The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume I
The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume I
Co e pho o: Yung-Sen Wu
Uni ed Na ions Wo ld Oceans Day Pho o Compe i ion
Uni ed Na ions publica ion
Sales no.: E.21.V.5
ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0
eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2
Copy igh © Uni ed Na ions, 2021
All igh s ese ed
P in ed a he Uni ed Na ions, New Yo k
iii
Fo ewo d
by he Sec e a y-Gene al
The pas yea has p esen ed unp eceden ed challenges. The co ona i us disease (COVID-19)
pandemic has dis up ed li es and li elihoods and exposed ou socie ies’ agili y. Sadly, he pan-
demic is no he only c isis ha humani y aces. Clima e change and biodi e si y loss con inue
unaba ed, h ea ening sus ainable de elopmen and ou iabili y as a species. These challenges
a e pa icula ly e iden when we look a he s a e o ou plane ’s li e suppo sys em, he ocean.
In 2015, he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen wa ned ha many a eas o he ocean had been se i-
ously deg aded, he g ea es h ea o he ocean being he ailu e o deal wi h he many p essu es
caused by human ac i i ies. The message in he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen is ha he
si ua ion has no imp o ed, wi h he many beneƼ s ha he ocean p o ides a isk. The Assess-
men ad ises ha , o ensu e sus ainabili y, we mus wo k oge he o imp o e in eg a ed ocean
managemen , including h ough join esea ch, capaci y de elopmen and he sha ing o da a,
in o ma ion and echnology.
The ocean plays a c ucial ole in he achie emen o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he
li elihoods o billions o people. We u gen ly need o change how we in e ac wi h i . The o h-
coming Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen and he Uni ed
Na ions Decade on Ecosys em Res o a ion p o ide oppo uni ies o us o unde s and mo e and
o e e se he damage ha has al eady been done. The in o ma ion in he second Assessmen
can assis in his p ocess, as well as in o m ele an in e go e nmen al con e ences scheduled
o 2021.
I u ge leade s and all s akeholde s o heed he wa nings in he Assessmen as we wo k o con-
se e and sus ainably manage ou plane ’s ma ine en i onmen . Le us os e no only a g een
bu also a blue eco e y om he COVID-19 pandemic.
AǞǘǞǣǝ GǗǘȨǚǚȨǙ

Summa y
In i s esolu ions 57/141 and 58/240, he Gene al Assembly decided o es ablish a egula p o-
cess unde he Uni ed Na ions o global epo ing and assessmen o he s a e o he ma ine
en i onmen , including socioeconomic aspec s, bo h cu en and o eseeable, building on exis -
ing egional assessmen s. In i s esolu ion 71/257, he Assembly ecalled ha he scope o he
Ƽ s cycle o he Regula P ocess ocused on es ablishing a baseline and decided ha he scope
o he second cycle would ex end o e alua ing ends and iden i ying gaps. The p og amme o
wo k o he pe iod 2017–2020 o he second cycle o he Regula P ocess includes he p epa-
a ion by he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o
he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, o he second Wo ld
Ocean Assessmen , building on he baselines es ablished by he Fi s Global In eg a ed Ma ine
Assessmen (Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ). In i s esolu ion 72/73, he Assembly decided ha
he G oup o Expe s should p oceed on he basis o a single comp ehensi e assessmen . The
p esen documen was p epa ed by he G oup o Expe s in acco dance wi h hose decisions.
Disclaime
The p esen documen is a p oduc o he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing
and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, which is
esponsible o he con en s o he publica ion. The membe s o he G oup o Expe s and he pool o ex-
pe s who pa icipa ed in he w i ing o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen con ibu ed in hei pe sonal
capaci y. The membe s o he G oup and he pool a e no ep esen a i es o any Go e nmen o any o he
au ho i y o o ganiza ion.
The designa ions employed, including geog aphical names, and he p esen a ion o he ma e ials in he
p esen publica ion, including he ci a ions, maps and bibliog aphy, do no imply he exp ession o any
opinion wha soe e on he pa o he Uni ed Na ions conce ning he names and legal s a us o any coun-
y, e i o y, ci y o a ea o o i s au ho i ies o conce ning he delimi a ion o i s on ie s o bounda ies
and do no imply oƾcial endo semen o accep ance by he Uni ed Na ions. In o ma ion con ained in
he p esen publica ion emana ing om ac ions and decisions aken by S a es does no imply oƾcial
endo semen , accep ance o ecogni ion by he Uni ed Na ions o such ac ions and decisions, and such
in o ma ion is included wi hou p ejudice o he posi ion o any S a e Membe o he Uni ed Na ions.
ii
P e ace
The goal o he Gene al Assembly in c ea ing
he Regula P ocess o he Global Repo ing
and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En-
i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s,
was o ensu e a comp ehensi e o e iew o
he ocean and he ela ionships be ween he
ocean and humans, co e ing all en i onmen al,
social and economic aspec s. Such an o e -
iew would se e as a backg ound o he many
decisions ha mus be aken in ha Ƽeld a he
in e na ional, na ional and local le els in pu sui
o sus ainable de elopmen . The Ƽ s Wo ld
Ocean Assessmen was comple ed in 2015 and
ep esen s a majo s ep owa ds ha goal.
Ine i ably, wi h such an ambi ious goal, no
only we e some aspec s no ully co e ed in he
Ƽ s ou pu o he Regula P ocess, bu also, as
ime passed, he assessmen ha was made
up o 2015 needed o be upda ed. The Gene al
Assembly he e o e p o ided o u he global
in eg a ed ma ine assessmen s o eco d de-
elopmen s om he baseline p o ided by he
Ƽ s Assessmen and, whe e possible, o show
ends. In 2016, i decided ha a second com-
p ehensi e assessmen should be p epa ed by
he end o 2020.
The p esen olume con ains he second
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen . I p o ides mo e
in o ma ion on aspec s o he ocean and i s
ela ionships wi h humans, including sepa a e
assessmen s o he abyssal plains and ma ine
hyd a es, and b ings oge he in speciƼc chap-
e s ma e s ha we e add essed in di e en
sec ions o he Ƽ s Assessmen , such as he
s a e o Ƽsh species and ma ine in as uc u e.
As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p oduc ion
o he p esen Assessmen has been a majo
ask, elying essen ially on olun a y e o s o
hund eds o expe s in many Ƽelds, wi h suppo
om he egula budge o he Uni ed Na ions.
As be o e, i has been a p i ilege o he G oup
o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global
Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he
Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic
Aspec s, o o ganize, con ibu e o and Ƽnalize
he Assessmen . C ucial suppo has again been
p o ided by he Sec e a ia , including he Di i-
sion o Ocean A ai s and he Law o he Sea,
se e al in e na ional o ganiza ions and a num-
be o S a es Membe s o he Uni ed Na ions,
as de ailed in chap e 2. The G oup o Expe s
is g a e ul o all hose people and ins i u ions
bu , unde he e ms o e e ence and wo king
me hods endo sed by he Gene al Assembly, is
ul ima ely esponsible o he Ƽnal ex .
The bulk o he ex was w i en be o e he ou -
b eak o he co ona i us disease (COVID-19)
pandemic. Some men ion o he e ec s o ha
pandemic has been included ( o example, in
he sec ions o chap e 8A dealing wi h Ƽshe -
ies, shipping and ou ism), bu he ull implica-
ions o he pandemic on human in e ac ions
wi h he ocean a e s ill being wo ked ou and
will need o be explo ed ully in he hi d cycle o
he Regula P ocess. Ne e heless, he ocean
and he se ices ha i p o ides will ha e an im-
po an ole in he eco e y om he pandemic.
I is hoped ha he in o ma ion in he p esen
Assessmen will help wi h ha p ocess.
As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p esen
documen con ains no policy analysis o
ecommenda ions, in line wi h he guidance
endo sed by he Gene al Assembly. I is he e-
o e o na ional Go e nmen s and compe en
in e na ional au ho i ies o decide wha ac ion
should be aken in he ligh o he assessmen s
unde he Regula P ocess.
