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Ci a ion: Vidal-Meliá, L.; Es ada, M.;
Mon e e , D.; Rod íguez-Sánchez, A.
Does Mind ulness In luence
Academic Pe o mance? The Role o
Resilience in Educa ion o
Sus ainable De elopmen .
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/su14074251
Academic Edi o s: And ea Weinbe g,
Ralph Hansmann and
Michael Ta an
Recei ed: 25 Feb ua y 2022
Accep ed: 30 Ma ch 2022
Published: 2 Ap il 2022
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sus ainabili y
A icle
Does Mind ulness In luence Academic Pe o mance? The Role
o Resilience in Educa ion o Sus ainable De elopmen
Lidia Vidal-Meliá* , Ma a Es ada , Diego Mon e e and Alma Rod íguez-Sánchez
Depa men o Business Adminis a ion and Ma ke ing, Uni e si a Jaume I, 12071 Cas ellóde la Plana, Spain;
[email p o ec ed] (M.E.); [email p o ec ed] (D.M.); [email p o ec ed] (A.R.-S.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
A mind ul pe son is p one o be open o no el y, a en i e o dis inc ions, sensi i e o
con ex , awa e o mul iple pe spec i es, and ocused on he p esen . The e o e, he ole o mind ulness
in educa ional con ex s is gaining g ound gi en he g ea possibili ies i o e s in de eloping s uden s’
compe ences in educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen (ESD). The main goal o his s udy is o explo e
how mind ulness plays a key ole in he lea ning p ocess in esponse o he need o de elop s uden s’
emo ional compe encies in ESD, and speci ically how mind ulness has an impac on academic
pe o mance h ough esilience. We es ed he esea ch model wi h a ques ionnai e add essed o
497 s uden s om h ee highe educa ion ins i u ions and one seconda y school. The esul s o a
s uc u al equa ion analysis con i m he s udy hypo heses. We ind mind ulness is posi i ely ela ed
o esilience, which leads o be e academic pe o mance. Thus, being mind ul is a key compe ence
in ESD since i allows young people o ace hei educa ion wi h he highes possibili ies o aining,
expe ience, and pe sonal g ow h. This explo a o y s udy o e s u he e idence o he need o in es
in mind ulness o os e esilience and academic pe o mance and ep esen s a i s s ep o designing
addi ional in e en ions on his line.
Keywo ds: educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen ; mind ulness; esilience; academic pe o mance
1. In oduc ion
Educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen (ESD) aims a de eloping compe ences ha
empowe indi iduals o e lec on hei ac ions, conside ing hei cu en and u u e social,
cul u al, economic, and en i onmen al impac s om a local and a global pe spec i e [
1
].
Thus, i seems ha in he las decade, ui ul esea ch on in eg a ing di e en compe ences
o ESD became mo e e iden (e.g., [
2
,
3
]). In his sense, compe ences o sus ainable de el-
opmen (CSD) depa om a comp ehensi e and holis ic iew; CSD may be conside ed as
a se o knowledge, skills, alues, and a i udes necessa y o ensu e oday’s s uden s and
u u e leade s a e eady o deal wi h complex issues ega ding sus ainabili y [
4
]. Se e al
au ho s epo on hese compe ences, using di e en se ings and models (e.g., [
5
]). In
his sense, e . [
4
] o e s a comple e and in eg a ed iew om a ious au ho s, including
six main blocks o compe ences wi h simila cha ac e is ics: esponsibili y ( alues, e hics,
e lec ion), emo ional in elligence ( anscul u al unde s anding, empa hy, solida i y, com-
passion), sys em o ien a ion (in e disciplina y), u u e o ien a ion, pe sonal in ol emen
(sel -mo i a ion, mo i a ing o he s, lea ning), and he abili y o ake ac ion (pa icipa o y
skills) [4].
Fu he s udies [
6
] also ocus on he eaching s a egies ha os e compe ences o skills
needed in sea ch o sus ainabili y in educa ion, such as being c i ical, c ea i e, being awa e
o p oblems, p oblem-sol ing skills, o coope a ion, among o he s. The e o e, mind ulness,
de ined as he capaci y o a pe son o ocus a en ion on e en s, expe iences, and s a es o
he p esen momen , bo h ex e nal and in e nal [
7
], plays a pi o al ole as a comp ehensi e
compe ence in ESD. In o he wo ds, awa eness gene a ed in mind ulness is ela ed o
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su14074251 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 2 o 12
emo ional compe ences such as emo ional in elligence (including he capaci y o be awa e o
he own emo ions and being conscious abou o he s’ eelings o eeling empa hy). Howe e ,
mind ulness is also ela ed o how indi iduals pe cei e he wo ld ha su ounds hem,
including he esou ces ha hey ha e a hand, which is linked o academic compe ences.
In ac , e s. [
8
,
9
] a i med ha mind ulness gene a es a highe in ellec ual capabili y and
an openness o di e en hinking s yles. In his ein, mind ulness migh be ela ed o ESD
since i os e s CSD as emo ional egula ion, sel -awa eness, and u u e o ien a ion [
10
–
12
].
