Does Mindfulness Influence Academic Performance? The Role of Resilience in Education for Sustainable Development

  Ci a ion: Vidal-Meliá, L.; Es ada, M.; Mon e e , D.; Rod íguez-Sánchez, A. Does Mind ulness In luence Academic Pe o mance? The Role o Resilience in Educa ion o Sus ainable De elopmen . Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251. h ps:// doi.o g/10.3390/su14074251 Academic Edi o s: And ea Weinbe g, Ralph Hansmann and Michael Ta an Recei ed: 25 Feb ua y 2022 Accep ed: 30 Ma ch 2022 Published: 2 Ap il 2022 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a il- ia ions. Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). sus ainabili y A icle Does Mind ulness In luence Academic Pe o mance? The Role o Resilience in Educa ion o Sus ainable De elopmen Lidia Vidal-Meliá* , Ma a Es ada , Diego Mon e e and Alma Rod íguez-Sánchez Depa men o Business Adminis a ion and Ma ke ing, Uni e si a Jaume I, 12071 Cas ellóde la Plana, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (M.E.); [email p o ec ed] (D.M.); [email p o ec ed] (A.R.-S.) *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : A mind ul pe son is p one o be open o no el y, a en i e o dis inc ions, sensi i e o con ex , awa e o mul iple pe spec i es, and ocused on he p esen . The e o e, he ole o mind ulness in educa ional con ex s is gaining g ound gi en he g ea possibili ies i o e s in de eloping s uden s’ compe ences in educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen (ESD). The main goal o his s udy is o explo e how mind ulness plays a key ole in he lea ning p ocess in esponse o he need o de elop s uden s’ emo ional compe encies in ESD, and speci ically how mind ulness has an impac on academic pe o mance h ough esilience. We es ed he esea ch model wi h a ques ionnai e add essed o 497 s uden s om h ee highe educa ion ins i u ions and one seconda y school. The esul s o a s uc u al equa ion analysis con i m he s udy hypo heses. We ind mind ulness is posi i ely ela ed o esilience, which leads o be e academic pe o mance. Thus, being mind ul is a key compe ence in ESD since i allows young people o ace hei educa ion wi h he highes possibili ies o aining, expe ience, and pe sonal g ow h. This explo a o y s udy o e s u he e idence o he need o in es in mind ulness o os e esilience and academic pe o mance and ep esen s a i s s ep o designing addi ional in e en ions on his line. Keywo ds: educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen ; mind ulness; esilience; academic pe o mance 1. In oduc ion Educa ion o sus ainable de elopmen (ESD) aims a de eloping compe ences ha empowe indi iduals o e lec on hei ac ions, conside ing hei cu en and u u e social, cul u al, economic, and en i onmen al impac s om a local and a global pe spec i e [ 1 ]. Thus, i seems ha in he las decade, ui ul esea ch on in eg a ing di e en compe ences o ESD became mo e e iden (e.g., [ 2 , 3 ]). In his sense, compe ences o sus ainable de el- opmen (CSD) depa om a comp ehensi e and holis ic iew; CSD may be conside ed as a se o knowledge, skills, alues, and a i udes necessa y o ensu e oday’s s uden s and u u e leade s a e eady o deal wi h complex issues ega ding sus ainabili y [ 4 ]. Se e al au ho s epo on hese compe ences, using di e en se ings and models (e.g., [ 5 ]). In his sense, e . [ 4 ] o e s a comple e and in eg a ed iew om a ious au ho s, including six main blocks o compe ences wi h simila cha ac e is ics: esponsibili y ( alues, e hics, e lec ion), emo ional in elligence ( anscul u al unde s anding, empa hy, solida i y, com- passion), sys em o ien a ion (in e disciplina y), u u e o ien a ion, pe sonal in ol emen (sel -mo i a ion, mo i a ing o he s, lea ning), and he abili y o ake ac ion (pa icipa o y skills) [4]. Fu he s udies [ 6 ] also ocus on he eaching s a egies ha os e compe ences o skills needed in sea ch o sus ainabili y in educa ion, such as being c i ical, c ea i e, being awa e o p oblems, p oblem-sol ing skills, o coope a ion, among o he s. The e o e, mind ulness, de ined as he capaci y o a pe son o ocus a en ion on e en s, expe iences, and s a es o he p esen momen , bo h ex e nal and in e nal [ 7 ], plays a pi o al ole as a comp ehensi e compe ence in ESD. In o he wo ds, awa eness gene a ed in mind ulness is ela ed o Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su14074251 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 2 o 12 emo ional compe ences such as emo ional in elligence (including he capaci y o be awa e o he own emo ions and being conscious abou o he s’ eelings o eeling empa hy). Howe e , mind ulness is also ela ed o how indi iduals pe cei e he wo ld ha su ounds hem, including he esou ces ha hey ha e a hand, which is linked o academic compe ences. In ac , e