RȨǞǣǙǝǞ RǗǕȳ and AǠȳǞ Sǣǟȱǝȱǡ
Join Coo dina o s o
he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess
JǚǞ SȱǤǟǣȰǘ
Membe o he G oup o Expe s o he
Regula P ocess, assis ing he Join Coo dina o s
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Con en s
Page
Chap e 7I: Sal ma shes ................................................... 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 385
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 386
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 386
5. Ou look ........................................................ 387
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 388
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 389
Re e ences......................................................... 389
Chap e 7J: Con inen al slopes and subma ine canyons......................... 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. De elopmen s in unde s anding o slopes and canyons ............... 399
3. Ecosys em se ices and beneƼ s on slopes and in canyons ............ 404
4. Human impac s ................................................. 405
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 406
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 407
Re e ences ........................................................ 408
Chap e 7K: High-la i ude ice................................................ 421
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 423
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 423
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 424
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 428
4. Ou look ........................................................ 430
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 431
Re e ences......................................................... 431
Chap e 7L: Seamoun s andɸpinnacles........................................ 437
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 439
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 439
2. Desc ip ion o changes in knowledge be ween 2010 and 2020.......... 440
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes......................... 441
4. Key egion-speciƼc esea ch in ecen yea s ......................... 442
5. Ou look ........................................................ 444
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 444
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 445
Re e ences......................................................... 446

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Chap e 7M: Abyssal plains ................................................. 453
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 455
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 455
2. Shi ing baselines and documen ing s a us and change in abyssal
biodi e si y ..................................................... 456
3. Majo na u al and an h opogenic p essu es.......................... 464
4. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 465
5. Ou look ........................................................ 468
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 468
Re e ences......................................................... 469
Chap e 7N: Open ocean.................................................... 477
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 479
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 479
2. En i onmen al changes in he open ocean since 2010................. 481
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 484
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 486
5. Ou look ........................................................ 487
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 488
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 488
Re e ences......................................................... 488
Chap e 7O: Ridges, pla eaux and enches.................................... 495
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 497
1. In oduc ion and summa y o he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 497
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020 ..... 499
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes be ween 2010 and 2020 . . . 502
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 505
5. Ou look ........................................................ 506
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 507
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 507
Re e ences ........................................................ 508
Chap e 7P: Hyd o he mal en s and coldɸseeps ............................... 513
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 515
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 515
2. En i onmen al changes since he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 518
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 519
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 521
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5. Ou look ........................................................ 523
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 523
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps .............................. 524
Re e ences......................................................... 524
Chap e 7Q: Sa gasso Sea .................................................. 531
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 533
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 533
2. Change o s a e ................................................. 534
3. Ins i u ional a angemen s ........................................ 537
4. Consequences o changes ........................................ 538
5. Ou look ........................................................ 539
Re e ences......................................................... 540
Volume II
Chap e 8: T ends in he s a e o human socie y in ela ion o he ocean.............. 1
Chap e 8A: Coas al communi ies andɸma i ime indus ies ...................... 3
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 5
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 5
2. Coas al communi ies............................................. 6
3. Cap u e Ƽshe ies, shellƼsh ha es ing and aquacul u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4. Shipping........................................................ 10
5. Seabed mining .................................................. 14
6. O sho e hyd oca bons ........................................... 15
7. Tou ism and ec ea ion ........................................... 15
8. Ma ine gene ic esou ces ......................................... 20
9. Ma ine enewable ene gy ......................................... 21
10. Desaliniza ion................................................... 21
11. Sal p oduc ion.................................................. 22
12. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 23
13. Ou look ........................................................ 24
Re e ences......................................................... 24
Chap e 8B: Human heal h as a ec ed by he ocean ............................ 31
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 33
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 33
2. Gene al aspec s o he ela ionship be ween human heal h and he ocean 33
3. Heal h o coas al communi ies ela i e o inland communi ies.......... 39
4. E ec s o exposu e o con amina ed seawa e ....................... 39
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5. P oblems o human heal h posed by ood om he sea ............... 42
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 44
7. Ou look ........................................................ 45
Re e ences......................................................... 45
Pa Ƽ e: T ends in p essu es onɸ he ma ine en i onmen .......................... 53
Chap e : P essu es om chanKes in clima e and a mosphe e ..................... 55
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 57
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 57
2. Clima e p essu es: ex eme clima e e en s and p essu es om changes
in ocean physical and chemical p ope ies........................... 58
3. Capaci y-building: Global Ocean AcidiƼca ion Obse ing Ne wo k and
Global Ocean Oxygen Ne wo k .................................... 67
4. Summa y....................................................... 68
Re e ences......................................................... 69
Chap e 1: ChanKes in nu ien inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen ................... 77
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 79
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 79
2. Si ua ion epo ed in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 81
3. Global-scale pa e ns and ends................................... 82
4. Pa e ns and ends wi hin egions ................................. 85
5. Ou look ........................................................ 91
Re e ences......................................................... 92
Chap e 11: ChanKes in liUuid and a mosphe ic inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen om
land includinK h ouKh K oundwa e  ships and o sho e ins alla ions............... 101
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 103
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 104
2. Si ua ion eco ded in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 104
3. Pe sis en o ganic pollu an s, including un-o om he use o
ag icul u al pes icides............................................ 105
4. Me als ......................................................... 112
5. Radioac i e subs ances .......................................... 122
6. Pha maceu icals and pe sonal ca e p oduc s ........................ 127
7. A mosphe ic pollu an s (ni ogen oxides, sul u oxides) ............... 131
8. Hyd oca bons om e es ial sou ces, ships and o sho e ins alla ions,
including a angemen s o esponse o spills and discha ges .......... 132
9. O he subs ances used on, and discha ged om, o sho e ins alla ions . . 134
10. Rela ionship o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals .................. 135
11. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 136
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12. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 138
Re e ences......................................................... 139
Chap e 12: ChanKes in inpu s and dis ibu ion o solid was e o he han d edKed
ma e ial in he ma ine en i onmen ............................................. 151
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 153
1. Ac i i ies esul ing in ma ine deb is, including plas ics, abandoned Ƽshing
gea , mic opa icles and nanopa icles, and es ima es o sou ces om
land, ships and o sho e ins alla ions ............................... 153
2. Dumping a sea, including ga bage om ships and sewage sludge . . . . . . 171
Re e ences......................................................... 177
Chap e 1: ChanKes in e osion and sedimen a ion................................ 185
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 187
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 187
2. Changes in s a e o coas al e osion and sedimen a ion................ 188
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 192
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 193
5. Ou look ........................................................ 195
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................ 195
Re e ences......................................................... 196
Chap e 14: ChanKes in coas al and ma ine in as uc u e.......................... 201
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 203
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 203
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o ma ine and coas al in as uc u es . 204
3. Consequences o changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 207
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 207
5. Ou look ........................................................ 210
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 211
Re e ences......................................................... 211
Chap e 1: ChanKes in cap u e Ƽshe ies and ha es inK o wild ma ine in e eb a es.. 215
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 217
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 217
2. Ca ch-landing dispa i ies, Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
and small-scale Ƽshe ies ......................................... 220
3. In e eb a e landings ............................................ 224
4. Le els o by-ca ch and side e ec s ................................ 225
5. Pos -ha es Ƽsh losses .......................................... 225
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6. Po en ial o Ƽshe ies enhancemen ................................ 225
7. Ma ine p o ein and oils in ag icul u e and aquacul u e................. 225
8. Illegal, un epo ed o un egula ed Ƽshing ............................ 226
9. Ou look ........................................................ 227
10. Key knowledge gaps ............................................. 228
11. Key capaci y-building gaps........................................ 228
Re e ences......................................................... 228
Chap e 1: ChanKes in aUuacul u e............................................. 235
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 237
1. Cu en s a us and majo imp o emen s ............................ 237
2. Aquacul u e and he en i onmen .................................. 240
3. Aquacul u e and socie y .......................................... 241
4. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 241
5. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 242
6. Ou look ........................................................ 243
Re e ences......................................................... 244
Chap e 17: ChanKes in seaweed ha es inK andɸuse .............................. 247
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 249
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 249
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o seaweed p oduc ion and uses
(2012–2017) .................................................... 250
3. Consequences o changes in seaweed ha es ing and use o
communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ............................ 253
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 253
5. Ou look ........................................................ 254
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 254
Re e ences......................................................... 255
Chap e 18: ChanKes in seabed mininK .......................................... 257
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 259
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 259
2. Changes in scale and signiƼcance o sea ƽoo mining ................ 262
3. En i onmen al aspec s ........................................... 270
4. Economic and social impac s...................................... 273
5. Capaci y-building needs .......................................... 276
Re e ences......................................................... 277
Chap e 1: ChanKes in hyd oca bon e plo a ion and e ac ion .................... 281
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 283
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 283

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2. O sho e hyd oca bon explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning . . . 285
3. Economic, social, and en i onmen al aspec s o o sho e hyd oca bon
explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning ....................... 288
4. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 290
5. Role o he o sho e hyd oca bon indus y in acili a ing he ma ine
enewable ene gy indus y ........................................ 291
6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292
Re e ences ........................................................ 293
Chap e 2: T ends in inpu s o an h opoKenic noise in o he ma ine en i onmen ..... 297
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 299
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 299
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al s a us............................. 300
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and o he economic
o social changes ............................................... 308
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 308
5. Ou look ........................................................ 310
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313
Re e ences ........................................................ 313
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene Ky sou ces ........................... 321
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 323
2. S a e o ma ine enewable ene gy a he global le el .................. 324
3. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s o ma ine enewable ene gy
de elopmen ................................................... 329
4. Socioeconomic beneƼ s and impac s om ma ine enewable ene gy
deploymen ..................................................... 332
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 333
6. An icipa ed u u e ends.......................................... 335
Re e ences......................................................... 336
Chap e 22: In asi e species ................................................... 343
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 345
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 345
2. Documen ed baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347
3. Consequences o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ..... 348
4. Key egion-speciƼc baselines, changes and consequences............. 350
5. Ou look ........................................................ 354
6. O he .......................................................... 356
Re e ences......................................................... 356
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Chap e 2: De elopmen s in he e plo a ion o and use o ma ine Kene ic esou ces . 363
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 365
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 365
2. T ends be ween 2010 and 2020.................................... 366
3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370
4. Key egion-speciƼc de elopmen s in knowledge and hei consequences 371
5. Capaci y-building gaps ........................................... 371
6. Me hodological challenges and u u e ends ........................ 373
7. Ma ine gene ic esou ces and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals...... 374
Re e ences......................................................... 376
Chap e 24: 1a ine hyd a esɸƁ a po en ially eme KinK issue ........................ 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Wha a e ma ine hyd a es? ........................................ 383
3. Po en ial isks om ma ine me hane hyd a es ....................... 386
4. Ma ine hyd a es as a sou ce o ene gy.............................. 388
5. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 390
6. Ou look ........................................................ 390
Re e ences......................................................... 390
Chap e 25: Cumula i e e ec s................................................. 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. Cumula i e e ec s assessmen s................................... 398
3. Regional applica ions o cumula i e e ec s assessmen s on
he ma ine en i onmen : dis ibu ion and app oaches ................. 402
4. Ou look ........................................................ 406
Re e ences......................................................... 413
Pa si : T ends in manaKemen app oaches o he ma ine en i onmen ............. 421
Chap e 2: De elopmen s in ma ine spa ial planninK.............................. 423
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 425
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 425
2. Types o ma ine spa ial planning ................................... 426
3. Ma ine spa ial planning: a s ep-by-s ep app oach owa d
ecosys em-based managemen .................................... 427
4. Tools o ma ine spa ial planning................................... 428
5. P og ess in implemen ing ma ine spa ial planning .................... 430
Re e ences......................................................... 436
Ŵŵŵŵxxiii
Con en s
Page
Chap e 27: De elopmen s in manaKemen app oaches............................ 441
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 443
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 443
2. Managemen app oaches......................................... 444
3. Ad ances in ocean managemen app oaches........................ 448
4. Managemen ools o suppo mi iga ion o and adap a ion o clima e
change, including building esilience................................ 458
5. Key egion-speciƼc issues ........................................ 460
6. Capaci y-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7. Gaps and u u e pe spec i es...................................... 462
8. Ou look ........................................................ 463
Re e ences......................................................... 465
Chap e 28: De elopmen sɸin he unde s andinK o o e all beneƼ s
om he ocean o humans ..................................................... 471
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 473
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 473
2. BeneƼ s and hei dis ibu ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3. DisbeneƼ s o humans............................................ 478
4. Th ea s o ocean ecosys em se ices............................... 479
5. Sa egua ding ocean beneƼ s h ough egional and in e na ional
coope a ion and imp o ed implemen a ion o in e na ional law as
eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea ....... 480
Re e ences......................................................... 483
Anne es ................................................................. 487
Anne I: O iKinal membe s o he w i inK eams app o ed by he &u eau ............. 489
Anne II: Pee e iewe s nomina ed o each chap e .............................. 497
3
Chap e 1
O e all summa y
Con ibu o s: Ma ia João Bebianno, Hilconida Calumpong, Sanae Chiba, Ka en E ans, Ca los
Ga cia-So o, Osman Keh Kama a, En ique Ma scho , Essam Yassin Mohammed, Henn Oja ee ,
Chul Pa k, Ylenia Rand iana isoa, Renison Ruwa, Jö n Schmid , Alan Simcock, Anas asia S a i,
Joshua T. Tuhumwi e, Ca Thanh Vu, Juying Wang and Tymon Zielinski (G oup o Expe s o he
Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen ,
including Socioeconomic Aspec s).
10ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
en i onmen . Unde s anding he impac s o
an h opogenic noise on ma ine biodi e si y
has inc eased o e he pas wo decades, wi h
a ange o di ec and indi ec impac s obse ed
ac oss a numbe o axa, om zooplank on o
ma ine mammals. Unde s anding o hose im-
pac s has imp o ed in pa allel wi h inc easing
ecogni ion o he need o moni o noise en-
e ing he ma ine en i onmen and o iden i y
and educe i s impac s. While some e o s
a e being made o educe noise c ea ed by a
a ie y o sou ces, inc easing use o he ocean
is likely o o se hose e o s (chap. 20).
3.6. Key knowledge and
capaci y-building gaps
Me hods o s anda dizing he moni o ing
o pollu an s, including noise, and da a se s
a e needed u gen ly, so ha bo h spa ial and
empo al di e ences in pollu an s can be
e alua ed and p io i ies es ablished. Capac-
i y-building is needed o educe he inpu o
pollu an s in o he ocean, in pa icula h ough
he in oduc ion o cleane p oduc ion, quie e
echnologies and cheape and eadily deploy-
able was ewa e -p ocessing echnologies. To
educe he duplica ion o e o s, he c ea ion
o a gene al da abase on haza dous subs anc-
es and a baseline o ambien noise would be
desi able o suppo isk assessmen and
modelling. As he ex en o ansbounda y
ma ine pollu ion is poo ly unde s ood in many
pa s o he wo ld, in pa icula wi h ega d
o ai bo ne pollu an s, mo e accu a e da a
on hei emissions and anspo a e needed.
Las ly, i is necessa y o gain a much be e
unde s anding o he e ec s o pollu an s,
including an h opogenic noise, on he ma ine
en i onmen (chaps. 10–12 and 20).
4. P o ec ing ma ine ecosys ems
The main h ea s o ma ine ecosys ems come
om human ac i i ies, such as Ƽshing, aqua-
cul u e, shipping, sand and mine al ex ac ion,
oil and gas exploi a ion, he building o enew-
able ene gy in as uc u e, coas al in as uc-
u e de elopmen and pollu ion, including he
elease o g eenhouse gases.
4.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals and he
Uni ed Na ions Decade o
Ocean Science o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.2:
&]  sus ainaFl] QanaKe anH p o ec Qa ine
anH coas al ecos]s eQs o aZoiH siKniƼcan
aHZe se iQpac s incluHinK F] s enK heninK hei
esilience anH aOe ac ion o hei es o a ion in
o de o achie e heal hy and p oduc i e oceans
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.5:
&y  conse e a leas ɸpe ɸcen o coas al
and Qa ine a eas consis en wi h na ional and
in e na ional law and based on he bes a ailable
scien iƼc in o Qa ion
Decade o Ocean Science ou come:
A heal hy and esilien ocean whe e ma ine
ecosys ems a e unde s ood p o ec ed es o ed
and manaKed
Many ma ine species and habi a s con inue
o be ad e sely a ec ed by inc easing an h o-
pogenic p essu es (chaps. 6A–G and 7A–Q;
see also sec . 5 below). Unde s anding o he
dis ibu ion and s a us o species and hab-
i a s and how hey a e being a ec ed by an-
h opogenic p essu es is imp o ing. In 2020,
ma ine p o ec ed a eas co e ed 18ɸpe ɸcen
o he ocean wi hin na ional ju isdic ions,
ep esen ing app oxima ely 8ɸpe ɸcen o he
en i e ocean, while abou 1ɸpe ɸcen o ma ine
a eas beyond na ional ju isdic ion had been
p o ec ed (chap.ɸ27).

Ŵŵŵŵ11
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds
o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as-
sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.2 and 14.5
a e se ou in able 1, and he pa icula ways
in which he achie emen o hose a ge s will
assis wi h p og ess owa ds o he Goals a e
se ou in able 2.
The p o ec ion o ma ine ecosys ems is em-
bedded in a ious in e na ional ag eemen s,
such as he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he
Law o he Sea8 and he Con en ion on Biolog-
ical Di e si y,9 as well as in egional con en-
ions and na ional legisla ion. No wi hs anding
he objec i es o such ag eemen s and con-
en ions, he s a us o many ma ine species
and habi a s con inues o decline globally,
he eby pu ing he unc ioning o ecosys ems
a isk. In addi ion, clima e change is esul ing
in ocean wa ming, acidiƼca ion, changes in
ci cula ion, dissol ed oxygen concen a ions
and wa e cycle ampliƼca ion. As a esul , he
ans e o nu ien s associa ed wi h p ima y
p oduc i i y om su ace wa e s o he deep
sea is declining. Globally, abou 2,000 ma ine
species ha e been in oduced ou side hei
na u al ange as a esul o human ac i i ies
(chaps. 5, 6A–G, 7A–Q and 22).
Many managemen amewo ks o p o ec ing
ma ine ecosys ems ha e a sec o al ocus and
can he e o e ha e di e ing objec i es o he
p o ec ion o he ma ine en i onmen ac oss
sec o s. Managemen ools can be a ea-based
(such as ma ine p o ec ed a eas and Ƽshe y
closu es) o non-a ea-based (such as global
emission con ols, ca ch and e o con ols and
echnical es ic ions). Managemen app oach-
es a e inc easingly mo ing away om being o-
cused on sec o al use owa ds including di e se
links be ween ecological and social, economic
and cul u al aspec s. The ecosys em app oach
in eg a es en i onmen al, social and economic
8 Uni ed Na ions, T ea y Se ies, ol.ɸ1833, No.ɸ31363.
9 Ibid., ol.ɸ1760, No.ɸ30619.
10 See Con en ion on We lands o In e na ional Impo ance especially as Wa e owl Habi a (Uni edɸNa ions,
T ea y Se ies, ol.ɸ996, No.ɸ14583).
aspec s a he global, egional, na ional o local
le el. Cul u al in o ma ion is becoming an in e-
g al pa o managemen amewo ks, bo h in
he con ex o communi y-based managemen
and o sa egua ding he cul u al dimension o
he ma ine en i onmen . Such in o ma ion can
be di e se and in angible, such as adi ional
ma ine esou ce use, sea ou es, ancien na -
iga ional skills, ma i ime iden i ies, legends,
i uals, belie s and p ac ices, aes he ic and in-
spi a ional quali ies, cul u al he i age and plac-
es o spi i ual, sac ed and eligious impo ance
(chap. 27).
In some a eas, in pa icula in Sou h-Eas Asia,
“blue in as uc u e de elopmen ”, as well as
such app oaches as na u e-based solu ions,
a e being in oduced in an a emp o ha mo-
nize coas al de elopmen and p o ec ion wi h
habi a and ecological p o ec ion (chaps. 8A,
13 and 14).
4.2. Coas al ecosys ems
No wi hs anding inc eases in ma ine p o ec -
ed a eas and he expansion o Ramsa Si es,10
mang o es (excep in he Red Sea) and sea-
g ass meadows (in pa icula in Sou h-Eas
Asia) con inue o decline, wi h 19ɸpe ɸcen
o mang o es and 21ɸpe ɸcen o seag ass
species iden iƼed as nea - h ea ened. The
combined e ec s o ocean wa ming and
human ac i i ies a e inc easingly a ec ing
opical and sub opical co al ee s and kelp
o es s globally. In ecen yea s, co al ee s
ha e unde gone mass bleaching on an annual
basis, while kelp o es s ha e been a ec ed by
ma ine hea wa es (chap. 9), esul ing in apid
losses (chaps. 6G, 7D and 7H).
O e all, abou 6ɸpe ɸcen o known Ƽsh spe-
cies and nea ly 30ɸpe ɸcen o elasmob anch
species a e lis ed as Nea Th ea ened o
12ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
Vulne able. Globally, he s a us o ma ine
mammals a ies, wi h 75ɸpe ɸcen o species in
some g oups (si enians, eshwa e dolphins,
pola bea s and o e s) being classiƼed as Vul-
ne able, Endange ed o C i ically Endange ed.
Many la ge whale species a e now eco e ing
om pas ha es ing as a esul o p ohibi ions
on and he egula ion o comme cial ca ches
and na ional eco e y plans. The conse a ion
s a us o ma ine ep iles has a ied g ea ly:
p o ec ion in ce ain egions has inc eased
some popula ions, while hose in o he a eas
a e declining because o con inuing o inc eas-
ing h ea s. The global conse a ion s a us o
seabi ds has wo sened, wi h o e 30ɸpe ɸcen
o species now lis ed as Vulne able, Endan-
ge ed o C i ically Endange ed (chaps. 6C–F).
4.3. Open ocean and deep-sea
ecosys ems11
The open ocean con inues o be a ec ed by
ocean wa ming, acidiƼca ion, deoxygena ion
and ma ine pollu ion. Nu ien inpu s de i ed
om he Amazon Ri e and b ough up by
upwelling o he coas o Wes A ica appea
o ha e uelled a massi e seaweed bloom o
ƽoa ing sa gassum: he 20-million- on bloom
began o
de elop in 2011 in he equa o ial A -
lan ic Ocean and, by 2018, had ex ended 8,850
km
ac oss ha a ea (chaps. 7N, 10 and 12).
