World Ocean Assessment II, Chapter 01, Overall summary

The Second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II Volume I The Second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II Volume I Co e pho o: Yung-Sen Wu Uni ed Na ions Wo ld Oceans Day Pho o Compe i ion Uni ed Na ions publica ion Sales no.: E.21.V.5 ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0 eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2 Copy igh © Uni ed Na ions, 2021 All igh s ese ed P in ed a he Uni ed Na ions, New Yo k iii Fo ewo d by he Sec e a y-Gene al The pas yea has p esen ed unp eceden ed challenges. The co ona i us disease (COVID-19) pandemic has dis up ed li es and li elihoods and exposed ou socie ies’ agili y. Sadly, he pan- demic is no he only c isis ha humani y aces. Clima e change and biodi e si y loss con inue unaba ed, h ea ening sus ainable de elopmen and ou iabili y as a species. These challenges a e pa icula ly e iden when we look a he s a e o ou plane ’s li e suppo sys em, he ocean. In 2015, he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen wa ned ha many a eas o he ocean had been se i- ously deg aded, he g ea es h ea o he ocean being he ailu e o deal wi h he many p essu es caused by human ac i i ies. The message in he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen is ha he si ua ion has no imp o ed, wi h he many beneƼ s ha he ocean p o ides a isk. The Assess- men ad ises ha , o ensu e sus ainabili y, we mus wo k oge he o imp o e in eg a ed ocean managemen , including h ough join esea ch, capaci y de elopmen and he sha ing o da a, in o ma ion and echnology. The ocean plays a c ucial ole in he achie emen o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he li elihoods o billions o people. We u gen ly need o change how we in e ac wi h i . The o h- coming Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen and he Uni ed Na ions Decade on Ecosys em Res o a ion p o ide oppo uni ies o us o unde s and mo e and o e e se he damage ha has al eady been done. The in o ma ion in he second Assessmen can assis in his p ocess, as well as in o m ele an in e go e nmen al con e ences scheduled o 2021. I u ge leade s and all s akeholde s o heed he wa nings in he Assessmen as we wo k o con- se e and sus ainably manage ou plane ’s ma ine en i onmen . Le us os e no only a g een bu also a blue eco e y om he COVID-19 pandemic. AǞǘǞǣǝ GǗǘȨǚǚȨǙ Summa y In i s esolu ions 57/141 and 58/240, he Gene al Assembly decided o es ablish a egula p o- cess unde he Uni ed Na ions o global epo ing and assessmen o he s a e o he ma ine en i onmen , including socioeconomic aspec s, bo h cu en and o eseeable, building on exis - ing egional assessmen s. In i s esolu ion 71/257, he Assembly ecalled ha he scope o he Ƽ s cycle o he Regula P ocess ocused on es ablishing a baseline and decided ha he scope o he second cycle would ex end o e alua ing ends and iden i ying gaps. The p og amme o wo k o he pe iod 2017–2020 o he second cycle o he Regula P ocess includes he p epa- a ion by he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen , building on he baselines es ablished by he Fi s Global In eg a ed Ma ine Assessmen (Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ). In i s esolu ion 72/73, he Assembly decided ha he G oup o Expe s should p oceed on he basis o a single comp ehensi e assessmen . The p esen documen was p epa ed by he G oup o Expe s in acco dance wi h hose decisions. Disclaime The p esen documen is a p oduc o he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, which is esponsible o he con en s o he publica ion. The membe s o he G oup o Expe s and he pool o ex- pe s who pa icipa ed in he w i ing o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen con ibu ed in hei pe sonal capaci y. The membe s o he G oup and he pool a e no ep esen a i es o any Go e nmen o any o he au ho i y o o ganiza ion. The designa ions employed, including geog aphical names, and he p esen a ion o he ma e ials in he p esen publica ion, including he ci a ions, maps and bibliog aphy, do no imply he exp ession o any opinion wha soe e on he pa o he Uni ed Na ions conce ning he names and legal s a us o any coun- y, e i o y, ci y o a ea o o i s au ho i ies o conce ning he delimi a ion o i s on ie s o bounda ies and do no imply oƾcial endo semen o accep ance by he Uni ed Na ions. In o ma ion con ained in he p esen publica ion emana ing om ac ions and decisions aken by S a es does no imply oƾcial endo semen , accep ance o ecogni ion by he Uni ed Na ions o such ac ions and decisions, and such in o ma ion is included wi hou p ejudice o he posi ion o any S a e Membe o he Uni ed Na ions. ii P e ace The goal o he Gene al Assembly in c ea ing he Regula P ocess o he Global Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En- i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, was o ensu e a comp ehensi e o e iew o he ocean and he ela ionships be ween he ocean and humans, co e ing all en i onmen al, social and economic aspec s. Such an o e - iew would se e as a backg ound o he many decisions ha mus be aken in ha Ƽeld a he in e na ional, na ional and local le els in pu sui o sus ainable de elopmen . The Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen was comple ed in 2015 and ep esen s a majo s ep owa ds ha goal. Ine i ably, wi h such an ambi ious goal, no only we e some aspec s no ully co e ed in he Ƽ s ou pu o he Regula P ocess, bu also, as ime passed, he assessmen ha was made up o 2015 needed o be upda ed. The Gene al Assembly he e o e p o ided o u he global in eg a ed ma ine assessmen s o eco d de- elopmen s om he baseline p o ided by he Ƽ s Assessmen and, whe e possible, o show ends. In 2016, i decided ha a second com- p ehensi e assessmen should be p epa ed by he end o 2020. The p esen olume con ains he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen . I p o ides mo e in o ma ion on aspec s o he ocean and i s ela ionships wi h humans, including sepa a e assessmen s o he abyssal plains and ma ine hyd a es, and b ings oge he in speciƼc chap- e s ma e s ha we e add essed in di e en sec ions o he Ƽ s Assessmen , such as he s a e o Ƽsh species and ma ine in as uc u e. As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p oduc ion o he p esen Assessmen has been a majo ask, elying essen ially on olun a y e o s o hund eds o expe s in many Ƽelds, wi h suppo om he egula budge o he Uni ed Na ions. As be o e, i has been a p i ilege o he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, o o ganize, con ibu e o and Ƽnalize he Assessmen . C ucial suppo has again been p o ided by he Sec e a ia , including he Di i- sion o Ocean A ai s and he Law o he Sea, se e al in e na ional o ganiza ions and a num- be o S a es Membe s o he Uni ed Na ions, as de ailed in chap e 2. The G oup o Expe s is g a e ul o all hose people and ins i u ions bu , unde he e ms o e e ence and wo king me hods endo sed by he Gene al Assembly, is ul ima ely esponsible o he Ƽnal ex . The bulk o he ex was w i en be o e he ou - b eak o he co ona i us disease (COVID-19) pandemic. Some men ion o he e ec s o ha pandemic has been included ( o example, in he sec ions o chap e 8A dealing wi h Ƽshe - ies, shipping and ou ism), bu he ull implica- ions o he pandemic on human in e ac ions wi h he ocean a e s ill being wo ked ou and will need o be explo ed ully in he hi d cycle o he Regula P ocess. Ne e heless, he ocean and he se ices ha i p o ides will ha e an im- po an ole in he eco e y om he pandemic. I is hoped ha he in o ma ion in he p esen Assessmen will help wi h ha p ocess. As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p esen documen con ains no policy analysis o ecommenda ions, in line wi h he guidance endo sed by he Gene al Assembly. I is he e- o e o na ional Go e nmen s and compe en in e na ional au ho i ies o decide wha ac ion should be aken in he ligh o he assessmen s unde he Regula P ocess. RȨǞǣǙǝǞ RǗǕȳ and AǠȳǞ Sǣǟȱǝȱǡ Join Coo dina o s o he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess JǚǞ SȱǤǟǣȰǘ Membe o he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess, assis ing he Join Coo dina o s Ŵŵŵŵx Con en s Page Chap e 7I: Sal ma shes ................................................... 381 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383 2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 385 3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 386 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 386 5. Ou look ........................................................ 387 6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 388 7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 389 Re e ences......................................................... 389 Chap e 7J: Con inen al slopes and subma ine canyons......................... 395 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397 2. De elopmen s in unde s anding o slopes and canyons ............... 399 3. Ecosys em se ices and beneƼ s on slopes and in canyons ............ 404 4. Human impac s ................................................. 405 5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 406 6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 407 Re e ences ........................................................ 