Thus, he main goal o his s udy is o explo e how mind ulness plays a key ole in he
lea ning p ocess in esponse o he need o de elop s uden s’ emo ional compe encies in
ESD, and speci ically how mind ulness has an impac on academic pe o mance.
Mind ulness eme ges as one o he mos e ec i e ins umen s o p omo ing awa e-
ness, cul i a ing he abili y o be a en i e, and inc easing subjec i e wellbeing [13]. Thus,
he au ho s [
14
,
15
] unde s and mind ulness as a “ echnology o he sel ” ha exe s an
ac ion on he own subjec i i y wi h he po en ial o cause e ec i e changes in modes o
exis ence in a mo e sus ainable di ec ion. Quan i a i e esea ch [
16
] has shown a posi i e
ela ionship be ween p ac icing mind ulness and p o-en i onmen al a i udes and beha -
io s. Mind ulness would be p omo ing a double bene i [
13
]: on he one hand, i inc eases
wellbeing by de aching i om ma e ialis ic and consume logic; on he o he , i ac i ely
p omo es mo e sus ainable beha io and li es yle. F om ano he pe spec i e, he p ac ice
o mind ulness has sp ead apidly among he wo ld’s adul popula ion in ecen yea s,
ollowing i s p o en e ec i eness in egula ing emo ions and op imizing cogni i e pa e ns.
The numbe o s udies and esea ch on his p ac ice and analysis o i s e icacy wi h child en
and adolescen s has been inc easing due o i s demons a ed e ec i eness in imp o ing
mo e ecosocial beha io s, enhancing gene al wellbeing [
17
,
18
], imp o ing psychological
symp oms [
19
], and as e in o ma ion p ocessing. In he educa ional con ex , i s p ac ice
has demons a ed e ec i eness in cogni i e pe o mance and signi ican ela ionships in
measu es o s ess, coping, and esilience [
20
]. Howe e , he e is s ill a sho age o pape s
on he in luence o mind ulness on esilience in college s uden s and e en mo e on i s ole
on ESD as a compe ence.
In sum, al hough he bene i s o mind ulness a e well-acknowledged in he educa ional
li e a u e, i is no conside ed a key elemen in ESD. Hence, he p esen s udy seeks o
con ibu e o he li e a u e o ESD in se e al ways. Fi s , depa ing om he ca ego iza ion
o [
4
] and social psychology li e a u e as ou heo e ical amewo k, we p opose applying
mind ulness as a co e compe ence o ESD since i can be ela ed o he six blocks o
compe ences o ESD. Second, we y o empi ically show he impac ha mind ulness (as a
compe ence) has on esilience and pe o mance in highe educa ion, hus, o e ing u he
empi ical suppo o he need o conside mind ulness also on highe educa ion. Finally,
we conside ha , in an educa ional con ex , mind ulness will no only ha e epe cussions
on s uden s’ consciousness ega ding sus ainabili y conce ns, bu i will also bene i he
de elopmen o hei empa hic capaci ies and academic pe o mance. The e o e, ou s udy
is an explo a o y s udy which ep esen s he i s s ep o u he in e en ion s udies in
highe educa ion ega ding how i con ibu es o CSD.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Mind ulness and Resilience
Mind ulness implies a s a e o consciousness in which a en ion is ocused on e en s,
expe iences, and s a es o he p esen momen , bo h ex e nal and in e nal [
7
]. Thus,
mind ulness is cons an ly being awa e o e en s and expe iences a he momen and
accep ing hem as hey a e, a he han being abso bed in he pas o wo ied abou he
u u e [
21
]. Acco ding o his de ini ion, a mind ul pe son is p one o be open o no el y,
sensi i e o con ex , and awa e o mul iple app oaches o sol ing a p oblem [
22
]. The e o e,
a mind ul pe son migh be mo e awa e o he esou ces a hand. Thus, in ou s udy,
we ollow his app oach o disposi ional mind ulness as a capaci y o be conscious o
e en s and expe iences a ound. This app oach is se led in bo h adi ions on he s udy
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 3 o 12
o mind ulness: he Eas e n based on sel - egula ion o a en ion ha is p esen -o ien ed
and is cha ac e ized by cu iosi y, openness, and accep ance [
23
]. This de ini ion ocus on
medi a i e p ac ice. Addi ionally, he Wes e n app oach in which mind ulness is de ined
by being in he p esen , sensi i e o con ex and pe spec i e, and guided (bu no go e ned)
by ules and ou ines [
24
]. Bo h app oaches ha e hei simila i ies and di e ences, “bu he
singula i ies o each app oach can be placed wi hin an unde lying amewo k, whe ein
each con ibu es o he elucida ion o he o he ” [
25
]. The e o e, we conside mind ulness
as a capaci y o be awa e o he p esen momen , being conscious abou he con ex and
wo ld ha su ound us. This capaci y may help people o be awa e o hei own and
o he s’ emo ions and he esou ces a hand when ha ing di icul si ua ions. This idea is
ela ed o he capaci y o o e come obs acles and become e en mo e esou ce ul a e a
di icul si ua ion; ha is, he capaci y o esilience. Resilience is de ined as an indi idual’s
capabili y o sus ain a no mal s a e o balance when exposed o excep ionally ad e se
si ua ions [
26
]. Resilience does no e adica e s ess o emo e li e ad e si ies. Ins ead, i
gi es people he s eng h o handle p oblems e ec i ely, o e come ad e si y, and mo e on
wi h hei li es [
27
]. In ecen yea s, he e has been g owing esea ch in e es in disco e ing
he acili a o s o esilience. Beyond di e en cha ac e ai s and skills, including sel -
e icacy, c ea i e p oblem-sol ing skills, and he abili y o ocus on he p esen , mind ulness
has been associa ed wi h esilience [28–30].