Unde s anding o he dis ibu ion o cold-wa e
co als has inc eased, and hey a e known o
occu along con inen al ma gins, mid-ocean
idges and seamoun s wo ldwide. They and
o he deep-sea ea u es (seamoun s, pinna-
cles, idges, enches, hyd o he mal en s and
cold seeps) emain unde h ea om Ƽshing,
o sho e oil d illing, deep-sea mining and pol-
lu ion, including plas ic was e, and, o a lesse
ex en , clima e change. Some e o s o cu b
deep-wa e bo om awling and es ablish ma-
ine p o ec ed a eas whe e cold-wa e co als
occu ha e pa ially es o ed some damaged
11 See chap. 2, sec . 4, o a deƼni ion o he e ms “open ocean” and “deep sea”.
cold-wa e co al communi ies. Howe e , such
habi a s can ake decades o e en cen u ies o
eco e , making i diƾcul o iden i y ends o
imp o emen (chaps. 7E, 7L, 7O and 7P).
4.4. Key knowledge and capaci y-
building gaps
Since 2015, on a e age, one new species o
Ƽsh has been desc ibed pe week, highligh ing
how much emains o be disco e ed. Al hough
knowledge o ecosys em composi ion and
unc ioning has imp o ed since he issuance o
he Ƽ s Assessmen , gaps emain, in pa icu-
la wi h ega d o deep-sea ecosys ems and
open-ocean plank onic and ben hic species.
Gaps also emain in unde s anding he biology
and ecology o coas al species, in pa icula in
he e i o ial wa e s o de eloping coun ies.
The e is no well-o ganized s uc u e o s udy
he app oxima ely 2,000 non-indigenous spe-
cies ha ha e sp ead o new a eas as a esul
o human ac i i ies and hei impac s on na -
u al ecosys ems. The conse a ion s a us o
less han 1ɸpe ɸcen o mac oalgal species has
been assessed (chaps. 6A–C, 6G, 7N and 22).
While he ecosys em app oach has been
widely acknowledged as an e ec i e ame-
wo k o managing human impac s, u he
esea ch and capaci y-building a e needed
o ealize i s ull po en ial ac oss he wo ld’s
oceans. In many egions, he e is a lack o
in o ma ion needed o es ablish links be ween
ecological causes and e ec s in o de o bal-
ance hem agains socioeconomic p io i ies,
in decision-making. Enhanced collabo a ion in
moni o ing will help in sha ing capaci y ac oss
sec o s and ins i u ions and p o ide mo e
eƾcien moni o ing, da a and in o ma ion.
Inc eased capaci y in unde s anding manage-
men app oaches and implemen ing hem will
suppo Go e nmen s and o he s akeholde s
in unde s anding op ions o he managemen
and go e nance o ma ine a eas (chap. 27).
Ŵŵŵŵ13
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
5. Unde s anding o he ocean o sus ainable managemen
The sus ainable use o he ocean canno be
achie ed be o e acqui ing a deep unde s and-
ing o ocean p ocesses and i s unc ioning, as
well as cohe en knowledge o he impac s o
human ac i i ies on he ocean (chaps. 8A and
27).
5.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals and he
Uni ed Na ions Decade o
Ocean Science o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.3:
Minimize and add ess he impac s o ocean
acidiƼca ion includinK h ouKh enhanced scien-
iƼc coope a ion a all le els
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.a:
-nc ease scien iƼc OnowledKe de elop esea ch
capaci y and ans e ma ine echnoloKy aOinK
in o accoun he -n e Ko e nmen al 3ceano-
K aphic 'ommission ' i e ia and +uidelines on
he 8 ans e o Ma ine 8echnoloKy in o de o
imp o e ocean heal h and o enhance he con i-
bu ion o ma ine biodi e si y o he de elopmen
o de elopinK coun ies in pa icula small island
de elopinK 7 a es and leas de eloped coun ies
Decade o Ocean Science ou comes:
• A p edic ed ocean whe e socie y unde s ands
and can espond o chanKinK ocean condi ions
• An accessible ocean wi h open and eUui able
access o da a in o ma ion and echnoloKy
and inno a ion
• An inspi inK and enKaKinK ocean whe e
socie y unde s ands and alues he ocean in
ela ion o human well-beinK and sus ainable
de elopmen
The inpu o ca bon dioxide in o he ocean
is con inuing, albei in an i egula manne ,
esul ing in acidiƼca ion o he ocean. Com-
pounded wi h o he p essu es, i has a nega-
i e impac on a wide ange o o ganisms, in
pa icula hose ha o m calcium ca bona e
shells, wi h he po en ial o al e biodi e si y
and ecosys em s uc u e. Ocean acidiƼca ion,
combined wi h ising empe a u es, sea le el
ise, deoxygena ion and inc easing ex eme
clima e e en s, u he h ea ens he goods
and se ices p o ided by coas al ecosys ems
(chaps. 5 and 9).
Scien iƼc unde s anding o he ocean, i s
unc ioning and he impac s on i g ows e e
as e . Howe e , in many pa s o he ocean,
knowledge and capaci y-building gaps e-
main, in pa icula in a eas beyond na ional
ju isdic ion. Quan iƼca ion o he cumula i e
e ec s o p essu es on he ocean is nascen ,
as is he quan iƼca ion o comp ehensi e and
s anda dized indica o s o ocean heal h. The
capaci y o enable people o ha e access o
and use scien iƼc unde s anding emains a e-
qui emen o applying in eg a ed app oaches
o he managemen o human impac s on he
ocean (chaps. 3, 25 and 27).
The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds
o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as-
sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.3 and 14.a
a e se ou in able 1, and he pa icula ways
in which he achie emen o hose a ge s will
assis wi h p og ess owa ds o he Goals a e
se ou in able 2.
5.2. Global scien i ic unde s anding
Inno a ions in echnology and enginee ing
ela ed o senso s and au onomous obse a-
ion pla o ms ha e allowed o ocean da a
collec ion a Ƽne empo al and spa ial eso-
lu ions and expanded hose obse a ions in o
emo e a eas. Cos -e ec i e and use - iendly
senso s, along wi h mobile applica ions, he
enhanced pa icipa ion o ci izens and he de-
ploymen o senso s on non-scien iƼc ships,
a e also acili a ing he expanded collec ion
o ocean obse a ions. Such de elopmen s
ha e inc eased unde s anding o physical and
14ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
biogeochemical sys ems in he ocean and how
he ocean is changing in esponse o clima e
change, as well as enhanced ocean modelling
capabili ies on he global and egional scales
(chaps. 3 and 5).
The p omo ion o ne wo king and he coo di-
na ion o egional obse a ion p og ammes
ha e con ibu ed o he u he de elopmen
o global ocean obse a ions wi hin an in e-
g a ed sys em. The s anda diza ion and ha -
moniza ion o obse a ion me hods a e also
being pu sued h ough in e na ional ini ia i es.
Pla o ms o sha e bes p ac ices in ocean
obse a ion, da a-sha ing and communi y di-
alogues ha e also been es ablished, wi h he
aim o imp o ing he e ec i e use o ocean
da a o he beneƼ o socie y (chap. 3).
5.3. Sus ainable managemen
O e he pas wo decades, many amewo ks
o assessing in e ac ions be ween human
ac i i ies and na u al e en s (“cumula i e e -
ec s”) ha e been de eloped using di e en
app oaches and e minologies and applied
on di e ing scales. Along wi h o he assess-
men s o he en i onmen , hey include en i-
onmen al impac assessmen s and s a egic
en i onmen al assessmen s and a e use ul
ools o in o ming ma ine spa ial planning
and esou ce managemen (chaps. 25–27).
Bo h ma ine spa ial planning and managemen
amewo ks comp ise a spec um o p ocess-
es bu ha e uniƼed objec i es o iden i ying
use s o he ma ine en i onmen , planning he
ac i i ies o hose use s and e ec ing some
o m o egula ion o ha use o ensu e sus-
ainabili y. In gene al, ma ine spa ial planning
has been mos e ec i ely de eloped wi h he
in ol emen o all ele an au ho i ies and
s akeholde s and has included economic,
en i onmen al and social pe spec i es. Social
pe spec i es and social and cul u al alues
a e inc easingly ecognized in managemen
amewo ks, bu econciling a mul iplici y o
he e ogenous alues is a c halle nge. Add essing
mul iple alues is bes done by engaging wi h
a ec ed communi ies, hence he need o ec-
ognize communi y-based managemen ha
is sensi i e o he cul u al dimensions o he
sea wi hin ecosys em app oaches o manage-
men . Inc eased unde s anding o he igh s,
enu es and adi ional and indigenous cus-
oma y uses o insho e ma ine en i onmen s
has ca alysed ecogni ion o he s eng hs
o communi y-based managemen . Cul u e
is po en ially powe ul, as bo h a ac o o be
managed and moni o ed and he ounda ion
upon which managemen -inco po a ing eco-
sys em app oaches may be de eloped in he
con ex o sus ainable de elopmen (chaps.
26 and 27).
5.4. Key knowledge and
capaci y-building gaps
Globally, dispa i ies emain in knowledge o
suppo ecosys em-based managemen . Mos
esea ch and in o ma ion a ailable (based
on he numbe o publica ions) ela es o he
No h A lan ic Ocean, he No h PaciƼc Ocean
and he A c ic Ocean. Dispa i ies in in as uc-
u e and p o essional capaci ies limi ocean
esea ch, esul ing in egional and na ional dis-
pa i ies in scien iƼc unde s anding. To be e
moni o signiƼcan changes in physical and bi-
ogeochemical en i onmen s and hei impac s
on ecosys ems and socie y, u he in eg a ion
o mul idisciplina y obse a ion sys ems and
imp o ed models a e needed. Inno a ion in
unding s a egies is also equi ed o sus ain
such sys ems (chap. 3).
Mos assessmen s o cumula i e e ec s end
o be ocused on exis ing and pas ac i i ies
in he ma ine en i onmen . Simila ly, much
ma ine spa ial planning has been ca ied ou in
a eas whe e ac i i ies a e ongoing, and many
managemen amewo ks a e applied o exis -
ing ac i i ies wi h ega d o esou ce ex ac ion
and use, making hem e ospec i e in na u e.
Assessmen s ha allow o “ o esigh ing” a e
needed o in o m planning o u u e ac i i ies
Ŵŵŵŵ15
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
and suppo managemen ha is adap i e o
u u e condi ions and sus ains ecosys ems
and human well-being. De eloping such ap-
p oaches is no s aigh o wa d and will e-
qui e subs an ial e o . Inc eased capaci y in
ansbounda y coope a ion, he s eng hening
o science-policy capaci y, g ea e coo dina-
ion be ween social and na u al sciences and
be ween science and ci il socie y, including in-
dus y, and he ecogni ion o adi ional knowl-
edge, cul u e and social his o y a e needed o
suppo holis ic managemen (chaps. 25–27).