408 Chap e 7K: High-la i ude ice................................................ 421 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 423 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 423 2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 424 3. Economic and social consequences................................ 428 4. Ou look ........................................................ 430 5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 431 Re e ences......................................................... 431 Chap e 7L: Seamoun s andɸpinnacles........................................ 437 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 439 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 439 2. Desc ip ion o changes in knowledge be ween 2010 and 2020.......... 440 3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes......................... 441 4. Key egion-speciƼc esea ch in ecen yea s ......................... 442 5. Ou look ........................................................ 444 6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 444 7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 445 Re e ences......................................................... 446 x iŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I Page Chap e 7M: Abyssal plains ................................................. 453 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 455 1. In oduc ion .................................................... 455 2. Shi ing baselines and documen ing s a us and change in abyssal biodi e si y ..................................................... 456 3. Majo na u al and an h opogenic p essu es.......................... 464 4. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 465 5. Ou look ........................................................ 468 6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 468 Re e ences......................................................... 469 Chap e 7N: Open ocean.................................................... 477 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 479 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 479 2. En i onmen al changes in he open ocean since 2010................. 481 3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 484 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 486 5. Ou look ........................................................ 487 6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 488 7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 488 Re e ences......................................................... 488 Chap e 7O: Ridges, pla eaux and enches.................................... 495 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 497 1. In oduc ion and summa y o he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 497 2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020 ..... 499 3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes be ween 2010 and 2020 . . . 502 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 505 5. Ou look ........................................................ 506 6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 507 7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 507 Re e ences ........................................................ 508 Chap e 7P: Hyd o he mal en s and coldɸseeps ............................... 513 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 515 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 515 2. En i onmen al changes since he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 518 3. Economic and social consequences................................ 519 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 521 Ŵŵŵŵx ii Con en s Page 5. Ou look ........................................................ 523 6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 523 7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps .............................. 524 Re e ences......................................................... 524 Chap e 7Q: Sa gasso Sea .................................................. 531 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 533 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 533 2. Change o s a e ................................................. 534 3. Ins i u ional a angemen s ........................................ 537 4. Consequences o changes ........................................ 538 5. Ou look ........................................................ 539 Re e ences......................................................... 540 Volume II Chap e 8: T ends in he s a e o human socie y in ela ion o he ocean.............. 1 Chap e 8A: Coas al communi ies andɸma i ime indus ies ...................... 3 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 5 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 5 2. Coas al communi ies............................................. 6 3. Cap u e Ƽshe ies, shellƼsh ha es ing and aquacul u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 4. Shipping........................................................ 10 5. Seabed mining .................................................. 14 6. O sho e hyd oca bons ........................................... 15 7. Tou ism and ec ea ion ........................................... 15 8. Ma ine gene ic esou ces ......................................... 20 9. Ma ine enewable ene gy ......................................... 21 10. Desaliniza ion................................................... 21 11. Sal p oduc ion.................................................. 22 12. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 23 13. Ou look ........................................................ 24 Re e ences......................................................... 24 Chap e 8B: Human heal h as a ec ed by he ocean ............................ 31 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 33 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 33 2. Gene al aspec s o he ela ionship be ween human heal h and he ocean 33 3. Heal h o coas al communi ies ela i e o inland communi ies.......... 39 4. E ec s o exposu e o con amina ed seawa e ....................... 39 x iiiŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I Page 5. P oblems o human heal h posed by ood om he sea ............... 42 6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 44 7. Ou look ........................................................ 45 Re e ences......................................................... 45 Pa Ƽ e: T ends in p essu es onɸ he ma ine en i onmen .......................... 53 Chap e : P essu es om chanKes in clima e and a mosphe e ..................... 55 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 57 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 57 2. Clima e p essu es: ex eme clima e e en s and p essu es om changes in ocean physical and chemical p ope ies........................... 58 3. Capaci y-building: Global Ocean AcidiƼca ion Obse ing Ne wo k and Global Ocean Oxygen Ne wo k .................................... 67 4. Summa y....................................................... 68 Re e ences......................................................... 69 Chap e 1: ChanKes in nu ien inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen ................... 77 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 79 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 79 2. Si ua ion epo ed in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 81 3. Global-scale pa e ns and ends................................... 82 4. Pa e ns and ends wi hin egions ................................. 85 5. Ou look ........................................................ 91 Re e ences......................................................... 92 Chap e 11: ChanKes in liUuid and a mosphe ic inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen om land includinK h ouKh K oundwa e  ships and o sho e ins alla ions............... 101 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 103 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 104 2. Si ua ion eco ded in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 104 3. Pe sis en o ganic pollu an s, including un-o om he use o ag icul u al pes icides............................................ 105 4. Me als ......................................................... 112 5. Radioac i e subs ances .......................................... 122 6. Pha maceu icals and pe sonal ca e p oduc s ........................ 127 7. A mosphe ic pollu an s (ni ogen oxides, sul u oxides) ............... 131 8. Hyd oca bons om e es ial sou ces, ships and o sho e ins alla ions, including a angemen s o esponse o spills and discha ges .......... 132 9. O he subs ances used on, and discha ged om, o sho e ins alla ions . . 134 10. Rela ionship o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals .................. 135 11. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 136 Ŵŵŵŵxix Con en s Page 12. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 138 Re e ences......................................................... 139 Chap e 12: ChanKes in inpu s and dis ibu ion o solid was e o he han d edKed ma e ial in he ma ine en i onmen ............................................. 