In he con ex o highe educa ion, a g owing numbe o heo e ical and empi ical e-
sea ch s udies suppo he idea ha mind ulness and esilience a e connec ed (e.g., [
31
,
32
]).
In his ega d, e . [
33
] concluded ha he sus ained p ac ice o mind ulness can imp o e
a en ional and emo ional sel - egula ion and a ec s s uden s’ capaci y o esilience. Thus,
i has been shown ha when uni e si y s uden s lack esilience, hey a e mo e likely o
all in o si ua ions o helplessness, apa hy, dep ession, and anguish [
34
]. Howe e , when
hey p esen high le els o esilience, hey show a highe i o uni e si y academic de-
mands [
35
]. Along hese lines, high le els o esilience ha e been associa ed wi h academic
success [
35
,
36
]. Re . [
37
] showed ha indi iduals wi h g ea e mind ulness ha e g ea e
esilience and, consequen ly, g ea e sa is ac ion wi h li e. Acco ding o he au ho s, he
awa eness and accep ance aspec s o mind ulness can acili a e he de elopmen o e-
silience and op imism, en husiasm, and pa ience, cha ac e is ics o esilien indi iduals
ha can lead o a pe cep ion o wellbeing. Acco ding o [
38
], o main ain esilience, g ea e
lexibili y is equi ed h ough a en ion and accep ance, skills ha a e in eg a ed in o mind-
ulness. In a s udy by [
39
], a posi i e ela ionship be ween esilience and mind ulness was
obse ed, showing ha bo h a iables a e e ealed as p edic o s o psychological wellbeing
in uni e si y s uden s. Howe e , he e is s ill li le esea ch in his ega d [
40
,
41
] and
e en mo e in he con ex o ESD. In his sense, mind ulness could be conside ed a holis ic
compe ence o ESD. In ac , ollowing he p e ious ca ego iza ion o compe ences o
ESD [
4
], mind ulness migh be ela ed o esponsibili y, anscul u al unde s anding, empa-
hy, lea ning, and he abili y o ake ac ion, and hen i would be ela ed o esilience. Thus,
he challenge is o con inue in es iga ing his a iable, which seeks, h ough educa ion, o
ain omo ow’s ci izens in c ea ing a mo e sus ainable wo ld.
The e o e, acco ding o p e ious e idence, we expec ha :
Hypo hesis 1. S uden s’ mind ulness is di ec ly and posi i ely ela ed o hei le el o esilience.
2.2. Resilience and Academic Pe o mance
The s udy o esilience has a ac ed a g owing esea ch in e es , especially in highe
educa ion se ings, mainly because o he numbe o bene i s ha esilience has on s uden s’
wellbeing [
42
]. In his con ex , esilience helps s uden s o e come s ess ul si ua ions
and p essu e a ising om hei s udies [
43
]. Since esilience is a dynamic capabili y
h ough which s uden s acqui e he knowledge and skills o help hem ace an unce ain
u u e wi h a posi i e a i ude and op imism, esilien s uden s will be able o cope wi h
academic demands app op ia ely [
44
]. Mo eo e , esilience is one o he main dimensions
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 4 o 12
associa ed wi h psychological wellbeing and academic success [
45
]. S uden s’ capaci y
o esilience will help hem o pe se e e in hei asks and main ain a posi i e a i ude
when di icul ies a ise; his pe sis ence in hei s udies migh be di ec ly ela ed o academic
pe o mance. Acco ding o ecen esea ch, mind ulness and esilience seem o be ela ed
o academic pe o mance in educa ional se ings [
46
]. Hence, he ela ionship be ween
esilience and i s mul iple bene i s on wellbeing and pe o mance is well suppo ed in he
li e a u e, including esilience as a bu e e ec p e en ing bu nou o d opou [
47
,
48
] and
esilience enhancing academic engagemen [
49
]. Mo eo e , esilience is ela ed o academic
pe o mance, al hough his ela ionship is media ed by o he a iables such as engagemen
and sel -e icacy [
42
]. Thus, u he esea ch is needed o unco e he ela ionship be ween
esilience and di ec academic pe o mance, such as he impac on s uden s’ g ades.
The e o e, ollowing p e ious esea ch ega ding he close ela ionship be ween e-
silience and pe o mance we expec ha :
Hypo hesis 2.