6. P omo ing sa e y om he ocean
A wide ange o e en s in and on he ocean
h ea en hose who li e nea o wo k on he
ocean o ely on i o ood. Examples o such
e en s a e sunamis, s o m su ges, ogue
wa es, cyclones, hu icanes and yphoons,
coas al ƽooding, e osion, ma ine hea wa es
and ha m ul algal blooms. The ocean plays an
impo an ole in d i ing hyd ological a iabil-
i y, such as d ough s and plu ials o e land,
on in aseasonal o in e annual (and longe )
imescales (chap. 9). Such e en s, oge he
wi h a ious e ec s o haza dous subs ances
and excessi e nu ien s, ha e he po en ial o
h ea en ood secu i y and hampe sus aina-
ble economic de elopmen .
6.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals and he
Uni ed Na ions Decade o
Ocean Science o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.1:
&y  p e en and siKniƼcan ly educe ma ine
pollu ion o all Oinds in pa icula om land-
based ac i i ies includinK ma ine deb is and
nu ien pollu ion
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.3:
Minimize and add ess he impac s o ocean
acidiƼca ion includinK h ouKh enhanced scien-
iƼc coope a ion a all le els
Decade o Ocean Science ou come:
A sa e ocean whe e li e and li elihoods a e
p o ec ed om ocean- ela ed haza ds
Ma ine hea wa es and opical cyclones, hu i-
canes and yphoons a e inc easing in equen-
cy and se e i y as a esul o clima e change,
bu such inc eases can be educed by clima e
change mi iga ion e o s. As indica ed abo e,
he ocean also d i es hyd ological a iabili y
o e land. The cons uc ion o dams and es-
e oi s is, in some a eas, educing sedimen
supply o he coas by mo e han 50ɸpe ɸcen ,
leading o he e osion o del as and adjacen
coas s. As a esul o nu ien pollu ion, ha m-
ul algal blooms a e becoming mo e equen .
The numbe o pollu an s in he ocean con in-
ues o inc ease, and he e o e he mix u es o
which bio as a e exposed and ha a e in e-
g a ed in o ood sys ems a e becoming mo e
complex (chaps. 9–11 and 13).
The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds
o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as-
sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.1 and 14.3
a e se ou in able 1, and he pa icula ways
in which he achie emen o hose a ge s will
assis wi h p og ess owa ds o he Goals a e
se ou in able 2.
6.2. Haza ds om he ocean
In addi ion o con inuing h ea s such as su-
namis, clima e change is inc easingly a ec ing
a eas and hei associa ed communi ies no
p e iously exposed o ising sea le els. Such
ises can also exace ba e coas al e osion.
P ecipi a ion, winds and ex eme sea le el
e en s associa ed wi h opical cyclones ha e
inc eased in ecen decades, as has he annual

16ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
global p opo ion o ca ego y 4 o 5 opical
cyclones. The e a e inc easing isks o loca-
ions ha had his o ically no been exposed o
s o ms, owing o unp eceden ed s o m ajec-
o ies. The managemen o isks om chang-
ing s o m ajec o ies and s o m in ensi y
p o es challenging because o he diƾcul ies
o ea ly wa ning and he eluc ance o a ec ed
popula ions o espond (chaps. 9 and 13).
O e he pas wo decades, ma ine hea wa es
ha e had nega i e impac s on ma ine o gan-
isms and ecosys ems in all ocean basins. Such
e en s a e p ojec ed o inc ease in equency,
du a ion, spa ial ex en and in ensi y unde u-
u e global wa ming, hus pushing some ma ine
o ganisms, Ƽshe ies and ecosys ems beyond
he limi s o hei esilience, wi h cascading
impac s on economies and socie ies. Coas -
al e osion, d i en by, o example, dec eased
ƽu ial sedimen supply o he coas owing o
changed i e managemen , coas al sand min-
ing and longsho e impoundmen by coas al
s uc u es, is inc easingly causing p oblems.
Changes in he coas al p oƼle ollowing he
des uc ion o mang o es, sal ma shes and
ba ie islands add o such p oblems. Inpu s
o ni ogen and phospho us o coas al ecosys-
ems h ough i e un-o and a mosphe ic
deposi ion ha e inc eased owing o he use o
12 Gene al Assembly esolu ion 69/283, annex II.
syn he ic e ilize s, he combus ion o ossil
uels and he di ec inpu o municipal was e.
Tha is leading o an inc ease in ha m ul algal
blooms, including oxic algal e en s, which, in-
e alia, can lead o shellƼsh and Ƽsh becoming
poisonous, hus causing pa alysis and o he
illnesses in humans (chaps. 9, 10 and 13).
6.3. Key knowledge and
capaci y-building gaps
Imp o ed unde s anding o he ocean and i s
in e ela ion wi h he a mosphe e is essen ial
o imp o ing human sa e y in ex eme wea he
e en s. Simila ly, be e unde s anding o he
scale, p og ess and dis ibu ion o pollu ion
and o coas al dynamics is needed. The need
o s eng hen and ha monize wa ning sys ems
o educing he isks associa ed wi h ocean
haza ds is iden iƼed in he Sendai F amewo k
o Disas e Risk Reduc ion 2015–2030.12
P og ess is needed on o ecas ing sys ems
o haza ds, eme gency planning and wa n-
ings should be expanded and p epa a ion
amewo ks should be implemen ed o ensu e
a apid esponse o a ec ed communi ies.
In eg a ed sys ems ha allow o o ecas ing,
de ec ion and esponse o mul iple haza ds
a e equi ed (chaps. 9–14).
7. Sus ainable ood om he ocean
Animal p o ein om he seas p o ides abou
17ɸpe ɸcen o all animal p o ein consumed
by humans and suppo s abou 12ɸpe ɸcen
o human li elihoods. I is la gely de i ed
om wild Ƽshe ies, al hough he con ibu ion
o aquacul u e o ood secu i y is g owing
apidly and has g ea e po en ial o g ow h
han cap u e Ƽshe ies. Fishing p ac ices place
mul iple s esso s on he ma ine en i onmen
in many egions, and he expansion o aqua-
cul u e b ings new o inc eased p essu es on
ma ine ecosys ems, in pa icula in coas al
a eas (chaps. 15–17).
Ŵŵŵŵ17
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
7.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals and he
Uni ed Na ions Decade o
Ocean Science o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.4:
&y  e ec i ely eKula e ha es inK and end
o e ƼshinK illeKal un epo ed and un eKula ed
ƼshinK and des uc i e ƼshinK p ac ices and
implemen science-based manaKemen plans
in o de o es o e Ƽsh s ocOs in he sho es
ime easible a leas o le els ha can p oduce
ma imum sus ainable yield as de e mined by
hei bioloKical cha ac e is ics
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.6:
&y  p ohibi ce ain o ms o Ƽshe ies
subsidies which con ibu e o o e capaci y and
o e ƼshinK elimina e subsidies ha con ibu e
o illeKal un epo ed and un eKula ed ƼshinK
and e ain om in oducinK new such subsidies
ecoKnizinK ha app op ia e and e ec i e special
and di e en ial ea men o de elopinK and
leas de eloped coun ies should be an in eK al
pa o he ;o ld 8 ade 3 Kaniza ion Ƽshe ies
subsidies neKo ia ion13
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.7:
&y  inc ease he economic beneƼ s o small
island de elopinK 7 a es and leas de eloped
coun ies om he sus ainable use o ma ine
esou ces includinK h ouKh sus ainable man-
aKemen o Ƽshe ies aUuacul u e and ou ism
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.b:
4 o ide access o small-scale a isanal Ƽshe s
o ma ine esou ces and ma ke s
Decade o Ocean Science ou come:
A p oduc i e ocean suppo inK sus ainable ood
supply and a sus ainable ocean economy
The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds
o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as-
sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.4, 14.6,
14.7 and 14.b a e se ou in able 1, and he
13 Taking in o accoun ongoing Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion nego ia ions, he Doha De elopmen Agenda and he
Hong Kong minis e ial manda e.
14 “Maximally sus ainably Ƽshed” is used he e in he sense explained in chap e 15.
15 Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions, documen C 2009/REP and Co .1–3, appendix E.
pa icula ways in which he achie emen o
hose a ge s will assis wi h p og ess owa ds
o he Goals a e se ou in able 2.
7.2. Ma ine cap u e ishe ies
Es ima ed global landings o ma ine cap u e
Ƽshe ies inc eased by 3ɸpe ɸcen o 80.6 million
ons, alued a $127 billion (a 2017 p ices),
be ween 2012 and 2017. Abou 33ɸpe ɸcen
o he wo ld’s Ƽsh s ocks, especially a highe
ophic le els, a e classiƼed as being Ƽshed a
biologically unsus ainable le els, wi h close
o 60ɸpe ɸcen maximally sus ainably Ƽshed.14
The sus ainabili y o many o he wo ld’s
cap u e Ƽshe ies con inues o be hampe ed
by o e exploi a ion, o e capaci y, ine ec i e
managemen , ha m ul subsidies, by-ca ch,
in pa icula o h ea ened, endange ed and
p o ec ed species, and illegal, un epo ed and
un egula ed Ƽshing, wi h ongoing habi a deg-
ada ion and loss o gea c ea ing u he p es-
su es on he ma ine en i onmen . O e Ƽshing
is es ima ed o ha e led o an annual loss o
$88.9 billion in ne beneƼ s. Fish ma ke s
con inue o exhibi as -paced globaliza ion,
hus inc easing he ulne abili y o small-scale
Ƽshe ies o he deple ion o locally impo an
s ocks. Nego ia ions unde he auspices o he
Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion on educing ha m ul
Ƽshe y subsidies ha e con inued, al hough no
Ƽ m ag eemen has ye been eached. Less
han 40ɸpe ɸcen o S a es ha e signed he
Ag eemen on Po S a e Measu es o P e en ,
De e and Elimina e Illegal, Un epo ed and Un-
egula ed Fishing15 o 2009. The applica ion o
in o ma ion echnology o help o expand he
oppo uni ies o small-scale Ƽshe ies in a eas
such as sa e y, he sha ing o local knowledge,
capaci y-building and go e nance ha e been
ou lined by he Food and Ag icul u e O gan-
iza ion o he Uni ed Na ions in i s Volun a y
18ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
Guidelines o Secu ing Sus ainable Small-
Scale Fishe ies in he Con ex o Food Secu-
i y and Po e y E adica ion, and he g owing
use o human igh s app oaches is p o iding
oppo uni ies o he empowe men o such
Ƽshe ies (chap. 15).