151 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 153 1. Ac i i ies esul ing in ma ine deb is, including plas ics, abandoned Ƽshing gea , mic opa icles and nanopa icles, and es ima es o sou ces om land, ships and o sho e ins alla ions ............................... 153 2. Dumping a sea, including ga bage om ships and sewage sludge . . . . . . 171 Re e ences......................................................... 177 Chap e 1: ChanKes in e osion and sedimen a ion................................ 185 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 187 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 187 2. Changes in s a e o coas al e osion and sedimen a ion................ 188 3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 192 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 193 5. Ou look ........................................................ 195 6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................ 195 Re e ences......................................................... 196 Chap e 14: ChanKes in coas al and ma ine in as uc u e.......................... 201 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 203 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 203 2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o ma ine and coas al in as uc u es . 204 3. Consequences o changes o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 207 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 207 5. Ou look ........................................................ 210 6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 211 Re e ences......................................................... 211 Chap e 1: ChanKes in cap u e Ƽshe ies and ha es inK o wild ma ine in e eb a es.. 215 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 217 1. In oduc ion .................................................... 217 2. Ca ch-landing dispa i ies, Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and small-scale Ƽshe ies ......................................... 220 3. In e eb a e landings ............................................ 224 4. Le els o by-ca ch and side e ec s ................................ 225 5. Pos -ha es Ƽsh losses .......................................... 225 xxŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I Page 6. Po en ial o Ƽshe ies enhancemen ................................ 225 7. Ma ine p o ein and oils in ag icul u e and aquacul u e................. 225 8. Illegal, un epo ed o un egula ed Ƽshing ............................ 226 9. Ou look ........................................................ 227 10. Key knowledge gaps ............................................. 228 11. Key capaci y-building gaps........................................ 228 Re e ences......................................................... 228 Chap e 1: ChanKes in aUuacul u e............................................. 235 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 237 1. Cu en s a us and majo imp o emen s ............................ 237 2. Aquacul u e and he en i onmen .................................. 240 3. Aquacul u e and socie y .......................................... 241 4. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 241 5. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 242 6. Ou look ........................................................ 243 Re e ences......................................................... 244 Chap e 17: ChanKes in seaweed ha es inK andɸuse .............................. 247 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 249 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 249 2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o seaweed p oduc ion and uses (2012–2017) .................................................... 250 3. Consequences o changes in seaweed ha es ing and use o communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ............................ 253 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 253 5. Ou look ........................................................ 254 6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 254 Re e ences......................................................... 255 Chap e 18: ChanKes in seabed mininK .......................................... 257 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 259 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 259 2. Changes in scale and signiƼcance o sea ƽoo mining ................ 262 3. En i onmen al aspec s ........................................... 270 4. Economic and social impac s...................................... 273 5. Capaci y-building needs .......................................... 276 Re e ences......................................................... 277 Chap e 1: ChanKes in hyd oca bon e plo a ion and e ac ion .................... 281 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 283 1. In oduc ion .................................................... 283 Ŵŵŵŵxxi Con en s Page 2. O sho e hyd oca bon explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning . . . 285 3. Economic, social, and en i onmen al aspec s o o sho e hyd oca bon explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning ....................... 288 4. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 290 5. Role o he o sho e hyd oca bon indus y in acili a ing he ma ine enewable ene gy indus y ........................................ 291 6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292 Re e ences ........................................................ 293 Chap e 2: T ends in inpu s o an h opoKenic noise in o he ma ine en i onmen ..... 297 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 299 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 299 2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al s a us............................. 300 3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and o he economic o social changes ............................................... 308 4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 308 5. Ou look ........................................................ 310 6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312 7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313 Re e ences ........................................................ 313 Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene Ky sou ces ........................... 321 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 323 2. S a e o ma ine enewable ene gy a he global le el .................. 324 3. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s o ma ine enewable ene gy de elopmen ................................................... 329 4. Socioeconomic beneƼ s and impac s om ma ine enewable ene gy deploymen ..................................................... 332 5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 333 6. An icipa ed u u e ends.......................................... 335 Re e ences......................................................... 336 Chap e 22: In asi e species ................................................... 343 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 345 1. In oduc ion .................................................... 345 2. Documen ed baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347 3. Consequences o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ..... 348 4. Key egion-speciƼc baselines, changes and consequences............. 350 5. Ou look ........................................................ 354 6. O he .......................................................... 356 Re e ences......................................................... 356 xxiiŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I Page Chap e 2: De elopmen s in he e plo a ion o and use o ma ine Kene ic esou ces . 363 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 365 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 365 2. T ends be ween 2010 and 2020.................................... 366 3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370 4. Key egion-speciƼc de elopmen s in knowledge and hei consequences 371 5. Capaci y-building gaps ........................................... 371 6. Me hodological challenges and u u e ends ........................ 373 7. Ma ine gene ic esou ces and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals...... 374 Re e ences......................................................... 376 Chap e 24: 1a ine hyd a esɸƁ a po en ially eme KinK issue ........................ 381 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383 2. Wha a e ma ine hyd a es? ........................................ 383 3. Po en ial isks om ma ine me hane hyd a es ....................... 386 4. Ma ine hyd a es as a sou ce o ene gy.............................. 388 5. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 390 6. Ou look ........................................................ 390 Re e ences......................................................... 390 Chap e 25: Cumula i e e ec s................................................. 395 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397 2. Cumula i e e ec s assessmen s................................... 398 3. Regional applica ions o cumula i e e ec s assessmen s on he ma ine en i onmen : dis ibu ion and app oaches ................. 402 4. Ou look ........................................................ 