s. [ 8 , 9 ] a i med ha mind ulness gene a es a highe in ellec ual capabili y and an openness o di e en hinking s yles. In his ein, mind ulness migh be ela ed o ESD since i os e s CSD as emo ional egula ion, sel -awa eness, and u u e o ien a ion [ 10 – 12 ]. Thus, he main goal o his s udy is o explo e how mind ulness plays a key ole in he lea ning p ocess in esponse o he need o de elop s uden s’ emo ional compe encies in ESD, and speci ically how mind ulness has an impac on academic pe o mance. Mind ulness eme ges as one o he mos e ec i e ins umen s o p omo ing awa e- ness, cul i a ing he abili y o be a en i e, and inc easing subjec i e wellbeing [13]. Thus, he au ho s [ 14 , 15 ] unde s and mind ulness as a “ echnology o he sel ” ha exe s an ac ion on he own subjec i i y wi h he po en ial o cause e ec i e changes in modes o exis ence in a mo e sus ainable di ec ion. Quan i a i e esea ch [ 16 ] has shown a posi i e ela ionship be ween p ac icing mind ulness and p o-en i onmen al a i udes and beha - io s. Mind ulness would be p omo ing a double bene i [ 13 ]: on he one hand, i inc eases wellbeing by de aching i om ma e ialis ic and consume logic; on he o he , i ac i ely p omo es mo e sus ainable beha io and li es yle. F om ano he pe spec i e, he p ac ice o mind ulness has sp ead apidly among he wo ld’s adul popula ion in ecen yea s, ollowing i s p o en e ec i eness in egula ing emo ions and op imizing cogni i e pa e ns. The numbe o s udies and esea ch on his p ac ice and analysis o i s e icacy wi h child en and adolescen s has been inc easing due o i s demons a ed e ec i eness in imp o ing mo e ecosocial beha io s, enhancing gene al wellbeing [ 17 , 18 ], imp o ing psychological symp oms [ 19 ], and as e in o ma ion p ocessing. In he educa ional con ex , i s p ac ice has demons a ed e ec i eness in cogni i e pe o mance and signi ican ela ionships in measu es o s ess, coping, and esilience [ 20 ]. Howe e , he e is s ill a sho age o pape s on he in luence o mind ulness on esilience in college s uden s and e en mo e on i s ole on ESD as a compe ence. In sum, al hough he bene i s o mind ulness a e well-acknowledged in he educa ional li e a u e, i is no conside ed a key elemen in ESD. Hence, he p esen s udy seeks o con ibu e o he li e a u e o ESD in se e al ways. Fi s , depa ing om he ca ego iza ion o [ 4 ] and social psychology li e a u e as ou heo e ical amewo k, we p opose applying mind ulness as a co e compe ence o ESD since i can be ela ed o he six blocks o compe ences o ESD. Second, we y o empi ically show he impac ha mind ulness (as a compe ence) has on esilience and pe o mance in highe educa ion, hus, o e ing u he empi ical suppo o he need o conside mind ulness also on highe educa ion. Finally, we conside ha , in an educa ional con ex , mind ulness will no only ha e epe cussions on s uden s’ consciousness ega ding sus ainabili y conce ns, bu i will also bene i he de elopmen o hei empa hic capaci ies and academic pe o mance. The e o e, ou s udy is an explo a o y s udy which ep esen s he i s s ep o u he in e en ion s udies in highe educa ion ega ding how i con ibu es o CSD. 2. Li e a u e Re iew 2.1. Mind ulness and Resilience Mind ulness implies a s a e o consciousness in which a en ion is ocused on e en s, expe iences, and s a es o he p esen momen , bo h ex e nal and in e nal [ 7 ]. Thus, mind ulness is cons an ly being awa e o e en s and expe iences a he momen and accep ing hem as hey a e, a he han being abso bed in he pas o wo ied abou he u u e [ 21 ]. Acco ding o his de ini ion, a mind ul pe son is p one o be open o no el y, sensi i e o con ex , and awa e o mul iple app oaches o sol ing a p oblem [ 22 ]. The e o e, a mind ul pe son migh be mo e awa e o he esou ces a hand. Thus, in ou s udy, we ollow his app oach o disposi ional mind ulness as a capaci y o be conscious o e en s and expe iences a ound. This app oach is se led in bo h adi ions on he s udy Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 3 o 12 o mind ulness: he Eas e n based on sel - egula ion o a en ion ha is p esen -o ien ed and is cha ac e ized by cu iosi y, openness, and accep ance [ 23 ]. This de ini ion ocus on medi a i e p ac ice. Addi ionally, he Wes e n app oach in which mind ulness is de ined by being in he p esen , sensi i e o con ex and pe spec i e, and guided (bu no go e ned) by ules and ou ines [ 24 ]. Bo h app oaches ha e hei simila i ies and di e ences, “bu he singula i ies o each app oach can be placed wi hin an unde lying amewo k, whe ein each con ibu es o he elucida ion o he o he ” [ 25 ]. The e o e, we conside mind ulness as a capaci y o be awa e o he p esen momen , being conscious abou he con ex and wo ld ha su ound us. This capaci y may help people o be awa e o hei own