S uden s’ esilience is posi i ely and di ec ly ela ed o hei academic pe o mance.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Sample Selec ion and Da a Collec ion
This s udy was ca ied ou as pa o a collabo a ion ag eemen signed by h ee
highe educa ion ins i u ions and one seconda y school in h ee Spanish egions. The ou
ins i u ions in ol ed in he s udy o e onsi e eaching.
This ag eemen allowed us o in e iew s uden s om a b oad ange o spec ums
( egion, academic discipline, cou se, quali ica ion, gende ), which p o ided a di e se and
highly ep esen a i e sample, hus maximizing he eliabili y o he esul s.
Be o e he ieldwo k, expe s in he educa ion a ea e ised he ques ionnai e and
p e es ed i on a g oup o 25 s uden s. This p ocess allowed us o imp o e he wo ding
and con i m he sui abili y o he ques ionnai e. A e his e ision s age, we su eyed he
s uden s using an online ques ionnai e designed by he esea ch eam. S uden anonymi y
was gua an eed o encou age pa icipa ion, which mo i a ed hem o p o ide mo e hones
answe s. We also in o med he s uden s ha we would agg ega e he da a o ensu e
con iden iali y. Mo eo e , we ollowed he e hical s anda ds, and ou s udy passed he
e hical commi ee o ou uni e si y.
The ques ionnai e consis s o 15 i ems: 10 ela ed o mind ulness and 5 o esilience
(see Appendix A). All i ems a e measu ed on a 7-poin Like scale. All Like -scaled
indica o s a e exp essed posi i ely, and esponden s ha e o s a e whe he hey ag ee o
disag ee wi h each s a emen included in he ques ionnai e.
The ieldwo k ook place be ween Oc obe 2018 and Ma ch 2019 and yielded a sample
o 497 alid esponses. We calcula e desc ip i e analyses using SPSS o e eal he main
cha ac e is ics o he sample (Table 1). The inal sample comp ises s uden s mos ly om
Uni e si y 1 (69%) and be ween 8% and 12% o he emaining pa icipa ing ins i u ions.
F om he o al o 22 speci ic academic disciplines analyzed (co e ing a wide ange om
business and economic sciences, echnological and expe imen al sciences, heal h sciences,
and social sciences), 16 co espond o academic deg ees, wo o mas e ’s deg ees, and ou
o second-cycle s udies. Mos s uden s a e second-yea unde g adua es (43.7%), ollowed
by hi d-yea s uden s (20.9%). The ou h and i s yea s ep esen oughly 14% and 10%,
espec i ely, he seconda y school a ound 8%, and he mas e s a ound 3%. The i h and
six h yea s ep esen less han 1% each. The a e age age o he s uden s in he sample
is 22 yea s, and hei a e age g ade is 7.2 (ou o a maximum o en). Finally, he gende
dis ibu ion is mainly emale (74.6%).
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 5 o 12
Table 1. Gene al sample cha ac e is ics.
Ins i u ion: Ca ego y (%)
Uni e si y 1 (69) Uni e si y 2 (12.1) Uni e si y 3
(11.1) Seconda y School (7.8)
Deg ee: Ca ego y (%)
Business Adminis a ion 1(12.1) Indus ial design
enginee ing 2(3.2) Psychology 3(14.5)
Occupa ional he apy 1(11.1) Mechanical
enginee ing 2(1.8) Medicine 3(3.2)
Labou ela ions and human
esou ces 1(10.7) Ag i- ood
enginee ing 2(2.4) Nu sing 3(2.4)
Tou ism 1(5.6) Chemical
enginee ing 2(1.6) Audio- isual
communica ion 4(11.7)
Finance and accoun ing 1(2.0) Elec ical
enginee ing 2(1.0) Ad e ising and
public ela ions 4(5.2)
Economics 1(0.8)
Mas e in human
esou ces
managemen 1
(0.8) Second cycle s udies
1,4 (8)
Mas e in ma ke ing 1(1.8)
Cou se: Ca ego y (%)
Fi s (9.9) Second (43.7) Thi d (20.9) Fou h + (15.1) Pos g adua e (2.6) Seconda y
school (7.8)
Gende : Ca ego y (%) Age a e age Academic g ade a e age
Male (25.4) Female (74.6) 22 yea s old 7.2
No e:
1
ep esen s disciplines om business and economic sciences;
2
ep esen s disciplines om echnological and
expe imen al sciences;
3
ep esen s disciplines om heal h sciences;
4
ep esen s disciplines om social sciences.
3.2. Measu emen Ins umen s
We ollowed [
50
] ecommenda ions o p e en sel -gene a ed alidi y in he ques ion-
nai e design. Thus, we ca e ully o de ed and w o e he ques ions in simple language wi h
use - iendly e minology. We also so ed he analyzed cons uc s di e en ly om he
hypo heses (an eceden s →media ing a iable →consequences).