406 Re e ences......................................................... 413 Pa si : T ends in manaKemen app oaches o he ma ine en i onmen ............. 421 Chap e 2: De elopmen s in ma ine spa ial planninK.............................. 423 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 425 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 425 2. Types o ma ine spa ial planning ................................... 426 3. Ma ine spa ial planning: a s ep-by-s ep app oach owa d ecosys em-based managemen .................................... 427 4. Tools o ma ine spa ial planning................................... 428 5. P og ess in implemen ing ma ine spa ial planning .................... 430 Re e ences......................................................... 436 Ŵŵŵŵxxiii Con en s Page Chap e 27: De elopmen s in manaKemen app oaches............................ 441 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 443 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 443 2. Managemen app oaches......................................... 444 3. Ad ances in ocean managemen app oaches........................ 448 4. Managemen ools o suppo mi iga ion o and adap a ion o clima e change, including building esilience................................ 458 5. Key egion-speciƼc issues ........................................ 460 6. Capaci y-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 7. Gaps and u u e pe spec i es...................................... 462 8. Ou look ........................................................ 463 Re e ences......................................................... 465 Chap e 28: De elopmen sɸin he unde s andinK o o e all beneƼ s om he ocean o humans ..................................................... 471 Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 473 1. In oduc ion..................................................... 473 2. BeneƼ s and hei dis ibu ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 3. DisbeneƼ s o humans............................................ 478 4. Th ea s o ocean ecosys em se ices............................... 479 5. Sa egua ding ocean beneƼ s h ough egional and in e na ional coope a ion and imp o ed implemen a ion o in e na ional law as eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea ....... 480 Re e ences......................................................... 483 Anne es ................................................................. 487 Anne I: O iKinal membe s o he w i inK eams app o ed by he &u eau ............. 489 Anne II: Pee e iewe s nomina ed o each chap e .............................. 497 3 Chap e 1 O e all summa y Con ibu o s: Ma ia João Bebianno, Hilconida Calumpong, Sanae Chiba, Ka en E ans, Ca los Ga cia-So o, Osman Keh Kama a, En ique Ma scho , Essam Yassin Mohammed, Henn Oja ee , Chul Pa k, Ylenia Rand iana isoa, Renison Ruwa, Jö n Schmid , Alan Simcock, Anas asia S a i, Joshua T. Tuhumwi e, Ca Thanh Vu, Juying Wang and Tymon Zielinski (G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s). 10ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I en i onmen . Unde s anding he impac s o an h opogenic noise on ma ine biodi e si y has inc eased o e he pas wo decades, wi h a ange o di ec and indi ec impac s obse ed ac oss a numbe o axa, om zooplank on o ma ine mammals. Unde s anding o hose im- pac s has imp o ed in pa allel wi h inc easing ecogni ion o he need o moni o noise en- e ing he ma ine en i onmen and o iden i y and educe i s impac s. While some e o s a e being made o educe noise c ea ed by a a ie y o sou ces, inc easing use o he ocean is likely o o se hose e o s (chap. 20). 3.6. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps Me hods o s anda dizing he moni o ing o pollu an s, including noise, and da a se s a e needed u gen ly, so ha bo h spa ial and empo al di e ences in pollu an s can be e alua ed and p io i ies es ablished. Capac- i y-building is needed o educe he inpu o pollu an s in o he ocean, in pa icula h ough he in oduc ion o cleane p oduc ion, quie e echnologies and cheape and eadily deploy- able was ewa e -p ocessing echnologies. To educe he duplica ion o e o s, he c ea ion o a gene al da abase on haza dous subs anc- es and a baseline o ambien noise would be desi able o suppo isk assessmen and modelling. As he ex en o ansbounda y ma ine pollu ion is poo ly unde s ood in many pa s o he wo ld, in pa icula wi h ega d o ai bo ne pollu an s, mo e accu a e da a on hei emissions and anspo a e needed. Las ly, i is necessa y o gain a much be e unde s anding o he e ec s o pollu an s, including an h opogenic noise, on he ma ine en i onmen (chaps. 10–12 and 20). 4. P o ec ing ma ine ecosys ems The main h ea s o ma ine ecosys ems come om human ac i i ies, such as Ƽshing, aqua- cul u e, shipping, sand and mine al ex ac ion, oil and gas exploi a ion, he building o enew- able ene gy in as uc u e, coas al in as uc- u e de elopmen and pollu ion, including he elease o g eenhouse gases. 4.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.2: &]  sus ainaFl] QanaKe anH p o ec Qa ine anH coas al ecos]s eQs o aZoiH siKniƼcan aHZe se iQpac s incluHinK F] s enK heninK hei esilience anH aOe ac ion o hei es o a ion in o de o achie e heal hy and p oduc i e oceans Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.5: &y  conse e a leas ɸpe ɸcen o coas al and Qa ine a eas consis en wi h na ional and in e na ional law and based on he bes a ailable scien iƼc in o Qa ion Decade o Ocean Science ou come: A heal hy and esilien ocean whe e ma ine ecosys ems a e unde s ood p o ec ed es o ed and manaKed Many ma ine species and habi a s con inue o be ad e sely a ec ed by inc easing an h o- pogenic p essu es (chaps. 6A–G and 7A–Q; see also sec . 5 below). Unde s anding o he dis ibu ion and s a us o species and hab- i a s and how hey a e being a ec ed by an- h opogenic p essu es is imp o ing. In 2020, ma ine p o ec ed a eas co e ed 18ɸpe ɸcen o he ocean wi hin na ional ju isdic ions, ep esen ing app oxima ely 8ɸpe ɸcen o he en i e ocean, while abou 1ɸpe ɸcen o ma ine a eas beyond na ional ju isdic ion had been p o ec ed (chap.ɸ27). Ŵŵŵŵ11 Chap e 1: O e all summa y The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as- sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.2 and 14.5 a e se ou in able 1, and he pa icula ways in which he achie emen o hose a ge s will assis wi h p og ess owa ds o he Goals a e se ou in able 2. The p o ec ion o ma ine ecosys ems is em- bedded in a ious in e na ional ag eemen s, such as he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea8 and he Con en ion on Biolog- ical Di e si y,9 as well as in egional con en- ions and na ional legisla ion. No wi hs anding he objec i es o such ag eemen s and con- en ions, he s a us o many ma ine species and habi a s con inues o decline globally, he eby pu ing he unc ioning o ecosys ems a isk. In addi ion, clima e change is esul ing in ocean wa ming, acidiƼca ion, changes in ci cula ion, dissol ed oxygen concen a ions and wa e cycle ampliƼca ion. As a esul , he ans e o nu ien s associa ed wi h p ima y p oduc i i y om su ace wa e s o he deep sea is declining. Globally, abou 2,000 ma ine species ha e been in oduced ou side hei na u al ange as a esul o human ac i i ies (chaps. 5, 6A–G, 7A–Q and 22). Many managemen amewo ks o p o ec ing ma ine ecosys ems ha e a sec o al ocus and can he e o e ha e di e ing objec i es o he p o ec ion o he ma ine en i onmen ac oss sec o s. Managemen ools can be a ea-based (such as ma ine p o ec ed a eas and Ƽshe y closu es) o non-a ea-based (such as global emission con ols, ca ch and e o con ols and echnical es ic ions). Managemen app oach- es a e inc easingly mo ing away om being o- cused on sec o al use owa ds including di e se links be ween ecological and social, economic and cul u al aspec s. The ecosys em app oach in eg a es en i onmen al, social and economic 8 Uni ed Na ions, T ea y Se ies, ol.ɸ1833, No.ɸ31363. 9 Ibid., ol.ɸ1760, No.ɸ30619. 10 See Con en ion on We lands o In e na ional Impo ance especially as Wa e owl Habi a (Uni edɸNa ions, T ea y Se ies, ol.ɸ996, No.ɸ14583). aspec s a he global, egional, na ional o local le el. Cul u al in o ma ion is becoming an in e- g al pa o managemen amewo ks, bo h in he con ex o communi y-based managemen and o sa egua ding he cul u al dimension o he ma ine en i onmen . Such in o ma ion can be di e se and in angible, such as adi ional ma ine esou ce use, sea ou es, ancien na - iga ional skills, ma i ime iden i ies, legends, i uals, belie s and p ac ices, aes he ic and in- spi a ional quali ies, cul u al he i age and plac- es o spi i ual, sac ed and eligious impo ance (chap. 27). In some a eas, in pa icula in Sou h-Eas Asia, “blue in as uc u e de elopmen ”, as well as such app oaches as na u e-based solu ions, a e being in oduced in an a emp o ha mo- nize coas al de elopmen and p o ec ion wi h habi a and ecological p o ec ion (chaps. 8A, 13 and 14). 4.2. Coas al ecosys ems No wi hs anding inc eases in ma ine p o ec - ed a eas and he expansion o Ramsa Si es,10 mang o es (excep in he Red Sea) and sea- g ass meadows (in pa icula in Sou h-Eas Asia) con inue o decline, wi h 19ɸpe ɸcen o mang o es and 21ɸpe ɸcen o seag ass species iden iƼed as nea - h ea ened. The combined e ec s o ocean wa ming and human ac i i ies a e inc easingly a ec ing opical and sub opical co al ee s and kelp o es s globally. In ecen yea s, co al ee s ha e unde gone mass bleaching on an annual basis, while kelp o es s ha e been a ec ed by ma ine hea wa es (chap. 9), esul ing in apid losses (chaps. 