P omisingly, scien iƼc s ock assessmen s and
managemen ha e been shown o lead o mo e
sus ainable ou comes ac oss a numbe o
egions. New app oaches o iden i ying illegal,
un epo ed and un egula ed Ƽshing a e now
being applied in some egions. Recen esea ch
has shown ha , wi h app op ia e go e nance,
he median ime equi ed o ebuild o e Ƽshed
s ocks could be less han 10 yea s, and, i e-
o ms we e o be implemen ed, 98ɸpe ɸcen o
o e Ƽshed s ocks could be conside ed heal hy
by he middle o he wen y-Ƽ s cen u y.
The impac s o clima e change a e expec ed
o include inc eases in he in ensi y o na u al
haza ds and hei equency, hus a ec ing
he local dis ibu ion and abundance o Ƽsh
popula ions. Fishe y-dependen de eloping
S a es may be a ec ed mos se e ely and,
because o expec ed changes in species dis-
ibu ions and consequen expec ed inc eases
in ansbounda y mig a ions o s ocks, u u e
in e na ional go e nance may need o accoun
o such edis ibu ions (chap. 15).
7.3. Aquacul u e
Aquacul u e con inues o g ow as e han o h-
e majo ood p oduc ion sec o s, al hough i s
g ow h has slowed o e he pas decade. The
sec o was alued a $249.6ɸbillion in 2017. I
suppo s he li elihoods o 540 million people,
19ɸpe ɸcen o whom we e women in 2014. The
impo ance o ha o m o ood p oduc ion
lies in i s high con en o p o eins and essen ial
mic onu ien s and a y acids. The eliance
o aquacul u e on Ƽsh meal dec eased om
4.20 million ons in 2005 o 3.35ɸmillion ons in
2015. Aquacul u e sus ainabili y is mo e likely
o be closely linked wi h he sus ained supply
o e es ial animal and plan p o eins, oils and
ca bohyd a e sou ces o aqua eeds. Diseases
con inue o pose a challenge o global aqua-
cul u e and a e among he p ima y de e en s
o aquacul u e de elopmen o many species.
In gene al, he en i onmen al pe o mance
o aquacul u e has imp o ed signiƼcan ly
o e he pas decade. Challenges o be me
in expanding aquacul u e p oduc ion include
educing impac s on aluable coas al eco-
sys ems such as mang o es, he sus ainable
p o ision o ex e nal eed, he managemen o
Ƽsh diseases and he e ec s o escaped Ƽsh
on na i e species (chap. 16).
7.4. Seaweed p oduc ion
Seaweed o di ec human consump ion
amoun o 80ɸpe ɸcen o o al seaweed ha -
es ing. Since 2012, global ha es ing o sea-
weed has isen a a a e o abou 2.6ɸpe cen
a yea , mos ly om aquacul u e, o 32 million
ons in 2017, wi h an es ima ed alue o $12
billion. In addi ion o being used as ood, sea-
weed is used inc easingly in indus ial appli-
ca ions, such as cosme ics, pha maceu icals
and nu aceu icals, and as eed o li es ock.
Mac oalga cul i a ion amoun s o 96ɸpe ɸcen
o o al aquacul u e p oduc ion. BeneƼ s om
p oduc ion include he p o ision o high-qual-
i y ood and he c ea ion o new jobs and
inc eased incomes o coas al inhabi an s.
In addi ion, such p oduc ion suppo s ca bon
seques a ion and oxygen p oduc ion and e-
duces eu ophica ion (chap. 17).
7.5. Key knowledge and
capaci y-building gaps
The e is limi ed unde s anding o he ex en
o which changing condi ions could con ib-
u e o shi s in ma ine ecosys em s uc u es
and unc ioning and he subsequen impac s
on ma ine p oduc i i y. The e ha e been im-
p o emen s in app oaches o assessing Ƽsh-
e ies and accoun ing o hei con ibu ions
Ŵŵŵŵ19
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
in da a-poo en i onmen s, bu u he wo k is
needed o Ƽll capaci y-building gaps o coas -
al Ƽshe ies in de eloping egions. The science
o Ƽsh s ock p opaga ion is s ill in i s ea ly
s ages, bu shows some po en ial o inc eas-
ing Ƽshe y yield beyond wha is achie able
h ough he exploi a ion o wild s ocks alone.
Howe e , unde s anding o ecological conse-
quences is lacking. Capaci y-building gaps in
he managemen o Ƽshe ies include hose
associa ed wi h iden i ying impac s on a -
ge species and inco po a ing he e ec s on
o he species in o managemen amewo ks.
Ongoing capaci y-building gaps in de eloping
coun ies also hinde hei abili y o ake pa
in egional and in e na ional nego ia ions o
eaching consensus on managemen p ac ic-
es o sus aining heal hy Ƽsh s ocks.
To boos sus ainable aquacul u e de el-
opmen , imp o ed ex ension se ices a e
needed. The aining o ex ension se ices
p o ide s needs o inco po a e in o ma ion
deli e y me hods, as well as p ac ical a m-
ing echniques, o help hem o be e assis
a me s in imp o ing p oduc ion p ac ices.
In o ma ion echnology and media, a me s’
associa ions, de elopmen agencies, p i a e
sec o supplie s and o he s will need o come
oge he o enhance sec o al aining. The es-
ablishmen o o sho e aquacul u e and ma i-
cul u e will need o be suppo ed by suƾcien
ma ine se ices o ensu e he sus ainabili y
and sa e y o ope a ions. Many knowledge
gaps emain wi h ega d o he la ge-scale
p oduc ion o seaweed and he likely impac s
o clima e change. Some e o s o add ess
he knowledge and capaci y-building gaps a e
unde way. The biology o many seaweed spe-
cies is s ill unknown, e en o hose species
cu en ly ha es ed o a med (chaps. 15–17).
8. Sus ainable economic use o he ocean
The ocean suppo s a wide ange o economic
ac i i ies, including ma i ime anspo as pa
o wo ld ade, ou ism and ec ea ion, ex ac-
ion o na u al esou ces such as hyd oca bons
and o he mine als, p o ision o enewable en-
e gy, and he use o ma ine gene ic esou ces.
8.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals and he
Uni ed Na ions Decade o
Ocean Science o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.2: &y
 sus ainably manaKe and p o ec ma ine
and coas al ecosys ems o a oid siKniƼcan
ad e se impac s includinK by s enK heninK hei
esilience and ake ac ion o hei es o a ion in
o de o achie e heal hy and p oduc i e oceans
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.7: &y
 inc ease he economic beneƼ s o small
island de elopinK 7 a es and leas de eloped
coun ies om he sus ainable use o ma ine
esou ces includinK h ouKh sus ainable manaKe-
men o Ƽshe ies aUuacul u e and ou ism
Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.c:
Enhance he conse a ion and sus ainable use o
oceans and hei esou ces by implemen inK in-
e na ional law as eƽec ed in he 9ni ed 2a ions
'on en ion on he 0aw o he 7ea which p o ides
he leKal amewo k o he conse a ion and
sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces as
ecalled in pa aK aph  o ƈ8he u u e we wan Ɖ
Economic use o he ocean has inc eased
globally. Many coun ies a e de eloping o
ha e de eloped s a egies o inc easing such
ma i ime ac i i ies as enewable ocean ene -
gy, aquacul u e, ma ine bio echnology, coas al
ou ism and seabed mining (g ow h sec o s o
he blue economy – a e m ha can include
en i onmen ally sus ainable shipping and
Ƽshe ies). The dis ibu ion a ound he wo ld o
he economic beneƼ s d awn om he ocean,
26ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
con ibu inK o he achie emen
o Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and
p omo e sus ainable use
o e es ial ecosys ems,
sus ainably manage o es s,
comba dese iƼca ion, and hal
and e e se land deg ada ion and
hal biodi e si y loss
Conse a ion, es o a ion and
sus ainable use o e es ial and
inland eshwa e ecosys ems,
and educ ion in he deg ada ion
o habi a s
Sus ainable ood om he ocean
Ta ge 14.4: By 2020, e ec-
i ely egula e ha es ing
and end o e Ƽshing, illegal,
un epo ed and un egula ed
Ƽshing and des uc i e Ƽsh-
ing p ac ices and implemen
science-based managemen
plans, in o de o es o e Ƽsh
s ocks in he sho es ime
easible, a leas o le els
ha can p oduce maximum
sus ainable yield as de e -
mined by hei biological
cha ac e is ics
Ta ge 14.6: By 2020, p ohibi
ce ain o ms o Ƽshe ies
subsidies which con ibu e o
o e capaci y and o e Ƽshing,
elimina e subsidies ha con-
ibu e o illegal, un epo ed
and un egula ed Ƽshing and
e ain om in oducing new
such subsidies, ecognizing
ha app op ia e and e ec i e
special and di e en ial ea -
men o de eloping and leas
de eloped coun ies should be
an in eg al pa o he Wo ld
T ade O ganiza ion Ƽshe ies
subsidies nego ia ionb
Ta ge 14.7: By 2030, inc ease
he economic beneƼ s o
small island de eloping
S a es and leas de eloped
coun ies om he sus aina-
ble use o ma ine esou ces,
including h ough sus ainable
managemen o Ƽshe ies,
aquacul u e and ou ism
Ta ge 14.b: P o ide access
o small-scale a isanal
Ƽshe s o ma ine esou ces
and ma ke s
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood
secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion
and p omo e sus ainable
ag icul u e
Inc ease in ag icul u al
p oduc i i y (including
aquacul u e and ma icul u e),
ensu ing sus ainable ood
p oduc ion and main aining
ecosys ems and he gene ic
di e si y o wild species
Goal 8: P omo e sus ained,
inclusi e and sus ainable
economic g ow h, ull and
p oduc i e employmen and
decen wo k o all
Imp o ed esou ce eƾciency in
consump ion and p oduc ion
Goal 9: Build esilien
in as uc u e, p omo e inclusi e
and sus ainable indus ializa ion
and os e inno a ion
Enhancemen o scien iƼc
esea ch and echnological
de elopmen , esea ch and
inno a ion in de eloping
coun ies
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Sus ainable managemen and
eƾcien use o na u al esou ces,
educ ion in ood losses along
p oduc ion and supply chains,
including pos -ha es losses,
s eng hening o scien iƼc and
echnological capaci y o mo e
owa ds mo e sus ainable
pa e ns o consump ion and
p oduc ion, implemen a ion o
me hods o ensu e ha ou ism
emains sus ainable, c ea es jobs
and p omo es local p oduc s, and
phasing ou o ha m ul subsidies,
whe e hey exis , o eƽec hei
en i onmen al impac s
Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o
comba clima e change and i s
impac sa
Implemen a ion o clima e
change mi iga ion, adap a ion
and impac educ ion measu es
Goal 17: S eng hen he means
o implemen a ion and e i alize
he Global Pa ne ship o
Sus ainable De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion,
enhanced knowledge-sha ing
and ans e o echnology, and
capaci y-building

Ŵŵŵŵ27
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
con ibu inK o he achie emen
o Goal 14 Mechanism
Sus ainable economic use o he ocean
Ta ge 14.2: By 2020,
sus ainably manage and
p o ec ma ine and coas al
ecosys ems o a oid
signiƼcan ad e se impac s,
including by s eng hening