All he scales co espond p ecisely o hei heo e ical de ini ions, and we adap ed
hem om well-known and alida ed scales in he li e a u e. The eliabili y in o ma ion
(C onbach’s alpha) o he scales is p esen ed in he Resul s sec ion, Table 2.
Table 2. Co ela ion ac o s, means, and s anda d de ia ion (n= 497).
Mean S.D. MIND RESIL PERF
Mind ulness 5.398 0.727 (0.804)
Resilience 5.323 0.851 0.532 ** (0.784)
Academic
pe o mance 7.156 0.883 0.105 * 0.174 ** -
Gende 0.25 0.435 0.058 −0.050 −0.174 **
* Signi ican co ela ion (p< 0.05). ** Signi ican co ela ion (p< 0.01).
Mind ulness. We measu e mind ulness wi h he en-i em scale de eloped by [
51
] (e.g.,
“I ge in ol ed in almos e e y hing I do.”).
Resilience. We assess esilience wi h he i e-i em scale de eloped by [
52
] (e.g., “Deal-
ing wi h di icul pee s (o si ua ions) helps me g ow.”).
Academic pe o mance. Finally, we measu e academic pe o mance di ec ly om he
s uden s’ academic eco ds.
We include s uden s’ gende as a con ol a iable acco ding o p e ious s udies ha
men ion he possibili y o in luencing s uden s’ achie emen s (e.g., [
53
]). We use he
ollowing ca ego iza ion: 0 = emale, 1 = male.

Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 6 o 12
We ollow B islin’s e e se ansla ion me hod o gua an ee equi alence be ween he
o iginal i ems and hose used in o he language e sions. Two bilingual ansla o s wo ked
on he ansla ion, one o ansla e om English o Spanish, and he o he o ansla e
he esul ing Spanish e sion back in o English wi hou e e ing o he sou ce ex . The
ansla o s hen compa ed he wo English e sions and judged hem o be p ac ically
iden ical, which con i med ha he Spanish e sion accu a ely ep esen ed he wo English
e sions. We show in Appendix A he comple e scales used in he s udy.
3.3. Scale Validi y and Reliabili y
Fi s , using SPSS, we calcula e desc ip i e analyses (i.e., means, s anda d de ia ions)
and in e -co ela ions, and we use C onbach’s alpha coe icien [
54
] o check he scale’s
eliabili y (α> 0.7).
We conduc Ha man’s single- ac o es [
55
,
56
] o es common me hod a iance bias.
The esul s o he con i ma o y ac o analysis wi h he 15 indica o s loading in o a single
ac o (
χ2
(87) = 309.421; CFI = 0.890; RMSEA = 0.072; BBNFI = 0.855;
χ2
/d = 3.557) shows a
poo i , he eby indica ing ha he single ac o does no accoun o all he a iance in he
da a. The e o e, we do no conside common me hod a iance a p oblem in ou esea ch.
Nex , we implemen s uc u al equa ion modeling (SEM) by AMOS o es he hy-
po hesized model (see Figu e 1), ollowing he ecommenda ions o media ing analyses
o la en cons uc s and mul iple media o s [
57
,
58
]. We es h ee models o e i y he
hypo heses: “M1.P oposed” assumes ha mind ulness is posi i ely ela ed o esilience
ha in u n is conduci e o academic pe o mance; and in “M2.Pa ially Media ed”, e-
silience pa ially media es he ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance, and,
as ecommended by [
59
], we also es an al e na i e model o show ha he o de o he
media ing a iables in ou model is no a bi a y. Consequen ly, we es “M3.Al e na i e”,
in which mind ulness media es he ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance.
Sus ainabili y 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 12
We include s uden s’ gende as a con ol a iable acco ding o p e ious s udies ha
men ion he possibili y o in luencing s uden s’ achie emen s (e.g., [53]). We use he ol-
lowing ca ego iza ion: 0 = emale, 1 = male.
We ollow B islin’s e e se ansla ion me hod o gua an ee equi alence be ween he
o iginal i ems and hose used in o he language e sions. Two bilingual ansla o s
wo ked on he ansla ion, one o ansla e om English o Spanish, and he o he o ans-
la e he esul ing Spanish e sion back in o English wi hou e e ing o he sou ce ex .
The ansla o s hen compa ed he wo English e sions and judged hem o be p ac ically
iden ical, which con i med ha he Spanish e sion accu a ely ep esen ed he wo Eng-
lish e sions. We show in Appendix A he comple e scales used in he s udy.
3.3. Scale Validi y and Reliabili y
Fi s , using SPSS, we calcula e desc ip i e analyses (i.e., means, s anda d de ia ions)
and in e -co ela ions, and we use C onbach’s alpha coe icien [54] o check he scale’s
eliabili y (α > 0.7).
We conduc Ha man’s single- ac o es [55,56] o es common me hod a iance bias.
The esul s o he con i ma o y ac o analysis wi h he 15 indica o s loading in o a single
ac o (χ
2
(87) = 309.421; CFI = 0.890; RMSEA = 0.072; BBNFI = 0.855; χ
2
/d = 3.557) shows a
poo i , he eby indica ing ha he single ac o does no accoun o all he a iance in
he da a. The e o e, we do no conside common me hod a iance a p oblem in ou e-
sea ch.