and o he s’ emo ions and he esou ces a hand when ha ing di icul si ua ions. This idea is ela ed o he capaci y o o e come obs acles and become e en mo e esou ce ul a e a di icul si ua ion; ha is, he capaci y o esilience. Resilience is de ined as an indi idual’s capabili y o sus ain a no mal s a e o balance when exposed o excep ionally ad e se si ua ions [ 26 ]. Resilience does no e adica e s ess o emo e li e ad e si ies. Ins ead, i gi es people he s eng h o handle p oblems e ec i ely, o e come ad e si y, and mo e on wi h hei li es [ 27 ]. In ecen yea s, he e has been g owing esea ch in e es in disco e ing he acili a o s o esilience. Beyond di e en cha ac e ai s and skills, including sel - e icacy, c ea i e p oblem-sol ing skills, and he abili y o ocus on he p esen , mind ulness has been associa ed wi h esilience [28–30]. In he con ex o highe educa ion, a g owing numbe o heo e ical and empi ical e- sea ch s udies suppo he idea ha mind ulness and esilience a e connec ed (e.g., [ 31 , 32 ]). In his ega d, e . [ 33 ] concluded ha he sus ained p ac ice o mind ulness can imp o e a en ional and emo ional sel - egula ion and a ec s s uden s’ capaci y o esilience. Thus, i has been shown ha when uni e si y s uden s lack esilience, hey a e mo e likely o all in o si ua ions o helplessness, apa hy, dep ession, and anguish [ 34 ]. Howe e , when hey p esen high le els o esilience, hey show a highe i o uni e si y academic de- mands [ 35 ]. Along hese lines, high le els o esilience ha e been associa ed wi h academic success [ 35 , 36 ]. Re . [ 37 ] showed ha indi iduals wi h g ea e mind ulness ha e g ea e esilience and, consequen ly, g ea e sa is ac ion wi h li e. Acco ding o he au ho s, he awa eness and accep ance aspec s o mind ulness can acili a e he de elopmen o e- silience and op imism, en husiasm, and pa ience, cha ac e is ics o esilien indi iduals ha can lead o a pe cep ion o wellbeing. Acco ding o [ 38 ], o main ain esilience, g ea e lexibili y is equi ed h ough a en ion and accep ance, skills ha a e in eg a ed in o mind- ulness. In a s udy by [ 39 ], a posi i e ela ionship be ween esilience and mind ulness was obse ed, showing ha bo h a iables a e e ealed as p edic o s o psychological wellbeing in uni e si y s uden s. Howe e , he e is s ill li le esea ch in his ega d [ 40 , 41 ] and e en mo e in he con ex o ESD. In his sense, mind ulness could be conside ed a holis ic compe ence o ESD. In ac , ollowing he p e ious ca ego iza ion o compe ences o ESD [ 4 ], mind ulness migh be ela ed o esponsibili y, anscul u al unde s anding, empa- hy, lea ning, and he abili y o ake ac ion, and hen i would be ela ed o esilience. Thus, he challenge is o con inue in es iga ing his a iable, which seeks, h ough educa ion, o ain omo ow’s ci izens in c ea ing a mo e sus ainable wo ld. The e o e, acco ding o p e ious e idence, we expec ha : Hypo hesis 1. S uden s’ mind ulness is di ec ly and posi i ely ela ed o hei le el o esilience. 2.2. Resilience and Academic Pe o mance The s udy o esilience has a ac ed a g owing esea ch in e es , especially in highe educa ion se ings, mainly because o he numbe o bene i s ha esilience has on s uden s’ wellbeing [ 42 ]. In his con ex , esilience helps s uden s o e come s ess ul si ua ions and p essu e a ising om hei s udies [ 43 ]. Since esilience is a dynamic capabili y h ough which s uden s acqui e he knowledge and skills o help hem ace an unce ain u u e wi h a posi i e a i ude and op imism, esilien s uden s will be able o cope wi h academic demands app op ia ely [ 44 ]. Mo eo e , esilience is one o he main dimensions Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 4 o 12 associa ed wi h psychological wellbeing and academic success [ 45 ]. S uden s’ capaci y o esilience will help hem o pe se e e in hei asks and main ain a posi i e a i ude when di icul ies a ise; his pe sis ence in hei s udies migh be di ec ly ela ed o academic pe o mance. Acco ding o ecen esea ch, mind ulness and esilience seem o be ela ed o academic pe o mance in educa ional se ings [ 46 ]. Hence, he ela ionship be ween esilience and i s mul iple bene i s on wellbeing and pe o mance is well suppo ed in he li e a u e, including esilience as a bu e e ec p e en ing bu nou o d opou [ 47 , 48 ] and esilience enhancing academic engagemen [ 49 ]. Mo eo e , esilience is ela ed o academic pe o mance, al hough his ela ionship is media ed by o he a iables such as engagemen and sel -e icacy [ 42 ]. Thus, u he esea ch is needed o unco e he ela ionship be ween esilience and di ec academic pe o mance, such as he impac on s uden s’ g ades. The e o e, ollowing p e ious esea ch ega ding he close ela ionship be ween e- silience and pe o mance we expec ha : Hypo hesis 2. S uden s’ esilience is posi i ely and di ec ly ela ed o hei academic pe o mance. 