hei esilience, and ake
ac ion o hei es o a ion in
o de o achie e heal hy and
p oduc i e oceans
Ta ge 14.7: By 2030,
inc ease he economic
beneƼ s o small island
de eloping S a es and leas
de eloped coun ies om he
sus ainable use o ma ine
esou ces, including h ough
sus ainable managemen o
Ƽshe ies, aquacul u e and
ou ism
Ta ge 14.c: Enhance he
conse a ion and sus ainable
use o oceans and hei
esou ces by implemen ing
in e na ional law as eƽec ed
in he Uni ed Na ions
Con en ion on he Law o
he Sea, which p o ides
he legal amewo k o he
conse a ion and sus ainable
use o oceans and hei
esou ces, as ecalled in
pa ag aph 158 o “The u u e
we wan ”
Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y and
sus ainable managemen o
wa e and sani a ion o all
Imp o ed was ewa e
managemen and p o ec ion and
es o a ion o we lands
Goal 7: Ensu e access o
a o dable, eliable, sus ainable
and mode n ene gy o all
Imp o ed sou ces and eƾciencies
in ene gy and associa ed
educ ion in emissions
Goal 11: Make ci ies and human
se lemen s inclusi e, sa e,
esilien and sus ainable
Sus ainable u baniza ion and
educ ion in he en i onmen al
impac o ci ies
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Sus ainable managemen and
use o na u al esou ces
Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o
comba clima e change and i s
impac sa
Implemen a ion o clima e
change mi iga ion, adap a ion
and impac educ ion measu es
Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and
p omo e sus ainable use
o e es ial ecosys ems,
sus ainably manage o es s,
comba dese iƼca ion, and hal
and e e se land deg ada ion and
hal biodi e si y loss
Reduc ion in he deg ada ion
o na u al habi a s and loss o
biodi e si y, and p e en ion o
he ex inc ion o species
Goal 16: P omo e peace ul and
inclusi e socie ies o sus ainable
de elopmen , p o ide access o
jus ice o all and build e ec i e,
accoun able and inclusi e
ins i u ions a all le els
P omo ion o he ule o law a
he na ional and in e na ional
le els
Goal 17: S eng hen he means
o implemen a ion and e i alize
he Global Pa ne ship o
Sus ainable De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion,
enhanced knowledge-sha ing
and ans e o echnology, and
capaci y-building
E ec i e implemen a ion o in e na ional law as eƽec ed in he
Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea
Ta ge 14.c: Enhance he
conse a ion and sus ainable
use o oceans and hei
esou ces by implemen ing
in e na ional law as eƽec ed
in he Uni ed Na ions Con-
en ion on he Law o he
Sea, which p o ides he legal
amewo k o he conse a-
ion and sus ainable use o
oceans and hei esou ces,
as ecalled in pa ag aph 158
o “The u u e we wan ”
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood
secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion
and p omo e sus ainable
ag icul u e
Ensu ing o sus ainable
ood p oduc ion sys ems,
main enance o ecosys ems
and s eng hening o capaci y o
adap o clima e change, ex eme
wea he , d ough , ƽooding and
o he disas e s
Goal 3: Ensu e heal hy li es and
p omo e well-being o all a all
ages
Reduc ion in haza dous
chemicals, pollu ion and
con amina ion
28ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
con ibu inK o he achie emen
o Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y and
sus ainable managemen o
wa e and sani a ion o all
Reduc ion in pollu ion, imp o ed
was ewa e managemen and
p o ec ion and es o a ion o
wa e - ela ed ecosys ems
Goal 11: Make ci ies and human
se lemen s inclusi e, sa e,
esilien and sus ainable
P o ec ion and sa egua ding o
cul u al and na u al he i age
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
En i onmen ally sound
managemen o chemicals and
all was es h oughou hei li e
cycle, wi hin ag eed in e na ional
amewo ks
Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o
comba clima e change and i s
impac sa
In eg a ion o clima e change
measu es in o na ional policies,
s a egies and planning
Goal 17: S eng hen he means
o implemen a ion and e i alize
he Global Pa ne ship o
Sus ainable De elopmen
Enhancemen o policy
cohe ence o sus ainable
de elopmen
a Acknowledging ha he Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change is he p ima y in e na ional,
in e go e nmen al o um o nego ia ing he global esponse o clima e change.
b Taking in o accoun ongoing Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion nego ia ions, he Doha De elopmen Agenda and he
Hong Kong minis e ial manda e.
Ŵŵŵŵ29
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
Table 2
'on ibu ion made by Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 o achie inK o he Goals
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals con ibu ed o by he
achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism
Ta ge 14.1: By 2025, p e en
and signiƼcan ly educe
ma ine pollu ion o all kinds,
in pa icula om land-based
ac i i ies, including ma ine
deb is and nu ien pollu ion
Goal 3: Ensu e heal hy li es
and p omo e well-being o
all a all ages
Reduc ion in haza dous chemicals,
pollu ion and con amina ion
Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y
and sus ainable
managemen o wa e and
sani a ion o all
Reduc ion in pollu ion and he
elease o haza dous chemicals and
ma e ials and was ewa e
Goal 11: Make ci ies
and human se lemen s
inclusi e, sa e, esilien and
sus ainable
Sus ainable u baniza ion and
educ ion in he en i onmen al
impac o ci ies
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
En i onmen ally sound managemen
o chemicals and all was es,
including by educing was e
gene a ion
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion, enhanced
knowledge-sha ing and ans e o
echnology, and capaci y-building
Ta ge 14.2: By 2020,
sus ainably manage and
p o ec ma ine and coas al
ecosys ems o a oid
signiƼcan ad e se impac s,
including by s eng hening
hei esilience, and ake
ac ion o hei es o a ion in
o de o achie e heal hy and
p oduc i e oceans
Goal 1: End po e y in all i s
o ms e e ywhe e
Reduc ion in exposu e and
ulne abili y o clima e-induced
ex eme e en s and building o
esilience o en i onmen al shocks
and disas e s
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e
ood secu i y and imp o ed
nu i ion and p omo e
sus ainable ag icul u e
Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y
(including aquacul u e and
ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable
ood p oduc ion and main aining
ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y
o wild species
Goal 8: P omo e sus ained,
inclusi e and sus ainable
economic g ow h, ull and
p oduc i e employmen and
decen wo k o all
P o ision o oppo uni ies o
sus ained economic g ow h and
sus ainable ou ism
Goal 11: Make ci ies
and human se lemen s
inclusi e, sa e, esilien and
sus ainable
P ese a ion o and suppo o
hose ecosys ems ha a o d
p o ec ion om disas e s o coas al
communi ies
Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion
o comba clima e change
and i s impac sa
Con ibu ion o esilience o clima e-
ela ed haza ds
30ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals con ibu ed o by he
achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism
Ta ge 14.3: Minimize and
add ess he impac s o
ocean acidiƼca ion, including
h ough enhanced scien iƼc
coope a ion a all le els
Goal 1: End po e y in all i s
o ms e e ywhe e
Reduc ion in exposu e and building
o esilience o en i onmen al shocks
and disas e s
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e
ood secu i y and imp o ed
nu i ion and p omo e
sus ainable ag icul u e
Ensu ing o sus ainable ood
p oduc ion sys ems, main enance
o ecosys ems, s eng hening o
capaci y o adap o clima e change
and enhancemen o coope a ion
in esea ch and echnological
de elopmen
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Suppo o de eloping coun ies in
s eng hening hei scien iƼc and
echnological capaci y
Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion
o comba clima e change
and i s impac sa
Implemen a ion o clima e change
mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac
educ ion measu es
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion, enhanced
knowledge-sha ing and ans e o
echnology, and capaci y-building
Ta ge 14.4: By 2020,
e ec i ely egula e
ha es ing and end
o e Ƽshing, illegal,
un epo ed and un egula ed
Ƽshing and des uc i e
Ƽshing p ac ices and
implemen science-based
managemen plans,
in o de o es o e Ƽsh
s ocks in he sho es
ime easible, a leas o
le els ha can p oduce
maximum sus ainable yield
as de e mined by hei
biological cha ac e is ics
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e
ood secu i y and imp o ed
nu i ion and p omo e
sus ainable ag icul u e
Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y
(including aquacul u e and
ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable
ood p oduc ion and main aining
ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y
o wild species
Goal 8: P omo e sus ained,
inclusi e and sus ainable
economic g ow h, ull and
p oduc i e employmen and
decen wo k o all
Suppo o p oduc i e ac i i ies
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Achie emen o sus ainable
managemen and eƾcien use o
na u al esou ces, educ ion in ood
losses along p oduc ion and supply
chains, including pos -ha es
losses, s eng hening o scien iƼc
and echnological capaci y o mo e
owa ds mo e sus ainable pa e ns
o consump ion and p oduc ion, and
phasing ou o ha m ul subsidies
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Enhancemen o pa ne ships o
sus ainable de elopmen
Ŵŵŵŵ31
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals con ibu ed o by he
achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism
Ta ge 14.5: By 2020,
conse e a leas 10ɸpe ɸcen
o coas al and ma ine a eas,
consis en wi h na ional
and in e na ional law and
based on he bes a ailable
scien iƼc in o ma ion
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e
ood secu i y and imp o ed
nu i ion and p omo e
sus ainable ag icul u e
Main enance o ecosys ems,
s eng hening o capaci y o adap
o clima e change, and enhancemen
o coope a ion in esea ch and
echnological de elopmen
Goal 11: Make ci ies
and human se lemen s
inclusi e, sa e, esilien and
sus ainable
P ese a ion o and suppo o