Nex , we implemen s uc u al equa ion modeling (SEM) by AMOS o es he hy-
po hesized model (see Figu e 1), ollowing he ecommenda ions o media ing analyses
o la en cons uc s and mul iple media o s [57,58]. We es h ee models o e i y he
hypo heses: “M1.P oposed” assumes ha mind ulness is posi i ely ela ed o esilience
ha in u n is conduci e o academic pe o mance; and in “M2.Pa ially Media ed”, esil-
ience pa ially media es he ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance, and, as
ecommended by [59], we also es an al e na i e model o show ha he o de o he
media ing a iables in ou model is no a bi a y. Consequen ly, we es “M3.Al e na-
i e”, in which mind ulness media es he ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o -
mance.
Figu e 1. Hypo he ical esea ch model.
Fo he SEM analyses, we ollow he maximum likelihood app oach by es ing abso-
lu e and ela i e indices o he goodness o i [60]: he χ
2
index, Goodness o Fi Index
(GFI), he Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA), he Compa a i e Fi Index
(CFI), he Tucke –Lewis Index (TLI), and he Inc emen al Fi Index (IFI). Values below
0.08 o RMSEA [61] and highe han 0.90 o he emaining indices [62] indica es an
H1
Mind ulness Resilience Academic
pe o mance
H2
Gende
Figu e 1. Hypo he ical esea ch model.
Fo he SEM analyses, we ollow he maximum likelihood app oach by es ing absolu e
and ela i e indices o he goodness o i [
60
]: he
χ2
index, Goodness o Fi Index (GFI),
he Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA), he Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI),
he Tucke –Lewis Index (TLI), and he Inc emen al Fi Index (IFI). Values below 0.08 o
RMSEA [
61
] and highe han 0.90 o he emaining indices [
62
] indica es an accep able
i . Finally, we compu e he Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion (AIC) o compa e compe ing
non-nes ed models; he lowe he AIC index, he be e he i .
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 7 o 12
4. Resul s
Table 2shows ha all C onbach’s alpha coe icien alues a e abo e he minimum
accep able alue o 0.7 [63].
Fu he mo e, he pa e n o co ela ions indica es ha , as expec ed, he e is a posi i e
and signi ican ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience. No e ha he co ela ion
o esilience and gende wi h pe o mance is signi ican .
Model Fi : S uc u al Equa ion Modeling
Table 3displays he esul s o he s uc u al equa ion analyses. We i ou p oposed
model (M1) o he da a. Mind ulness and esilience consis o en and i e indica o s (i ems),
espec i ely.
Table 3. Fi indices o he S uc u al Equa ion Models (n= 497).
Model χ2d GFI RMSEA CFI TLI IFI AIC
Model 1 (M1) 358.94 114 0.92 0.07 0.88 0.86 0.88 436.94
Model 2 (M2) 423.18 116 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 497.18
Model 3 (M3) 428.26 117 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 500.26
No es.
χ2
= Chi-squa e; d = deg ees o eedom; GFI = Goodness o Fi Index; RMSEA = Roo Mean Squa e
E o App oxima ion; CFI = Compa a i e Fi Index; TLI = Tucke –Lewis Index; IFI = Inc emen al Fi Index;
AIC = Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion.
Ou esul s show ha M1.P oposed (in which mind ulness has a posi i e ela ionship
wi h esilience, which is in u n ela ed o academic pe o mance) adequa ely i s he
da a. M2.Pa ially media ed model (in which we also di ec ly ela e mind ulness wi h
pe o mance) also shows good i indexes; howe e , he AIC is highe in his second
model (M2 AIC = 497.18), which, acco ding o [
64
], implies he e is a be e i o M1.
Mo eo e , in M2, he di ec ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance is no
signi ican (
β
= 0.01, n.s). Finally, we es M3.Al e na i e, in which mind ulness media es
he ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance. As expec ed, he esul s a e a o able
o M1 since M3 shows a highe chi-squa e and AIC when compa ed o M1. Hence, he
esul s displayed in Figu e 2p o ide a o able e idence o M1: (1) he e is a posi i e and
signi ican ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience,
β
= 0.66, p< 0.01; and (2) he e
is a di ec signi ican ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance,
β
= 0.18, p< 0.01.
These indings also demons a e ha mind ulness and pe o mance a e ully media ed
by esilience.
Sus ainabili y 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 12
accep able i . Finally, we compu e he Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion (AIC) o compa e
compe ing non-nes ed models; he lowe he AIC index, he be e he i .
4. Resul s
Table 2 shows ha all C onbach’s alpha coe icien alues a e abo e he minimum
accep able alue o 0.7 [63].
Fu he mo e, he pa e n o co ela ions indica es ha , as expec ed, he e is a posi i e
and signi ican ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience. No e ha he co ela ion
o esilience and gende wi h pe o mance is signi ican .