3. Me hodology 3.1. Sample Selec ion and Da a Collec ion This s udy was ca ied ou as pa o a collabo a ion ag eemen signed by h ee highe educa ion ins i u ions and one seconda y school in h ee Spanish egions. The ou ins i u ions in ol ed in he s udy o e onsi e eaching. This ag eemen allowed us o in e iew s uden s om a b oad ange o spec ums ( egion, academic discipline, cou se, quali ica ion, gende ), which p o ided a di e se and highly ep esen a i e sample, hus maximizing he eliabili y o he esul s. Be o e he ieldwo k, expe s in he educa ion a ea e ised he ques ionnai e and p e es ed i on a g oup o 25 s uden s. This p ocess allowed us o imp o e he wo ding and con i m he sui abili y o he ques ionnai e. A e his e ision s age, we su eyed he s uden s using an online ques ionnai e designed by he esea ch eam. S uden anonymi y was gua an eed o encou age pa icipa ion, which mo i a ed hem o p o ide mo e hones answe s. We also in o med he s uden s ha we would agg ega e he da a o ensu e con iden iali y. Mo eo e , we ollowed he e hical s anda ds, and ou s udy passed he e hical commi ee o ou uni e si y. The ques ionnai e consis s o 15 i ems: 10 ela ed o mind ulness and 5 o esilience (see Appendix A). All i ems a e measu ed on a 7-poin Like scale. All Like -scaled indica o s a e exp essed posi i ely, and esponden s ha e o s a e whe he hey ag ee o disag ee wi h each s a emen included in he ques ionnai e. The ieldwo k ook place be ween Oc obe 2018 and Ma ch 2019 and yielded a sample o 497 alid esponses. We calcula e desc ip i e analyses using SPSS o e eal he main cha ac e is ics o he sample (Table 1). The inal sample comp ises s uden s mos ly om Uni e si y 1 (69%) and be ween 8% and 12% o he emaining pa icipa ing ins i u ions. F om he o al o 22 speci ic academic disciplines analyzed (co e ing a wide ange om business and economic sciences, echnological and expe imen al sciences, heal h sciences, and social sciences), 16 co espond o academic deg ees, wo o mas e ’s deg ees, and ou o second-cycle s udies. Mos s uden s a e second-yea unde g adua es (43.7%), ollowed by hi d-yea s uden s (20.9%). The ou h and i s yea s ep esen oughly 14% and 10%, espec i ely, he seconda y school a ound 8%, and he mas e s a ound 3%. The i h and six h yea s ep esen less han 1% each. The a e age age o he s uden s in he sample is 22 yea s, and hei a e age g ade is 7.2 (ou o a maximum o en). Finally, he gende dis ibu ion is mainly emale (74.6%). Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 5 o 12 Table 1. Gene al sample cha ac e is ics. Ins i u ion: Ca ego y (%) Uni e si y 1 (69) Uni e si y 2 (12.1) Uni e si y 3 (11.1) Seconda y School (7.8) Deg ee: Ca ego y (%) Business Adminis a ion 1(12.1) Indus ial design enginee ing 2(3.2) Psychology 3(14.5) Occupa ional he apy 1(11.1) Mechanical enginee ing 2(1.8) Medicine 3(3.2) Labou ela ions and human esou ces 1(10.7) Ag i- ood enginee ing 2(2.4) Nu sing 3(2.4) Tou ism 1(5.6) Chemical enginee ing 2(1.6) Audio- isual communica ion 4(11.7) Finance and accoun ing 1(2.0) Elec ical enginee ing 2(1.0) Ad e ising and public ela ions 4(5.2) Economics 1(0.8) Mas e in human esou ces managemen 1 (0.8) Second cycle s udies 1,4 (8) Mas e in ma ke ing 1(1.8) Cou se: Ca ego y (%) Fi s (9.9) Second (43.7) Thi d (20.9) Fou h + (15.1) Pos g adua e (2.6) Seconda y school (7.8) Gende : Ca ego y (%) Age a e age Academic g ade a e age Male (25.4) Female (74.6) 22 yea s old 7.2 No e: 1 ep esen s disciplines om business and economic sciences; 2 ep esen s disciplines om echnological and expe imen al sciences; 3 ep esen s disciplines om heal h sciences; 4 ep esen s disciplines om social sciences. 3.2. Measu emen Ins umen s We ollowed [ 50 ] ecommenda ions o p e en sel -gene a ed alidi y in he ques ion- nai e design. Thus, we ca e ully o de ed and w o e he ques ions in simple language wi h use - iendly e minology. We also so ed he analyzed cons uc s di e en ly om he hypo heses (an eceden s →media ing a iable →consequences). All he scales co espond p ecisely o hei heo e ical de ini ions, and we adap ed hem om well-known and alida ed scales in he li e a u e. The eliabili y in o ma ion (C onbach’s alpha) o he scales is p esen ed in he Resul s sec ion, Table 2. Table 2. Co ela ion ac o s, means, and s anda d de ia ion (n= 497). Mean S.D. MIND RESIL PERF Mind ulness 5.398 0.727 (0.804) Resilience 5.323 0.851 0.532 ** (0.784) Academic pe o mance 7.156 0.883 0.105 * 0.174 ** - Gende 0.25 0.435 0.058 −0.050 −0.174 ** * Signi ican co ela ion (p< 0.05). ** Signi ican co ela ion (p< 0.01). Mind ulness. We measu e mind ulness wi h he en-i em scale de eloped by [ 51 ] (e.g., “I ge in ol ed in almos e e y hing I do.”). Resilience. We assess esilience wi h he i e-i em scale de eloped by [ 52 ] (e.g., “Deal- ing wi h di icul pee s (o si ua ions) helps me g ow.”). Academic pe o mance. Finally, we measu e academic pe o mance di ec ly om he s uden s’ academic eco ds. We include s uden s’ gende as a con ol a iable acco ding o p e ious s udies ha men ion he possibili y o in luencing s uden s’ achie emen s (e.g., [ 53 ]). We use he ollowing ca ego iza ion: 0 = emale, 1 = male. Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 6 o 12 We ollow B islin’s e e se ansla ion me hod o gua an ee equi alence be ween he o iginal i ems and hose used in o he language e sions. Two bilingual ansla o s wo ked on he ansla ion, one o ansla e om English o Spanish, and he o he o ansla e he esul ing Spanish e sion back in o English wi hou e e ing o he sou ce ex . The ansla o s hen compa ed he wo English e sions and judged hem o be p ac ically iden ical, which con i med ha he Spanish e sion accu a ely ep esen ed he wo English e sions. We show in Appendix A he comple e scales used in he s udy. 3.3. Scale Validi y and Reliabili y Fi s , using SPSS, we calcula e desc ip i e analyses (i.e., means, s anda d de ia ions) and in e -co ela ions, and we use C onbach’s alpha coe icien [ 54 ] o check he scale’s eliabili y (α> 0.7). We conduc Ha man’s single- ac o es [ 55 , 56 ] o es common me hod a iance bias. The esul s o he con i ma o y ac o analysis wi h he 15 indica o s loading in o a single ac o ( χ2 (87) = 309.421; CFI = 0.890; RMSEA = 0.072; BBNFI = 0.855; χ2 /d = 3.557) shows a poo i , he eby indica ing ha he single ac o does no accoun o all he a iance in he da a. The e o e, we do no conside common me hod a iance a p oblem in ou esea ch. Nex , we implemen s uc u al equa ion modeling (SEM) by AMOS o es he hy- po hesized model (see Figu e 1), ollowing he ecommenda ions o media ing analyses o la en cons uc s and mul iple media o s [ 57 , 58 ]. We es h ee models o e i y he hypo heses: “M1.P oposed” assumes ha mind ulness is posi i ely ela ed o esilience ha in u n is conduci e o academic pe o mance; and in “M2.Pa ially Media ed”, e- silience pa ially media es he ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance, and, as ecommended by [ 59 ], we also es an al e na i e model o show ha he o de o he media ing a iables in ou model is no a bi a y. Consequen ly, we es “M3.Al e na i e”, in which mind ulness media es he ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance. Sus ainabili y 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 12 We include s uden s’ gende as a con ol a iable acco ding o p e ious s udies ha men ion he possibili y o in luencing s uden s’ achie emen s (e.g., [53]). We use he ol- lowing ca ego iza ion: 0 = emale, 1 = male. We ollow B islin’s e e se ansla ion me hod o gua an ee equi alence be ween he o iginal i ems and hose used in o he language e sions. Two bilingual ansla o s wo ked on he ansla ion, one o ansla e om English o Spanish, and he o he o ans- la e he esul ing Spanish e sion back in o English wi hou e e ing o he sou ce ex . The ansla o s hen compa ed he wo English e sions and judged hem o be p ac ically iden ical, which con i med ha he Spanish e sion accu a ely ep esen ed he wo Eng- lish e sions. We show in Appendix A he comple e scales used in he s udy. 3.3. Scale Validi y and Reliabili y Fi s , using SPSS, we calcula e desc ip i e analyses (i.e., means, s anda d de ia ions) and in e -co ela ions, and we use C onbach’s alpha coe icien [54] o check he scale’s eliabili y (α > 0.7). We conduc Ha man’s single- ac o es [55,56] o es common me hod a iance bias. The esul s o he con i ma o y ac o analysis wi h he 15 indica o s loading in o a single ac o (χ 2 (87) = 309.421; CFI = 0.890; RMSEA = 0.072; BBNFI = 0.855; χ 2 /d = 3.557) shows a poo i , he eby indica ing ha he single ac o does no accoun o all he a iance in he da a. The e o e, we do no conside common me hod a iance a p oblem in ou e- sea ch. Nex , we implemen s uc u al equa ion modeling (SEM) by AMOS o es he hy- po hesized model (see Figu e 1), ollowing he ecommenda ions o media ing analyses o la en cons uc s and mul iple media o s [57,58]. We es h ee models o e i y he hypo heses: “M1.P oposed” assumes ha mind ulness is posi i ely ela ed o esilience ha in u n is conduci e o academic pe o mance; and in “M2.Pa ially Media ed”, esil- ience pa ially media es he ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance, and, as ecommended by [59], we also es an al e na i e model o show ha he o de o he media ing a iables in ou model is no a bi a y. Consequen ly, we es “M3.Al e na- i e”, in which mind ulness media es he ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o - mance. Figu e 1. Hypo he ical esea ch model. Fo he SEM analyses, we ollow he maximum