6G, 7D and 7H). O e all, abou 6ɸpe ɸcen o known Ƽsh spe- cies and nea ly 30ɸpe ɸcen o elasmob anch species a e lis ed as Nea Th ea ened o 12ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I Vulne able. Globally, he s a us o ma ine mammals a ies, wi h 75ɸpe ɸcen o species in some g oups (si enians, eshwa e dolphins, pola bea s and o e s) being classiƼed as Vul- ne able, Endange ed o C i ically Endange ed. Many la ge whale species a e now eco e ing om pas ha es ing as a esul o p ohibi ions on and he egula ion o comme cial ca ches and na ional eco e y plans. The conse a ion s a us o ma ine ep iles has a ied g ea ly: p o ec ion in ce ain egions has inc eased some popula ions, while hose in o he a eas a e declining because o con inuing o inc eas- ing h ea s. The global conse a ion s a us o seabi ds has wo sened, wi h o e 30ɸpe ɸcen o species now lis ed as Vulne able, Endan- ge ed o C i ically Endange ed (chaps. 6C–F). 4.3. Open ocean and deep-sea ecosys ems11 The open ocean con inues o be a ec ed by ocean wa ming, acidiƼca ion, deoxygena ion and ma ine pollu ion. Nu ien inpu s de i ed om he Amazon Ri e and b ough up by upwelling o he coas o Wes A ica appea o ha e uelled a massi e seaweed bloom o ƽoa ing sa gassum: he 20-million- on bloom began o de elop in 2011 in he equa o ial A - lan ic Ocean and, by 2018, had ex ended 8,850 km ac oss ha a ea (chaps. 7N, 10 and 12). Unde s anding o he dis ibu ion o cold-wa e co als has inc eased, and hey a e known o occu along con inen al ma gins, mid-ocean idges and seamoun s wo ldwide. They and o he deep-sea ea u es (seamoun s, pinna- cles, idges, enches, hyd o he mal en s and cold seeps) emain unde h ea om Ƽshing, o sho e oil d illing, deep-sea mining and pol- lu ion, including plas ic was e, and, o a lesse ex en , clima e change. Some e o s o cu b deep-wa e bo om awling and es ablish ma- ine p o ec ed a eas whe e cold-wa e co als occu ha e pa ially es o ed some damaged 11 See chap. 2, sec . 4, o a deƼni ion o he e ms “open ocean” and “deep sea”. cold-wa e co al communi ies. Howe e , such habi a s can ake decades o e en cen u ies o eco e , making i diƾcul o iden i y ends o imp o emen (chaps. 7E, 7L, 7O and 7P). 4.4. Key knowledge and capaci y- building gaps Since 2015, on a e age, one new species o Ƽsh has been desc ibed pe week, highligh ing how much emains o be disco e ed. Al hough knowledge o ecosys em composi ion and unc ioning has imp o ed since he issuance o he Ƽ s Assessmen , gaps emain, in pa icu- la wi h ega d o deep-sea ecosys ems and open-ocean plank onic and ben hic species. Gaps also emain in unde s anding he biology and ecology o coas al species, in pa icula in he e i o ial wa e s o de eloping coun ies. The e is no well-o ganized s uc u e o s udy he app oxima ely 2,000 non-indigenous spe- cies ha ha e sp ead o new a eas as a esul o human ac i i ies and hei impac s on na - u al ecosys ems. The conse a ion s a us o less han 1ɸpe ɸcen o mac oalgal species has been assessed (chaps. 6A–C, 6G, 7N and 22). While he ecosys em app oach has been widely acknowledged as an e ec i e ame- wo k o managing human impac s, u he esea ch and capaci y-building a e needed o ealize i s ull po en ial ac oss he wo ld’s oceans. In many egions, he e is a lack o in o ma ion needed o es ablish links be ween ecological causes and e ec s in o de o bal- ance hem agains socioeconomic p io i ies, in decision-making. Enhanced collabo a ion in moni o ing will help in sha ing capaci y ac oss sec o s and ins i u ions and p o ide mo e eƾcien moni o ing, da a and in o ma ion. Inc eased capaci y in unde s anding manage- men app oaches and implemen ing hem will suppo Go e nmen s and o he s akeholde s in unde s anding op ions o he managemen and go e nance o ma ine a eas (chap. 27). Ŵŵŵŵ13 Chap e 1: O e all summa y 5. Unde s anding o he ocean o sus ainable managemen The sus ainable use o he ocean canno be achie ed be o e acqui ing a deep unde s and- ing o ocean p ocesses and i s unc ioning, as well as cohe en knowledge o he impac s o human ac i i ies on he ocean (chaps. 8A and 27). 5.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.3: Minimize and add ess he impac s o ocean acidiƼca ion includinK h ouKh enhanced scien- iƼc coope a ion a all le els Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.a: -nc ease scien iƼc OnowledKe de elop esea ch capaci y and ans e ma ine echnoloKy aOinK in o accoun he -n e Ko e nmen al 3ceano- K aphic 'ommission ' i e ia and +uidelines on he 8 ans e o Ma ine 8echnoloKy in o de o imp o e ocean heal h and o enhance he con i- bu ion o ma ine biodi e si y o he de elopmen o de elopinK coun ies in pa icula small island de elopinK 7 a es and leas de eloped coun ies Decade o Ocean Science ou comes: • A p edic ed ocean whe e socie y unde s ands and can espond o chanKinK ocean condi ions • An accessible ocean wi h open and eUui able access o da a in o ma ion and echnoloKy and inno a ion • An inspi inK and enKaKinK ocean whe e socie y unde s ands and alues he ocean in ela ion o human well-beinK and sus ainable de elopmen The inpu o ca bon dioxide in o he ocean is con inuing, albei in an i egula manne , esul ing in acidiƼca ion o he ocean. Com- pounded wi h o he p essu es, i has a nega- i e impac on a wide ange o o ganisms, in pa icula hose ha o m calcium ca bona e shells, wi h he po en ial o al e biodi e si y and ecosys em s uc u e. Ocean acidiƼca ion, combined wi h ising empe a u es, sea le el ise, deoxygena ion and inc easing ex eme clima e e en s, u he h ea ens he goods and se ices p o ided by coas al ecosys ems (chaps. 5 and 9). Scien iƼc unde s anding o he ocean, i s unc ioning and he impac s on i g ows e e as e . Howe e , in many pa s o he ocean, knowledge and capaci y-building gaps e- main, in pa icula in a eas beyond na ional ju isdic ion. Quan iƼca ion o he cumula i e e ec s o p essu es on he ocean is nascen , as is he quan iƼca ion o comp ehensi e and s anda dized indica o s o ocean heal h. The capaci y o enable people o ha e access o and use scien iƼc unde s anding emains a e- qui emen o applying in eg a ed app oaches o he managemen o human impac s on he ocean (chaps. 3, 25 and 27). The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as- sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.3 and 14.a a e se ou in able 1, and he pa icula ways in which he achie emen o hose a ge s will assis wi h p og ess owa ds o he Goals a e se ou in able 2. 5.2. Global scien i ic unde s anding Inno a ions in echnology and enginee ing ela ed o senso s and au onomous obse a- ion pla o ms ha e allowed o ocean da a collec ion a Ƽne empo al and spa ial eso- lu ions and expanded hose obse a ions in o emo e a eas. Cos -e ec i e and use - iendly senso s, along wi h mobile applica ions, he enhanced pa icipa ion o ci izens and he de- ploymen o senso s on non-scien iƼc ships, a e also acili a ing he expanded collec ion o ocean obse a ions. Such de elopmen s ha e inc eased unde s anding o physical and 14ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I biogeochemical sys ems in he ocean and how he ocean is changing in esponse o clima e change, as well as enhanced ocean modelling capabili ies on he global and egional scales (chaps. 3 and 5). The p omo ion o ne wo king and he coo di- na ion o egional obse a ion p og ammes ha e con ibu ed o he u he de elopmen o global ocean obse a ions wi hin an in e- g a ed sys em. The s anda diza ion and ha - moniza ion o obse a ion me hods a e also being pu sued h ough in e na ional ini ia i es. Pla o ms o sha e bes p ac ices in ocean obse a ion, da a-sha ing and communi y di- alogues ha e also been es ablished, wi h he aim o imp o ing he e ec i e use o ocean da a o he beneƼ o socie y (chap. 3). 5.3. Sus ainable managemen O e he pas wo decades, many amewo ks o assessing in e ac ions be ween human ac i i ies and na u al e en s (“cumula i e e - ec s”) ha e been de eloped using di e en app oaches and e minologies and applied on di e ing scales. Along wi h o he assess- men s o he en i onmen , hey include en i- onmen al impac assessmen s and s a egic en i onmen al assessmen s and a e use ul ools o in o ming ma ine spa ial planning and esou ce managemen (chaps. 25–27). Bo h ma ine spa ial planning and managemen amewo ks comp ise a spec um o p ocess- es bu ha e uniƼed objec i es o iden i ying use s o he ma ine en i onmen , planning he ac i i ies o hose use s and e ec ing some o m o egula ion o ha use o ensu e sus- ainabili y. In gene al, ma ine spa ial planning has been mos e ec i ely de eloped wi h he in ol emen o all ele an au ho i ies and s akeholde s and has included economic, en i onmen al and social pe spec i es. Social pe spec i es and social and cul u al alues a e inc easingly ecognized in managemen amewo ks, bu econciling a mul iplici y o he e ogenous alues is a c halle nge. Add essing mul iple alues is bes done by engaging wi h a ec ed communi ies, hence he need o ec- ognize communi y-based managemen ha is sensi i e o he cul u al dimensions o he sea wi hin ecosys em app oaches o manage- men . Inc eased unde s anding o he igh s, enu es and adi ional and indigenous cus- oma y uses o insho e ma ine en i onmen s has ca alysed ecogni ion o he s eng hs o communi y-based managemen . Cul u e is po en ially powe ul, as bo h a ac o o be managed and moni o ed and he ounda ion upon which managemen -inco po a ing eco- sys em app oaches may be de eloped in he con ex o sus ainable de elopmen (chaps. 