he exami- na ion o he p ocesses which de e mine he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen and places a subs an ial pa o s uden popula ion a isk o academic ailu e. As no ed in he in oduc ion, in es iga ions ha e been ca ied ou on how ield-dependen and ield-independen indi iduals p ocess in o ma ion (Bake & Dwye , 2005; S. Y. Chen e al., 2004; Guisande e al., 2007b; Handal & He ing on, 2004; Rozencwajg, 1991; Tsakanikos, 2006). Howe e , he e is a conside able gap be ween hese in es iga ions and hose explo ing he ela ionship be - ween ield dependence-independence and academic achie emen . S udies om he in o ma ion p ocessing poin o iew do no usually conside he implica ions o hei esul s o educa ion. In he la e ype o s udy, he e a e gene ally no a emp s o elucida e he speci ic p o- cesses ha o igina e he obse ed di e ences in achie- emen . Es ablishing links be ween bo h ypes o cogni- i e s yle mani es a ions would se e as a good basis o he design o aining p og ams o hose s a egies in which ield-dependen s uden s show disad an age. A ew a emp s ha e been made in his line (see e.g. Ludwig & Lachni , 2004; Pennings, 1991; Rush & Moo e, 1991); al hough o e ing p omising esul s, hey ha e been limi ed o de ining cha ac e is ics o ield dependence- independence (such as pe cep i e disembedding o analy- ical p ocessing). O he measu es wi h g ea e ecological alidi y emain unexplo ed. The eg ession analysis pe o med in his s udy con- i ms he p edic i e powe o ield dependence-indepen- dence ega ding academic achie emen and e eals a signi ican con ibu ion o sco es on LASSI subscales o Mo i a ion and Ve i ica ion. App op ia e alues o in e nal consis ency we e ob ained o he s udy sample wi h his ques ionnai e. Mo i a ion subscale measu es he s uden s’ abili y o use mo i a ional and oli ional con ol s a egies, while Ve i ica ion co e s i ems abou planning s udding and assessmen es s. Bo h ypes o p ocesses ha e consis- en ly been shown o ela e o academic achie emen (Duckwo h & Seligman, 2008; G eene, Mille , C owson, Duke, & Akey, 2004; No a, So esi, & Zimme man, 2004). In he p esen s udy, cogni i e s yle and lea ning s a- egies join ly explained he 21% o a iabili y on acade- mic achie emen , an app eciable pe cen age i we con- side he mul iplici y o si ua ional and pe sonal ac o s wi h po en ial in luence, such as cogni i e skills (Rohde & Thompson, 2006) o amily ela ionships (Fan & M. Chen, 2001). The p ocessing mode and o he pe sonal cha ac e is- ics ela ed o cogni i e s yle seem o be condi ioning he in e ac ion be ween he subjec s’ pe o mance as lea ne s and educa ional con ex ual ac o s, p edic ably con o - ming s able and consis en pa e ns o beha io associa ed wi h eaching-lea ning si ua ion; hey could be a ec i e, cogni i e and/o me a-cogni i e ypes o pa e ns. Thus, we should pose he media o o mode a o ole ha mo- i a ional and oli ional con ol s a egies and planning s a egies could exe on he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen . In he p esen s udy, an explana o y model o acade- mic achie emen was sugges ed, aking in o accoun cogni i e s yle and lea ning s a egies, and i was con i - med h ough pa h analysis, suppo ing ha planning s a egies could ac as a mode a ing a iable in he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen . Planning is a me a-cogni i e p ocess p esen in sel - egula ed lea ning, which includes se ing objec i es and planning s a egies, con en s and con ex ual esou ces o be used du ing he academic ask (Pin ich, 2002; Zimme man, 2002). In a s udy by Liu and Reed (1994) wi h a uni e si y sample, ield-independen s uden s we e ound o impose a pe sonal sequence on a compu e cou se hey had o ollow, while hei ield dependen classma es ollowed he sequence es ablished by he cou se. These esul s a e consis en wi h hose ob ained in he p esen s udy, which has e ealed ha ield independence a o s he use o planning s a egies. In addi ion, he di e en ial endency o plan own lea - ning, seems o e lec in academic achie emen , ac ing as mode a o on he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic success o ailu e. I has been sugges ed ha con idence in he in e nal e e ences which cha ac e izes ield-inde- penden subjec s is mo e in ha mony wi h me a-cogni i e unc ioning: his could lead o an ea lie and mo e e i- cien de elopmen o me acogni i e abili ies (Bou in & Chinien, 1992; Da is & Coch an, 1990; Liu & Reed, 1994). I his is he case and conside ing he esul s o his s udy, speci ic aining in planning s a egies om p ima y educa ion le els should be ega ded as an immedia e s ep in a ending lea ning di e si y due o cogni i e s yle in academic con ex s. Se e al p oposals o eaching p og ams ha e been made wi h his aim, co e ing objec i es o mula ion, p ocedu es selec ion and sel -compe ence belie s, among o he s (see o example Núñez e al., 2011; P essley & Ha is, 2006). 111 Tinaje o, C., Lemos, S. M., A aújo, M., Fe aces, M. J. & Pá amo, M. F. (2012). Cogni i e S yle and Lea ning S a egies as Fac o s which A ec Academic Achie emen o B azilian Uni e si y S uden s. S udies o explo e he e ec i eness o hese p oposals wi h ield-dependen and ield-independen s uden s and i s in luence on academic achie emen o hese subjec s a e clea ly needed. In he ligh o he esul s o his esea ch, he media ing ole o lea ning s a egies in he in luence o cogni i e s yle on academic achie emen should be also analyzed in p e-uni e si y educa ional le els. 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