likelihood app oach by es ing abso- lu e and ela i e indices o he goodness o i [60]: he χ 2 index, Goodness o Fi Index (GFI), he Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA), he Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI), he Tucke –Lewis Index (TLI), and he Inc emen al Fi Index (IFI). Values below 0.08 o RMSEA [61] and highe han 0.90 o he emaining indices [62] indica es an H1 Mind ulness Resilience Academic pe o mance H2 Gende Figu e 1. Hypo he ical esea ch model. Fo he SEM analyses, we ollow he maximum likelihood app oach by es ing absolu e and ela i e indices o he goodness o i [ 60 ]: he χ2 index, Goodness o Fi Index (GFI), he Roo Mean Squa e E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA), he Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI), he Tucke –Lewis Index (TLI), and he Inc emen al Fi Index (IFI). Values below 0.08 o RMSEA [ 61 ] and highe han 0.90 o he emaining indices [ 62 ] indica es an accep able i . Finally, we compu e he Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion (AIC) o compa e compe ing non-nes ed models; he lowe he AIC index, he be e he i . Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 7 o 12 4. Resul s Table 2shows ha all C onbach’s alpha coe icien alues a e abo e he minimum accep able alue o 0.7 [63]. Fu he mo e, he pa e n o co ela ions indica es ha , as expec ed, he e is a posi i e and signi ican ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience. No e ha he co ela ion o esilience and gende wi h pe o mance is signi ican . Model Fi : S uc u al Equa ion Modeling Table 3displays he esul s o he s uc u al equa ion analyses. We i ou p oposed model (M1) o he da a. Mind ulness and esilience consis o en and i e indica o s (i ems), espec i ely. Table 3. Fi indices o he S uc u al Equa ion Models (n= 497). Model χ2d GFI RMSEA CFI TLI IFI AIC Model 1 (M1) 358.94 114 0.92 0.07 0.88 0.86 0.88 436.94 Model 2 (M2) 423.18 116 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 497.18 Model 3 (M3) 428.26 117 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 500.26 No es. χ2 = Chi-squa e; d = deg ees o eedom; GFI = Goodness o Fi Index; RMSEA = Roo Mean Squa e E o App oxima ion; CFI = Compa a i e Fi Index; TLI = Tucke –Lewis Index; IFI = Inc emen al Fi Index; AIC = Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion. Ou esul s show ha M1.P oposed (in which mind ulness has a posi i e ela ionship wi h esilience, which is in u n ela ed o academic pe o mance) adequa ely i s he da a. M2.Pa ially media ed model (in which we also di ec ly ela e mind ulness wi h pe o mance) also shows good i indexes; howe e , he AIC is highe in his second model (M2 AIC = 497.18), which, acco ding o [ 64 ], implies he e is a be e i o M1. Mo eo e , in M2, he di ec ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance is no signi ican ( β = 0.01, n.s). Finally, we es M3.Al e na i e, in which mind ulness media es he ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance. As expec ed, he esul s a e a o able o M1 since M3 shows a highe chi-squa e and AIC when compa ed o M1. Hence, he esul s displayed in Figu e 2p o ide a o able e idence o M1: (1) he e is a posi i e and signi ican ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience, β = 0.66, p< 0.01; and (2) he e is a di ec signi ican ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance, β = 0.18, p< 0.01. These indings also demons a e ha mind ulness and pe o mance a e ully media ed by esilience. Sus ainabili y 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 12 accep able i . Finally, we compu e he Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion (AIC) o compa e compe ing non-nes ed models; he lowe he AIC index, he be e he i . 4. Resul s Table 2 shows ha all C onbach’s alpha coe icien alues a e abo e he minimum accep able alue o 0.7 [63]. Fu he mo e, he pa e n o co ela ions indica es ha , as expec ed, he e is a posi i e and signi ican ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience. No e ha he co ela ion o esilience and gende wi h pe o mance is signi ican . Model Fi : S uc u al Equa ion Modeling Table 3 displays he esul s o he s uc u al equa ion analyses. We i ou p oposed model (M1) o he da a. Mind ulness and esilience consis o en and i e indica o s (i ems), espec i ely. Table 3. Fi indices o he S uc u al Equa ion Models (n  =  497). Model χ 2 d GFI RMSEA CFI TLI IFI AIC Model 1 (M1) 358.94 114 0.92 0.07 0.88 0.86 0.88 436.94 Model 2 (M2) 423.18 116 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 497.18 Model 3 (M3) 428.26 117 0.91 0.07 0.85 0.83 0.85 500.26 No es. χ 2 = Chi-squa e; d = deg ees o eedom; GFI = Goodness o Fi Index; RMSEA = Roo Mean Squa e E o App oxima ion; CFI = Compa a i e Fi Index; TLI = Tucke –Lewis Index; IFI = Inc e- men al Fi Index; AIC = Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion. Ou esul s show ha M1.P oposed (in which mind ulness has a posi i e ela ionship wi h esilience, which is in u n ela ed o academic pe o mance) adequa ely i s he da a. M2.Pa ially media ed model (in which we also di ec ly ela e mind ulness wi h pe o - mance) also shows good i indexes; howe e , he AIC is highe in his second model (M2 AIC = 497.18), which, acco ding o [64], implies he e is a be e i o M1. Mo eo e , in M2, he di ec ela ionship be ween mind ulness and pe o mance is no signi ican (β  = 0 .01, n.s). Finally, we es M3.Al e na i e, in which mind ulness media es he ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance. As expec ed, he esul s a e a o able o M1 since M3 shows a highe chi-squa e and AIC when compa ed o M1. Hence, he esul s dis- played in Figu e 2 p o ide a o able e idence o M1: (1) he e is a posi i e and signi ican ela ionship be ween mind ulness and esilience, β  =  0.66, p  <  0.01; and (2) he e is a di ec signi ican ela ionship be ween esilience and pe o mance, β  =  0.18, p  < 0 .01. These ind- ings also demons a e ha mind ulness and pe o mance a e ully media ed by esilience. 0.66 *** Mind ulness Resilience Academic pe o mance 0.18 *** Gende −0.17 *** Figu e 2. Empi ical esul s o he esea ch model. *** Signi ican co ela ion (p< 0.05). Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 8 o 12 5. Conclusions The main goal o his s udy is o explo e how mind ulness plays a key ole in he lea ning p ocess in esponse o he need o de elop s uden s’ emo ional compe encies in ESD. Ou esul s show how s uden s’ mind ulness has a posi i e impac on esilience. A he same ime, esilience has a posi i e ela ionship wi h academic pe o mance. The e o e, he esul s con i m ou hypo heses ega ding he ole mind ulness plays as a p omo e o esilience (Hypo hesis 1) and he impac esilience has on academic pe o mance (Hypo he- sis 2). Al hough i was no an aim o ou s udy, we also ind ha gende is signi ican ly and posi i ely ela ed o pe o mance. Thus, women ha e highe g ades han men, al hough he ela ionships be ween a iables emain he same. Gende is a demog aphic a iable ha disc imina es agains s uden s’ academic achie emen s. Fo ins ance, esea ch has shown emale unde g adua e g ade poin a e age o be highe han ha achie ed by male s uden s a e he i s yea o s udy [65] and ac oss h ee yea s o unde g adua e s udies [66,67]. In sum, he main ques ion we ha e a emp ed o answe in his esea ch is whe he mind ulness in luences s uden s’ academic pe o mance h ough esilience. Ou s udy p o ides empi ical e idence ha he mind ulness–academic pe o mance ela ionship is media ed by esilience. Ou esul s can be gene alized since hey a e ob ained om h ee highe educa ion ins i u ions and one seconda y school in h ee Spanish egions, comp ising 22 academic disciplines om di e en a eas. Theo e ical and P ac ical Implica ions o Educa ion in Sus ainable De elopmen We p opose a model ha ela es he mind ulness cons uc , which has been e ealed as an in e es ing ool o p omo e g ea e sus ainable awa eness, wi h he esilien capaci y o uni e si y s uden s and i s impac on academic pe o mance. Ou s udy goes in line wi h p e ious esea ch in e ms o empi ically showing he ela ionship o mind ulness and esilience in gene al (e.g., [ 29 ]) and speci ically in educa ion (e.g., [ 28 ] o [ 32 ]). The e o e, ou esea ch suppo s he bene i s o mind ulness in highe educa ion, adding he ela ionship wi h academic pe o mance. No e ha academic pe o mance is objec i ely measu ed in ou wo k ( h ough s uden s’ g ades), which gi es ex a alue and suppo o ou esul s. In his ein, mos o he p e ious li e a u e on mind ulness and esilience has been linked o s uden s’ wellbeing o sel -e icacy, including subjec i e measu es (e.g., [ 32 ]), which shows a pa o he pic u e. Howe e , ou s udy, oge he wi h he ecen esea ch o [ 46 ], is he i s one ha o e s addi ional da a ega ding mind ulness and esilience’s impac on s uden s’ academic pe o mance in highe educa ion. On he o he hand, he added alue o ou s udy depa s om he idea ha mind ulness needs o be conside ed as a key holis ic compe ence in he compe ences o sus ainable educa ion acco ding o p e ious esea ch [4]. In his line, ou esea ch no el y ela es o he need o con ex ualize ou model in o ESD. In ecen yea s, in e es has g own in de eloping skills o sus ainable de elopmen in he class oom. Thus, one o he mos ecen ad ances in highe educa ion o sus ainabili y is he s ong eme gence o he discou se ocused on he de elopmen o compe encies o sus ainabili y and i s connec ion wi h he use o pedagogical app oaches. The e o e, he well-known ame o e e ence p oposed by [ 68 ] aims o connec he compe encies o sus ainable