26 and 27). 5.4. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps Globally, dispa i ies emain in knowledge o suppo ecosys em-based managemen . Mos esea ch and in o ma ion a ailable (based on he numbe o publica ions) ela es o he No h A lan ic Ocean, he No h PaciƼc Ocean and he A c ic Ocean. Dispa i ies in in as uc- u e and p o essional capaci ies limi ocean esea ch, esul ing in egional and na ional dis- pa i ies in scien iƼc unde s anding. To be e moni o signiƼcan changes in physical and bi- ogeochemical en i onmen s and hei impac s on ecosys ems and socie y, u he in eg a ion o mul idisciplina y obse a ion sys ems and imp o ed models a e needed. Inno a ion in unding s a egies is also equi ed o sus ain such sys ems (chap. 3). Mos assessmen s o cumula i e e ec s end o be ocused on exis ing and pas ac i i ies in he ma ine en i onmen . Simila ly, much ma ine spa ial planning has been ca ied ou in a eas whe e ac i i ies a e ongoing, and many managemen amewo ks a e applied o exis - ing ac i i ies wi h ega d o esou ce ex ac ion and use, making hem e ospec i e in na u e. Assessmen s ha allow o “ o esigh ing” a e needed o in o m planning o u u e ac i i ies Ŵŵŵŵ15 Chap e 1: O e all summa y and suppo managemen ha is adap i e o u u e condi ions and sus ains ecosys ems and human well-being. De eloping such ap- p oaches is no s aigh o wa d and will e- qui e subs an ial e o . Inc eased capaci y in ansbounda y coope a ion, he s eng hening o science-policy capaci y, g ea e coo dina- ion be ween social and na u al sciences and be ween science and ci il socie y, including in- dus y, and he ecogni ion o adi ional knowl- edge, cul u e and social his o y a e needed o suppo holis ic managemen (chaps. 25–27). 6. P omo ing sa e y om he ocean A wide ange o e en s in and on he ocean h ea en hose who li e nea o wo k on he ocean o ely on i o ood. Examples o such e en s a e sunamis, s o m su ges, ogue wa es, cyclones, hu icanes and yphoons, coas al ƽooding, e osion, ma ine hea wa es and ha m ul algal blooms. The ocean plays an impo an ole in d i ing hyd ological a iabil- i y, such as d ough s and plu ials o e land, on in aseasonal o in e annual (and longe ) imescales (chap. 9). Such e en s, oge he wi h a ious e ec s o haza dous subs ances and excessi e nu ien s, ha e he po en ial o h ea en ood secu i y and hampe sus aina- ble economic de elopmen . 6.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.1: &y  p e en and siKniƼcan ly educe ma ine pollu ion o all Oinds in pa icula om land- based ac i i ies includinK ma ine deb is and nu ien pollu ion Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.3: Minimize and add ess he impac s o ocean acidiƼca ion includinK h ouKh enhanced scien- iƼc coope a ion a all le els Decade o Ocean Science ou come: A sa e ocean whe e li e and li elihoods a e p o ec ed om ocean- ela ed haza ds Ma ine hea wa es and opical cyclones, hu i- canes and yphoons a e inc easing in equen- cy and se e i y as a esul o clima e change, bu such inc eases can be educed by clima e change mi iga ion e o s. As indica ed abo e, he ocean also d i es hyd ological a iabili y o e land. The cons uc ion o dams and es- e oi s is, in some a eas, educing sedimen supply o he coas by mo e han 50ɸpe ɸcen , leading o he e osion o del as and adjacen coas s. As a esul o nu ien pollu ion, ha m- ul algal blooms a e becoming mo e equen . The numbe o pollu an s in he ocean con in- ues o inc ease, and he e o e he mix u es o which bio as a e exposed and ha a e in e- g a ed in o ood sys ems a e becoming mo e complex (chaps. 9–11 and 13). The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as- sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.1 and 14.3 a e se ou in able 1, and he pa icula ways in which he achie emen o hose a ge s will assis wi h p og ess owa ds o he Goals a e se ou in able 2. 6.2. Haza ds om he ocean In addi ion o con inuing h ea s such as su- namis, clima e change is inc easingly a ec ing a eas and hei associa ed communi ies no p e iously exposed o ising sea le els. Such ises can also exace ba e coas al e osion. P ecipi a ion, winds and ex eme sea le el e en s associa ed wi h opical cyclones ha e inc eased in ecen decades, as has he annual 16ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I global p opo ion o ca ego y 4 o 5 opical cyclones. The e a e inc easing isks o loca- ions ha had his o ically no been exposed o s o ms, owing o unp eceden ed s o m ajec- o ies. The managemen o isks om chang- ing s o m ajec o ies and s o m in ensi y p o es challenging because o he diƾcul ies o ea ly wa ning and he eluc ance o a ec ed popula ions o espond (chaps. 9 and 13). O e he pas wo decades, ma ine hea wa es ha e had nega i e impac s on ma ine o gan- isms and ecosys ems in all ocean basins. Such e en s a e p ojec ed o inc ease in equency, du a ion, spa ial ex en and in ensi y unde u- u e global wa ming, hus pushing some ma ine o ganisms, Ƽshe ies and ecosys ems beyond he limi s o hei esilience, wi h cascading impac s on economies and socie ies. Coas - al e osion, d i en by, o example, dec eased ƽu ial sedimen supply o he coas owing o changed i e managemen , coas al sand min- ing and longsho e impoundmen by coas al s uc u es, is inc easingly causing p oblems. Changes in he coas al p oƼle ollowing he des uc ion o mang o es, sal ma shes and ba ie islands add o such p oblems. Inpu s o ni ogen and phospho us o coas al ecosys- ems h ough i e un-o and a mosphe ic deposi ion ha e inc eased owing o he use o 12 Gene al Assembly esolu ion 69/283, annex II. syn he ic e ilize s, he combus ion o ossil uels and he di ec inpu o municipal was e. Tha is leading o an inc ease in ha m ul algal blooms, including oxic algal e en s, which, in- e alia, can lead o shellƼsh and Ƽsh becoming poisonous, hus causing pa alysis and o he illnesses in humans (chaps. 9, 10 and 13). 6.3. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps Imp o ed unde s anding o he ocean and i s in e ela ion wi h he a mosphe e is essen ial o imp o ing human sa e y in ex eme wea he e en s. Simila ly, be e unde s anding o he scale, p og ess and dis ibu ion o pollu ion and o coas al dynamics is needed. The need o s eng hen and ha monize wa ning sys ems o educing he isks associa ed wi h ocean haza ds is iden iƼed in he Sendai F amewo k o Disas e Risk Reduc ion 2015–2030.12 P og ess is needed on o ecas ing sys ems o haza ds, eme gency planning and wa n- ings should be expanded and p epa a ion amewo ks should be implemen ed o ensu e a apid esponse o a ec ed communi ies. In eg a ed sys ems ha allow o o ecas ing, de ec ion and esponse o mul iple haza ds a e equi ed (chaps. 9–14). 7. Sus ainable ood om he ocean Animal p o ein om he seas p o ides abou 17ɸpe ɸcen o all animal p o ein consumed by humans and suppo s abou 12ɸpe ɸcen o human li elihoods. I is la gely de i ed om wild Ƽshe ies, al hough he con ibu ion o aquacul u e o ood secu i y is g owing apidly and has g ea e po en ial o g ow h han cap u e Ƽshe ies. Fishing p ac ices place mul iple s esso s on he ma ine en i onmen in many egions, and he expansion o aqua- cul u e b ings new o inc eased p essu es on ma ine ecosys ems, in pa icula in coas al a eas (chaps. 15–17). Ŵŵŵŵ17 Chap e 1: O e all summa y 7.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.4: &y  e ec i ely eKula e ha es inK and end o e ƼshinK illeKal un epo ed and un eKula ed ƼshinK and des uc i e ƼshinK p ac ices and implemen science-based manaKemen plans in o de o es o e Ƽsh s ocOs in he sho es ime easible a leas o le els ha can p oduce ma imum sus ainable yield as de e mined by hei bioloKical cha ac e is ics Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.6: &y  p ohibi ce ain o ms o Ƽshe ies subsidies which con ibu e o o e capaci y and o e ƼshinK elimina e subsidies ha con ibu e o illeKal un epo ed and un eKula ed ƼshinK and e ain om in oducinK new such subsidies ecoKnizinK ha app op ia e and e ec i e special and di e en ial ea men o de elopinK and leas de eloped coun ies should be an in eK al pa o he ;o ld 8 ade 3 Kaniza ion Ƽshe ies subsidies neKo ia ion13 Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.7: &y  inc ease he economic beneƼ s o small island de elopinK 7 a es and leas de eloped coun ies om he sus ainable use o ma ine esou ces includinK h ouKh sus ainable man- aKemen o Ƽshe ies aUuacul u e and ou ism Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.b: 4 o ide access o small-scale a isanal Ƽshe s o ma ine esou ces and ma ke s Decade o Ocean Science ou come: A p oduc i e ocean suppo inK sus ainable ood supply and a sus ainable ocean economy The pa icula ways in which p og ess owa ds o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals will as- sis in he achie emen o a ge s 14.4, 14.6, 14.7 and 14.b a e se ou in able 1, and he 13 Taking in o accoun ongoing Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion nego ia ions, he Doha De elopmen Agenda and he Hong Kong minis e ial manda e. 14 “Maximally sus ainably Ƽshed” is used he e in he sense explained in chap e 15. 