Model Fi : S uc u al Equa ion Modeling
Table 3 displays he esul s o he s uc u al equa ion analyses. We i ou p oposed
model (M1) o he da a. Mind ulness and esilience consis o en and i e indica o s
(i ems), espec i ely.
Table 3. Fi indices o he S uc u al Equa ion Models (n  =  497).
Model χ
2
d GFI RMSEA CFI TLI IFI AIC
Model 1 (M1) 358.94 114 0.92 0.07 0.88 0.86 0.88 436.94
Model 2 (M2)
423.18 116 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 497.18
Model 3 (M3) 428.26 117 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 500.26
No es. χ
2
= Chi-squa e; d = deg ees o eedom; GFI = Goodness o Fi Index; RMSEA = Roo Mean
Squa e E o App oxima ion; CFI = Compa a i e Fi Index; TLI = Tucke –Lewis Index; IFI = Inc e-
men al Fi Index; AIC = Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion.
Ou esul s show ha M1.P oposed (in which mind ulness has a posi i e ela ionship
wi h esilience, which is in u n ela ed o academic pe o mance) adequa ely i s he da a.
M2.Pa ially media ed model (in which we also di ec ly ela e mind ulness wi h pe o -
mance) also shows good i indexes; howe e , he AIC is highe in his second model (M2
AIC = 497.18), which, acco ding o [64], implies he e is a be e i o M1. Mo eo e , in
M2, he di ec ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance is no signi ican (β  =
0 .01, n.s). Finally, we es M3.Al e na i e, in which mind ulness media es he ela ionship
be ween esilience and pe o mance. As expec ed, he esul s a e a o able o M1 since
M3 shows a highe chi-squa e and AIC when compa ed o M1. Hence, he esul s dis-
played in Figu e 2 p o ide a o able e idence o M1: (1) he e is a posi i e and signi ican
ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience, β  =  0.66, p  <  0.01; and (2) he e is a di ec
signi ican ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance, β  =  0.18, p  < 0 .01. These ind-
ings also demons a e ha mind ulness and pe o mance a e ully media ed by esilience.
0.66 ***
Mind ulness Resilience Academic
pe o mance
0.18 ***
Gende
−0.17 ***
Figu e 2. Empi ical esul s o he esea ch model. *** Signi ican co ela ion (p< 0.05).
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 8 o 12
5. Conclusions
The main goal o his s udy is o explo e how mind ulness plays a key ole in he
lea ning p ocess in esponse o he need o de elop s uden s’ emo ional compe encies in
ESD. Ou esul s show how s uden s’ mind ulness has a posi i e impac on esilience. A
he same ime, esilience has a posi i e ela ionship wi h academic pe o mance. The e o e,
he esul s con i m ou hypo heses ega ding he ole mind ulness plays as a p omo e o
esilience (Hypo hesis 1) and he impac esilience has on academic pe o mance (Hypo he-
sis 2). Al hough i was no an aim o ou s udy, we also ind ha gende is signi ican ly and
posi i ely ela ed o pe o mance. Thus, women ha e highe g ades han men, al hough he
ela ionships be ween a iables emain he same. Gende is a demog aphic a iable ha
disc imina es agains s uden s’ academic achie emen s. Fo ins ance, esea ch has shown
emale unde g adua e g ade poin a e age o be highe han ha achie ed by male s uden s
a e he i s yea o s udy [65] and ac oss h ee yea s o unde g adua e s udies [66,67].
In sum, he main ques ion we ha e a emp ed o answe in his esea ch is whe he
mind ulness in luences s uden s’ academic pe o mance h ough esilience. Ou s udy
p o ides empi ical e idence ha he mind ulness–academic pe o mance ela ionship
is media ed by esilience. Ou esul s can be gene alized since hey a e ob ained om
h ee highe educa ion ins i u ions and one seconda y school in h ee Spanish egions,
comp ising 22 academic disciplines om di e en a eas.
Theo e ical and P ac ical Implica ions o Educa ion in Sus ainable De elopmen
We p opose a model ha ela es he mind ulness cons uc , which has been e ealed
as an in e es ing ool o p omo e g ea e sus ainable awa eness, wi h he esilien capaci y
o uni e si y s uden s and i s impac on academic pe o mance. Ou s udy goes in line
wi h p e ious esea ch in e ms o empi ically showing he ela ionship o mind ulness and
esilience in gene al (e.g., [
29
]) and speci ically in educa ion (e.g., [
28
] o [
32
]). The e o e, ou
esea ch suppo s he bene i s o mind ulness in highe educa ion, adding he ela ionship
wi h academic pe o mance. No e ha academic pe o mance is objec i ely measu ed in
ou wo k ( h ough s uden s’ g ades), which gi es ex a alue and suppo o ou esul s.
In his ein, mos o he p e ious li e a u e on mind ulness and esilience has been linked
o s uden s’ wellbeing o sel -e icacy, including subjec i e measu es (e.g., [
32
]), which
shows a pa o he pic u e. Howe e , ou s udy, oge he wi h he ecen esea ch o [
46
],
is he i s one ha o e s addi ional da a ega ding mind ulness and esilience’s impac
on s uden s’ academic pe o mance in highe educa ion. On he o he hand, he added
alue o ou s udy depa s om he idea ha mind ulness needs o be conside ed as a key
holis ic compe ence in he compe ences o sus ainable educa ion acco ding o p e ious
esea ch [4].