de elopmen wi h pedagogical app oaches o p o ide a mo e comple e, holis ic, and sys emic sus ainable educa ion o u u e leade s, decision-make s, educa o s, and agen s o change. Acco ding o UNESCO, using di e en pedagogical app oaches allows s uden s o de elop a ious lea ning p ocesses ha will help hem imp o e hei skills and abili ies o lea n and hink. In his sense, highe educa ion ins i u ions, as essen ial agen s o change o social de elopmen , a e making a no able e o in inco po a ing de elopmen needs and social wel a e in o uni e si y cu icula. The use o mind ulness as a pedagogical ool in he uni e si y and a o he educa ional le els is gaining in s eng h, gi en he g ea possibili ies o aining s uden s in indi idual sus ainabili y. Re . [ 69 ] a i ms ha “indi iduals commi ed o sus ainabili y a e cha ac e ized by c ea ing ha mony, in e connec ion, and ela i ely high le els o sel -awa eness in hei alues, hough s, Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 4251 9 o 12 beha io s, and ac ions, in addi ion o cul i a ing con inuous indi idual g ow h in hei physical abili ies, emo ional, social, philosophical, and in ellec ual. Indi idual sus ainabili y means ha ing a well-de eloped and p o en alue sys em ha is awa e o he impo ance and in e connec edness o all global biological sys ems and ou igh ul place among hem”. Thus, he p ac ice o mind ulness in he class oom in ol es he inco po a ion o s a egies and ools ha allow young people o ace each educa ional s age wi h he highes possibili ies o use, aining, expe ience, and pe sonal g ow h [ 70 – 72 ]. I also con ibu es signi ican ly, as demons a ed in ou wo k, o he de elopmen o sus ainable indi idual compe encies such as esilience, which will con ibu e, in he mid-and long e m, o he de elopmen o mo e sus ainable socie ies. Fu he mo e, i is wo h men ioning ha , as indica ed by [ 73 ], in uni e si y edu- ca ion, echnical p o essional skills ha e gene ally been enhanced o he de imen o socio-pe sonal skills, emo ional sel - egula ion, esilience, and s ess con ol—key aspec s o be conside ed wi hin he cu icula p og am. The de elopmen o hese socio-emo ional skills can be enhanced wi h mind ulness echniques. Va ious wo ks, such as his one, ha e empi ically analyzed how mind ulness bene i s uni e si y s uden s [ 74 ] and, in u n, hese capaci ies ha e yielded be e academic pe o mance and gene al wellbeing. This esea ch has some limi a ions, which in u n open lines o u u e esea ch. Fo ins ance, he sample consis s mainly o highe educa ion s uden s and a smalle g oup o seconda y school s uden s. I would be use ul o alida e he analysis a di e en educa ion s ages and compa e he di e ences be ween hem. Mo eo e , mos s uden s a e om a speci ic Spanish communi y; he e o e, u u e esea ch could eplica e his s udy in o he Spanish loca ions and in di e en coun ies o conside o he cul u al and geog aphical se ings. Finally, mos o he subjec s in ou sample a e women; hus, ha ing a mo e balanced da ase would allow us o compa e gende di e ences. Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.E., D.M. and A.R.-S.; Me hodology, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; So wa e, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; Valida ion, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; Fo mal Analysis, A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; In es iga ion, M.E., D.M. and A.R.-S.; Resou ces, M.E., D.M. and A.R.-S.; W i ing—O iginal D a P epa a ion, M.E., A.R.-S. and L.V.-M.; W i ing—Re iew, M.E. and A.R.-S. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This esea ch has been ca ied ou unde he auspices o he p ojec (code 46179) g an ed by Educa ional Suppo Uni om Uni e si a Jaume I Cas ellón (Spain). Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable. In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : No applicable. Con lic s o In e es : The e is no con lic o in e es . Appendix A Mind ulness 1. I like o in es iga e hings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. I am always open o new ways o doing hings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. I am ale o new de elopmen s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. I “ge in ol ed” in almos e e y hing I do 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. I am e y c ea i e 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. I a end o he ‘big pic u e’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. I am e y cu ious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. I y o hink o new ways o doing hings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. I like o be challenged in ellec ually 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. I like o igu e ou how hings wo k 1 2 3 4 5 6 7