hose ecosys ems ha a o d
p o ec ion om disas e s o coas al
communi ies
Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and
p omo e sus ainable use
o e es ial ecosys ems,
sus ainably manage o es s,
comba dese iƼca ion,
and hal and e e se land
deg ada ion and hal
biodi e si y loss
Reduc ion in he deg ada ion
o na u al habi a s and loss o
biodi e si y, and p e en ion o he
ex inc ion o species
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion, enhanced
knowledge-sha ing and ans e o
echnology, and capaci y-building
Ta ge 14.6: By 2020, p ohibi
ce ain o ms o Ƽshe ies
subsidies which con ibu e o
o e capaci y and o e Ƽshing,
elimina e subsidies ha
con ibu e o illegal,
un epo ed and un egula ed
Ƽshing and e ain om
in oducing new such
subsidies, ecognizing ha
app op ia e and e ec i e
special and di e en ial
ea men o de eloping and
leas de eloped coun ies
should be an in eg al pa o
he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion
Ƽshe ies subsidies
nego ia ionb
Goal 8: P omo e sus ained,
inclusi e and sus ainable
economic g ow h, ull and
p oduc i e employmen and
decen wo k o all
Suppo o p oduc i e ac i i ies
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Achie emen o sus ainable
managemen and eƾcien use o
na u al esou ces, educ ion in ood
losses along p oduc ion and supply
chains, including pos -ha es
losses, s eng hening o scien iƼc
and echnological capaci y o mo e
owa ds mo e sus ainable pa e ns
o consump ion and p oduc ion, and
phasing ou o ha m ul subsidies
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Enhancemen o pa ne ships o
sus ainable de elopmen
Ta ge 14.7: By 2030, inc ease
he economic beneƼ s o
small island de eloping S a es
and leas de eloped coun ies
om he sus ainable use o
ma ine esou ces, including
h ough sus ainable
managemen o Ƽshe ies,
aquacul u e and ou ism
Goal 1: End po e y in all i s
o ms e e ywhe e
Reduc ion in exposu e and building
o esilience o en i onmen al shocks
and disas e s
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e
ood secu i y and imp o ed
nu i ion and p omo e
sus ainable ag icul u e
Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y
(including aquacul u e and
ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable
ood p oduc ion and main aining
ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y
o wild species

32ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals con ibu ed o by he
achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 8: P omo e sus ained,
inclusi e and sus ainable
economic g ow h, ull and
p oduc i e employmen and
decen wo k o all
P o ision o oppo uni ies o
sus ained economic g ow h and
sus ainable ou ism
Goal 9: Build esilien
in as uc u e, p omo e
inclusi e and sus ainable
indus ializa ion and os e
inno a ion
Enhancemen o scien iƼc esea ch,
upg ade o he echnological
capabili ies o indus ial sec o s in
all coun ies, in pa icula de eloping
coun ies, and encou agemen o
inno a ion
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Achie emen o sus ainable
managemen and eƾcien use o
na u al esou ces, and s eng hening
o scien iƼc and echnological
capaci y
Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion
o comba clima e change
and i s impac sa
Implemen a ion o clima e change
mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac
educ ion measu es
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion, enhanced
knowledge-sha ing and ans e o
echnology, and capaci y-building
Ta ge 14.a: Inc ease
scien iƼc knowledge, de elop
esea ch capaci y and
ans e ma ine echnology,
aking in o accoun
he In e go e nmen al
Oceanog aphic Commission
C i e ia and Guidelines
on he T ans e o Ma ine
Technology, in o de o
imp o e ocean heal h and
o enhance he con ibu ion
o ma ine biodi e si y o he
de elopmen o de eloping
coun ies, in pa icula small
island de eloping S a es and
leas de eloped coun ies
Goal 9: Build esilien
in as uc u e, p omo e
inclusi e and sus ainable
indus ializa ion and os e
inno a ion
Enhancemen o scien iƼc esea ch,
upg ade o he echnological
capabili ies o indus ial sec o s in
all coun ies, in pa icula de eloping
coun ies, and encou agemen o
inno a ion
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Achie emen o sus ainable
managemen and eƾcien use o
na u al esou ces, and s eng hening
o scien iƼc and echnological
capaci y
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion, enhanced
knowledge-sha ing and ans e o
echnology, and capaci y-building
Ta ge 14.b: P o ide access
o small-scale a isanal
Ƽshe s o ma ine esou ces
and ma ke s
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e
ood secu i y and imp o ed
nu i ion and p omo e
sus ainable ag icul u e
Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y
(including aquacul u e and
ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable
ood p oduc ion and main aining
ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y
o wild species
Ŵŵŵŵ33
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals con ibu ed o by he
achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 8: P omo e sus ained,
inclusi e and sus ainable
economic g ow h, ull and
p oduc i e employmen and
decen wo k o all
Imp o ed esou ce eƾciency in
consump ion and p oduc ion
Goal 9: Build esilien
in as uc u e, p omo e
inclusi e and sus ainable
indus ializa ion and os e
inno a ion
Enhancemen o scien iƼc esea ch
and echnological de elopmen ,
esea ch and inno a ion in
de eloping coun ies
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Sus ainable managemen and
eƾcien use o na u al esou ces,
and implemen a ion o ools o
moni o ing sus ainable de elopmen
impac s o sus ainable ou ism ha
c ea es jobs and p omo es local
cul u e and p oduc s
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Imp o ed access o science,
echnology and inno a ion, enhanced
knowledge-sha ing and ans e o
echnology, and capaci y-building
Ta ge 14.c: Enhance he
conse a ion and sus ainable
use o oceans and hei
esou ces by implemen ing
in e na ional law as eƽec ed
in he Uni ed Na ions
Con en ion on he Law o
he Sea, which p o ides
he legal amewo k o he
conse a ion and sus ainable
use o oceans and hei
esou ces, as ecalled in
pa ag aph 158 o “The u u e
we wan ”
Goal 2: End hunge , achie e
ood secu i y and imp o ed
nu i ion and p omo e
sus ainable ag icul u e
Ensu ing o sus ainable ood
p oduc ion sys ems, main enance
o ecosys ems and s eng hening o
capaci y o adap o clima e change,
ex eme wea he , d ough , ƽooding
and o he disas e s
Goal 3: Ensu e heal hy li es
and p omo e well-being o
all a all ages
Reduc ion in haza dous chemicals,
pollu ion and con amina ion
Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y
and sus ainable
managemen o wa e and
sani a ion o all
Reduc ion in pollu ion, imp o ed
was ewa e managemen and
p o ec ion and es o a ion o wa e -
ela ed ecosys ems
Goal 7: Ensu e access
o a o dable, eliable,
sus ainable and mode n
ene gy o all
Imp o ed sou ces and eƾciencies in
ene gy and associa ed educ ion in
emissions
Goal 11: Make ci ies
and human se lemen s
inclusi e, sa e, esilien and
sus ainable
Sus ainable u baniza ion and
educ ion in he en i onmen al
impac o ci ies, and p o ec ion and
sa egua ding o cul u al and na u al
he i age
Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable
consump ion and p oduc ion
pa e ns
Sus ainable managemen and use o
na u al esou ces, en i onmen ally
sound managemen o chemicals
and all was es h oughou hei li e
cycle, wi hin ag eed in e na ional
amewo ks
34ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
8a Ke s unde Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal 14
Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals con ibu ed o by he
achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion
o comba clima e change
and i s impac sa
Implemen a ion o clima e change
mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac
educ ion measu es, and in eg a ion
o clima e change measu es in o
na ional policies, s a egies and
planning
Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and
p omo e sus ainable use
o e es ial ecosys ems,
sus ainably manage o es s,
comba dese iƼca ion,
and hal and e e se land
deg ada ion and hal
biodi e si y loss
Reduc ion in he deg ada ion
o na u al habi a s and loss o
biodi e si y, and p e en ion o he
ex inc ion o species
Goal 16: P omo e peace ul
and inclusi e socie ies o
sus ainable de elopmen ,
p o ide access o jus ice
o all and build e ec i e,
accoun able and inclusi e
ins i u ions a all le els
P omo ion o he ule o law a he
na ional and in e na ional le els
Goal 17: S eng hen he
means o implemen a ion
and e i alize he Global
Pa ne ship o Sus ainable
De elopmen
Enhancemen o policy cohe ence o
sus ainable de elopmen
a Acknowledging ha he Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change is he p ima y in e na ional,
in e go e nmen al o um o nego ia ing he global esponse o clima e change.
b Taking in o accoun ongoing Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion nego ia ions, he Doha De elopmen Agenda and he
Hong Kong minis e ial manda e.
35
Chap e 1: O e all summa y
0andscape o subKoals unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 and ele an chap e s
P o ec ing
ma ine ecosys ems
Chap. 25 Cumula i e impac s
Cleaning up he ocean
Chap. 10 Nu ien pollu ion
Chap. 11 Haza dous subs ances
Chap. 12 Solid was e
Chap. 20 Noise
Economic use
Chap. 8 Human socie y
Chap. 14 Ma ine
in as uc u e
Chap. 18 Seabed mining
Chap. 19 Hyd oca bon
Chap. 21 Renewable ene gy
Chap. 22 In asi e species
Chap. 23 Ma ine gene ic
esou ces
Chap. 24 Ma ine hyd a es
S a e
Chap. 6 Biodi e si y
Chap. 7 Habi a s
Chap. 28 O e all beneƼ s
In e na ional law o he sea
Chap. 28 O e all beneƼ s
Unde s anding
he ocean
Chap. 3 Scien iƼc
unde s anding
Chap. 5 Physical and
chemical s a e
Chap. 9 Clima e change
P essu e
P essu e
Response
Socie al beneƼ s
P omo ing sa e y
om he ocean
Chap. 5
Physical and chemical s a e
Chap. 9
Clima e change
Chap.10 Nu ien pollu ion
Chap.13 E osion and
sedimen a ion
Sus ainable ood
(and economic use)
Chap. 15 Cap u e Ƽshe ies
Chap. 16 Aquacul u e
Chap. 17 Seaweed ha es ing
P essu e
P essu e
D i e s Chap. 4 D i e s
Managemen
Chap. 26 Ma ine spa ial
planning
Chap. 27 Managemen
app oach