In his line, ou esea ch no el y ela es o he need o con ex ualize ou model in o
ESD. In ecen yea s, in e es has g own in de eloping skills o sus ainable de elopmen in
he class oom. Thus, one o he mos ecen ad ances in highe educa ion o sus ainabili y
is he s ong eme gence o he discou se ocused on he de elopmen o compe encies
o sus ainabili y and i s connec ion wi h he use o pedagogical app oaches. The e o e,
he well-known ame o e e ence p oposed by [
68
] aims o connec he compe encies o
sus ainable de elopmen wi h pedagogical app oaches o p o ide a mo e comple e, holis ic,
and sys emic sus ainable educa ion o u u e leade s, decision-make s, educa o s, and
agen s o change. Acco ding o UNESCO, using di e en pedagogical app oaches allows
s uden s o de elop a ious lea ning p ocesses ha will help hem imp o e hei skills
and abili ies o lea n and hink. In his sense, highe educa ion ins i u ions, as essen ial
agen s o change o social de elopmen , a e making a no able e o in inco po a ing
de elopmen needs and social wel a e in o uni e si y cu icula. The use o mind ulness as
a pedagogical ool in he uni e si y and a o he educa ional le els is gaining in s eng h,
gi en he g ea possibili ies o aining s uden s in indi idual sus ainabili y. Re . [
69
]
a i ms ha “indi iduals commi ed o sus ainabili y a e cha ac e ized by c ea ing ha mony,
in e connec ion, and ela i ely high le els o sel -awa eness in hei alues, hough s,
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 9 o 12
beha io s, and ac ions, in addi ion o cul i a ing con inuous indi idual g ow h in hei
physical abili ies, emo ional, social, philosophical, and in ellec ual. Indi idual sus ainabili y
means ha ing a well-de eloped and p o en alue sys em ha is awa e o he impo ance
and in e connec edness o all global biological sys ems and ou igh ul place among
hem”. Thus, he p ac ice o mind ulness in he class oom in ol es he inco po a ion o
s a egies and ools ha allow young people o ace each educa ional s age wi h he highes
possibili ies o use, aining, expe ience, and pe sonal g ow h [
70
–
72
]. I also con ibu es
signi ican ly, as demons a ed in ou wo k, o he de elopmen o sus ainable indi idual
compe encies such as esilience, which will con ibu e, in he mid-and long e m, o he
de elopmen o mo e sus ainable socie ies.
Fu he mo e, i is wo h men ioning ha , as indica ed by [
73
], in uni e si y edu-
ca ion, echnical p o essional skills ha e gene ally been enhanced o he de imen o
socio-pe sonal skills, emo ional sel - egula ion, esilience, and s ess con ol—key aspec s
o be conside ed wi hin he cu icula p og am. The de elopmen o hese socio-emo ional
skills can be enhanced wi h mind ulness echniques. Va ious wo ks, such as his one, ha e
empi ically analyzed how mind ulness bene i s uni e si y s uden s [
74
] and, in u n, hese
capaci ies ha e yielded be e academic pe o mance and gene al wellbeing.
This esea ch has some limi a ions, which in u n open lines o u u e esea ch. Fo
ins ance, he sample consis s mainly o highe educa ion s uden s and a smalle g oup o
seconda y school s uden s. I would be use ul o alida e he analysis a di e en educa ion
s ages and compa e he di e ences be ween hem. Mo eo e , mos s uden s a e om a
speci ic Spanish communi y; he e o e, u u e esea ch could eplica e his s udy in o he
Spanish loca ions and in di e en coun ies o conside o he cul u al and geog aphical
se ings. Finally, mos o he subjec s in ou sample a e women; hus, ha ing a mo e
balanced da ase would allow us o compa e gende di e ences.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, M.E., D.M. and A.R.-S.; Me hodology, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.;
So wa e, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; Valida ion, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; Fo mal Analysis, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.;
In es iga ion, M.E., D.M. and A.R.-S.; Resou ces, M.E., D.M. and A.R.-S.; W i ing—O iginal D a
P epa a ion, M.E., A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; W i ing—Re iew, M.E. and A.R.-S. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch has been ca ied ou unde he auspices o he p ojec (code 46179) g an ed
by Educa ional Suppo Uni om Uni e si a Jaume I Cas ellón (Spain).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No applicable.
Con lic s o In e es : The e is no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
Mind ulness
1. I like o in es iga e hings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. I am always open o new ways o doing hings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I am ale o new de elopmen s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. I “ge in ol ed” in almos e e y hing I do 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. I am e y c ea i e 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. I a end o he ‘big pic u e’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. I am e y cu ious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. I y o hink o new ways o doing hings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. I like o be challenged in ellec ually 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. I like o igu e ou how hings wo k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7