15 Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions, documen C 2009/REP and Co .1–3, appendix E. pa icula ways in which he achie emen o hose a ge s will assis wi h p og ess owa ds o he Goals a e se ou in able 2. 7.2. Ma ine cap u e ishe ies Es ima ed global landings o ma ine cap u e Ƽshe ies inc eased by 3ɸpe ɸcen o 80.6 million ons, alued a $127 billion (a 2017 p ices), be ween 2012 and 2017. Abou 33ɸpe ɸcen o he wo ld’s Ƽsh s ocks, especially a highe ophic le els, a e classiƼed as being Ƽshed a biologically unsus ainable le els, wi h close o 60ɸpe ɸcen maximally sus ainably Ƽshed.14 The sus ainabili y o many o he wo ld’s cap u e Ƽshe ies con inues o be hampe ed by o e exploi a ion, o e capaci y, ine ec i e managemen , ha m ul subsidies, by-ca ch, in pa icula o h ea ened, endange ed and p o ec ed species, and illegal, un epo ed and un egula ed Ƽshing, wi h ongoing habi a deg- ada ion and loss o gea c ea ing u he p es- su es on he ma ine en i onmen . O e Ƽshing is es ima ed o ha e led o an annual loss o $88.9 billion in ne beneƼ s. Fish ma ke s con inue o exhibi as -paced globaliza ion, hus inc easing he ulne abili y o small-scale Ƽshe ies o he deple ion o locally impo an s ocks. Nego ia ions unde he auspices o he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion on educing ha m ul Ƽshe y subsidies ha e con inued, al hough no Ƽ m ag eemen has ye been eached. Less han 40ɸpe ɸcen o S a es ha e signed he Ag eemen on Po S a e Measu es o P e en , De e and Elimina e Illegal, Un epo ed and Un- egula ed Fishing15 o 2009. The applica ion o in o ma ion echnology o help o expand he oppo uni ies o small-scale Ƽshe ies in a eas such as sa e y, he sha ing o local knowledge, capaci y-building and go e nance ha e been ou lined by he Food and Ag icul u e O gan- iza ion o he Uni ed Na ions in i s Volun a y 18ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I Guidelines o Secu ing Sus ainable Small- Scale Fishe ies in he Con ex o Food Secu- i y and Po e y E adica ion, and he g owing use o human igh s app oaches is p o iding oppo uni ies o he empowe men o such Ƽshe ies (chap. 15). P omisingly, scien iƼc s ock assessmen s and managemen ha e been shown o lead o mo e sus ainable ou comes ac oss a numbe o egions. New app oaches o iden i ying illegal, un epo ed and un egula ed Ƽshing a e now being applied in some egions. Recen esea ch has shown ha , wi h app op ia e go e nance, he median ime equi ed o ebuild o e Ƽshed s ocks could be less han 10 yea s, and, i e- o ms we e o be implemen ed, 98ɸpe ɸcen o o e Ƽshed s ocks could be conside ed heal hy by he middle o he wen y-Ƽ s cen u y. The impac s o clima e change a e expec ed o include inc eases in he in ensi y o na u al haza ds and hei equency, hus a ec ing he local dis ibu ion and abundance o Ƽsh popula ions. Fishe y-dependen de eloping S a es may be a ec ed mos se e ely and, because o expec ed changes in species dis- ibu ions and consequen expec ed inc eases in ansbounda y mig a ions o s ocks, u u e in e na ional go e nance may need o accoun o such edis ibu ions (chap. 15). 7.3. Aquacul u e Aquacul u e con inues o g ow as e han o h- e majo ood p oduc ion sec o s, al hough i s g ow h has slowed o e he pas decade. The sec o was alued a $249.6ɸbillion in 2017. I suppo s he li elihoods o 540 million people, 19ɸpe ɸcen o whom we e women in 2014. The impo ance o ha o m o ood p oduc ion lies in i s high con en o p o eins and essen ial mic onu ien s and a y acids. The eliance o aquacul u e on Ƽsh meal dec eased om 4.20 million ons in 2005 o 3.35ɸmillion ons in 2015. Aquacul u e sus ainabili y is mo e likely o be closely linked wi h he sus ained supply o e es ial animal and plan p o eins, oils and ca bohyd a e sou ces o aqua eeds. Diseases con inue o pose a challenge o global aqua- cul u e and a e among he p ima y de e en s o aquacul u e de elopmen o many species. In gene al, he en i onmen al pe o mance o aquacul u e has imp o ed signiƼcan ly o e he pas decade. Challenges o be me in expanding aquacul u e p oduc ion include educing impac s on aluable coas al eco- sys ems such as mang o es, he sus ainable p o ision o ex e nal eed, he managemen o Ƽsh diseases and he e ec s o escaped Ƽsh on na i e species (chap. 16). 7.4. Seaweed p oduc ion Seaweed o di ec human consump ion amoun o 80ɸpe ɸcen o o al seaweed ha - es ing. Since 2012, global ha es ing o sea- weed has isen a a a e o abou 2.6ɸpe cen a yea , mos ly om aquacul u e, o 32 million ons in 2017, wi h an es ima ed alue o $12 billion. In addi ion o being used as ood, sea- weed is used inc easingly in indus ial appli- ca ions, such as cosme ics, pha maceu icals and nu aceu icals, and as eed o li es ock. Mac oalga cul i a ion amoun s o 96ɸpe ɸcen o o al aquacul u e p oduc ion. BeneƼ s om p oduc ion include he p o ision o high-qual- i y ood and he c ea ion o new jobs and inc eased incomes o coas al inhabi an s. In addi ion, such p oduc ion suppo s ca bon seques a ion and oxygen p oduc ion and e- duces eu ophica ion (chap. 17). 7.5. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps The e is limi ed unde s anding o he ex en o which changing condi ions could con ib- u e o shi s in ma ine ecosys em s uc u es and unc ioning and he subsequen impac s on ma ine p oduc i i y. The e ha e been im- p o emen s in app oaches o assessing Ƽsh- e ies and accoun ing o hei con ibu ions Ŵŵŵŵ19 Chap e 1: O e all summa y in da a-poo en i onmen s, bu u he wo k is needed o Ƽll capaci y-building gaps o coas - al Ƽshe ies in de eloping egions. The science o Ƽsh s ock p opaga ion is s ill in i s ea ly s ages, bu shows some po en ial o inc eas- ing Ƽshe y yield beyond wha is achie able h ough he exploi a ion o wild s ocks alone. Howe e , unde s anding o ecological conse- quences is lacking. Capaci y-building gaps in he managemen o Ƽshe ies include hose associa ed wi h iden i ying impac s on a - ge species and inco po a ing he e ec s on o he species in o managemen amewo ks. Ongoing capaci y-building gaps in de eloping coun ies also hinde hei abili y o ake pa in egional and in e na ional nego ia ions o eaching consensus on managemen p ac ic- es o sus aining heal hy Ƽsh s ocks. To boos sus ainable aquacul u e de el- opmen , imp o ed ex ension se ices a e needed. The aining o ex ension se ices p o ide s needs o inco po a e in o ma ion deli e y me hods, as well as p ac ical a m- ing echniques, o help hem o be e assis a me s in imp o ing p oduc ion p ac ices. In o ma ion echnology and media, a me s’ associa ions, de elopmen agencies, p i a e sec o supplie s and o he s will need o come oge he o enhance sec o al aining. The es- ablishmen o o sho e aquacul u e and ma i- cul u e will need o be suppo ed by suƾcien ma ine se ices o ensu e he sus ainabili y and sa e y o ope a ions. Many knowledge gaps emain wi h ega d o he la ge-scale p oduc ion o seaweed and he likely impac s o clima e change. Some e o s o add ess he knowledge and capaci y-building gaps a e unde way. The biology o many seaweed spe- cies is s ill unknown, e en o hose species cu en ly ha es ed o a med (chaps. 15–17). 8. Sus ainable economic use o he ocean The ocean suppo s a wide ange o economic ac i i ies, including ma i ime anspo as pa o wo ld ade, ou ism and ec ea ion, ex ac- ion o na u al esou ces such as hyd oca bons and o he mine als, p o ision o enewable en- e gy, and he use o ma ine gene ic esou ces. 8.1. Linkages wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.2: &y  sus ainably manaKe and p o ec ma ine and coas al ecosys ems o a oid siKniƼcan ad e se impac s includinK by s enK heninK hei esilience and ake ac ion o hei es o a ion in o de o achie e heal hy and p oduc i e oceans Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.7: &y  inc ease he economic beneƼ s o small island de elopinK 7 a es and leas de eloped coun ies om he sus ainable use o ma ine esou ces includinK h ouKh sus ainable manaKe- men o Ƽshe ies aUuacul u e and ou ism Sus ainable De elopmen Goal a ge 14.c: Enhance he conse a ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces by implemen inK in- e na ional law as eƽec ed in he 9ni ed 2a ions 'on en ion on he 0aw o he 7ea which p o ides he leKal amewo k o he conse a ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces as ecalled in pa aK aph  o ƈ8he u u e we wan Ɖ Economic use o he ocean has inc eased globally. Many coun ies a e de eloping o ha e de eloped s a egies o inc easing such ma i ime ac i i ies as enewable ocean ene - gy, aquacul u e, ma ine bio echnology, coas al ou ism and seabed mining (g ow h sec o s o he blue economy – a e m ha can include en i onmen ally sus ainable shipping and Ƽshe ies). The dis ibu ion a ound he wo ld o he economic beneƼ s d awn om he ocean, 26ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu inK o he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and p omo e sus ainable use o e es ial ecosys ems, sus ainably manage o es s, comba dese iƼca ion, and hal and e e se land deg ada ion and hal biodi e si y loss Conse a ion, es o a ion and sus ainable use o e es ial and inland eshwa e ecosys ems, and educ ion in he deg ada ion o habi a s Sus ainable ood om he ocean Ta ge 14.4: By 2020, e ec- i ely egula e ha es ing and end o e Ƽshing, illegal, un epo ed and un egula ed Ƽshing and des uc i e Ƽsh- ing p ac ices and implemen science-based managemen plans, in o de o es o e Ƽsh s ocks in he sho es ime easible, a leas o le els ha can p oduce maximum sus ainable yield as de e - mined by hei biological cha ac e is ics Ta ge 14.6: By 2020, p ohibi ce ain o ms o Ƽshe ies subsidies which con ibu e o o e capaci y and o e Ƽshing, elimina e subsidies ha con- ibu e o illegal, un epo ed and un egula ed Ƽshing and e ain om in oducing new such subsidies, ecognizing ha app op ia e and e ec i e special and di e en ial ea - men o de eloping and leas de eloped coun ies should be an in eg al pa o he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion Ƽshe ies subsidies nego ia ionb Ta ge 14.7: By 2030, inc ease he economic beneƼ s o small island de eloping S a es and leas de eloped coun ies om he sus aina- ble use o ma ine esou ces, including h ough sus ainable managemen o Ƽshe ies, aquacul u e and ou ism Ta ge 14.b: P o ide access o small-scale a isanal Ƽshe s o ma ine esou ces and ma ke s Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y (including aquacul u e and ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable ood p oduc ion and main aining ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y o wild species Goal 8: P omo e sus ained, inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen and decen wo k o all Imp o ed esou ce eƾciency in consump ion and p oduc ion Goal 9: Build esilien in as uc u e, p omo e inclusi e and sus ainable indus ializa ion and os e inno a ion Enhancemen o scien iƼc esea ch and echnological de elopmen , esea ch and inno a ion in de eloping coun ies Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Sus ainable managemen and eƾcien use o na u al esou ces, educ ion in ood losses along p oduc ion and supply chains, including pos -ha es losses, s eng hening o scien iƼc and echnological capaci y o mo e owa ds mo e sus ainable pa e ns o consump ion and p oduc ion, implemen a ion o me hods o ensu e ha ou ism emains sus ainable, c ea es jobs and p omo es local p oduc s, and phasing ou o ha m ul subsidies, whe e hey exis , o eƽec hei en i onmen al impac s Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac sa Implemen a ion o clima e change mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac educ ion measu es Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building Ŵŵŵŵ27 Chap e 1: O e all summa y 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu inK o he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Sus ainable economic use o he ocean Ta ge 14.2: By 2020, sus ainably manage and p o ec ma ine and coas al ecosys ems o a oid signiƼcan ad e se impac s, including by s eng hening hei esilience, and ake ac ion o hei es o a ion in o de o achie e heal hy and p oduc i e oceans Ta ge 14.7: By 2030, inc ease he economic beneƼ s o small island de eloping S a es and leas de eloped coun ies om he sus ainable use o ma ine esou ces, including h ough sus ainable managemen o Ƽshe ies, aquacul u e and ou ism Ta ge 14.c: Enhance he conse a ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces by implemen ing in e na ional law as eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea, which p o ides he legal amewo k o he conse a ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces, as ecalled in pa ag aph 158 o “The u u e we wan ” Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y and sus ainable managemen o wa e and sani a ion o all Imp o ed was ewa e managemen and p o ec ion and es o a ion o we lands Goal 7: Ensu e access o a o dable, eliable, sus ainable and mode n ene gy o all Imp o ed sou ces and eƾciencies in ene gy and associa ed educ ion in emissions Goal 11: Make ci ies and human se lemen s inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable Sus ainable u baniza ion and educ ion in he en i onmen al impac o ci ies Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Sus ainable managemen and use o na u al esou ces Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac sa Implemen a ion o clima e change mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac educ ion measu es Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and p omo e sus ainable use o e es ial ecosys ems, sus ainably manage o es s, comba dese iƼca ion, and hal and e e se land deg ada ion and hal biodi e si y loss Reduc ion in he deg ada ion o na u al habi a s and loss o biodi e si y, and p e en ion o he ex inc ion o species Goal 16: P omo e peace ul and inclusi e socie ies o sus ainable de elopmen , p o ide access o jus ice o all and build e ec i e, accoun able and inclusi e ins i u ions a all le els P omo ion o he ule o law a he na ional and in e na ional le els Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building E ec i e implemen a ion o in e na ional law as eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea Ta ge 14.c: Enhance he conse a ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces by implemen ing in e na ional law as eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con- en ion on he Law o he Sea, which p o ides he legal amewo k o he conse a- ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces, as ecalled in pa ag aph 158 o “The u u e we wan ” Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Ensu ing o sus ainable ood p oduc ion sys ems, main enance o ecosys ems and s eng hening o capaci y o adap o clima e change, ex eme wea he , d ough , ƽooding and o he disas e s Goal 3: Ensu e heal hy li es and p omo e well-being o all a all ages Reduc ion in haza dous chemicals, pollu ion and con amina ion 28ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu inK o he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y and sus ainable managemen o wa e and sani a ion o all Reduc ion in pollu ion, imp o ed was ewa e managemen and p o ec ion and es o a ion o wa e - ela ed ecosys ems Goal 11: Make ci ies and human se lemen s inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable P o ec ion and sa egua ding o cul u al and na u al he i age Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns En i onmen ally sound managemen o chemicals and all was es h oughou hei li e cycle, wi hin ag eed in e na ional amewo ks Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac sa In eg a ion o clima e change measu es in o na ional policies, s a egies and planning Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Enhancemen o policy cohe ence o sus ainable de elopmen a Acknowledging ha he Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change is he p ima y in e na ional, in e go e nmen al o um o nego ia ing he global esponse o clima e change. b Taking in o accoun ongoing Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion nego ia ions, he Doha De elopmen Agenda and he Hong Kong minis e ial manda e. Ŵŵŵŵ29 Chap e 1: O e all summa y Table 2 'on ibu ion made by Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 o achie inK o he Goals 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu ed o by he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Ta ge 14.1: By 2025, p e en and signiƼcan ly educe ma ine pollu ion o all kinds, in pa icula om land-based ac i i ies, including ma ine deb is and nu ien pollu ion Goal 3: Ensu e heal hy li es and p omo e well-being o all a all ages Reduc ion in haza dous chemicals, pollu ion and con amina ion Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y and sus ainable managemen o wa e and sani a ion o all Reduc ion in pollu ion and he elease o haza dous chemicals and ma e ials and was ewa e Goal 11: Make ci ies and human se lemen s inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable Sus ainable u baniza ion and educ ion in he en i onmen al impac o ci ies Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns En i onmen ally sound managemen o chemicals and all was es, including by educing was e gene a ion Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building Ta ge 14.2: By 2020, sus ainably manage and p o ec ma ine and coas al ecosys ems o a oid signiƼcan ad e se impac s, including by s eng hening hei esilience, and ake ac ion o hei es o a ion in o de o achie e heal hy and p oduc i e oceans Goal 1: End po e y in all i s o ms e e ywhe e Reduc ion in exposu e and ulne abili y o clima e-induced ex eme e en s and building o esilience o en i onmen al shocks and disas e s Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y (including aquacul u e and ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable ood p oduc ion and main aining ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y o wild species Goal 8: P omo e sus ained, inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen and decen wo k o all P o ision o oppo uni ies o sus ained economic g ow h and sus ainable ou ism Goal 11: Make ci ies and human se lemen s inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable P ese a ion o and suppo o hose ecosys ems ha a o d p o ec ion om disas e s o coas al communi ies Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac sa Con ibu ion o esilience o clima e- ela ed haza ds 30ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu ed o by he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Ta ge 14.3: Minimize and add ess he impac s o ocean acidiƼca ion, including h ough enhanced scien iƼc coope a ion a all le els Goal 1: End po e y in all i s o ms e e ywhe e Reduc ion in exposu e and building o esilience o en i onmen al shocks and disas e s Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Ensu ing o sus ainable ood p oduc ion sys ems, main enance o ecosys ems, s eng hening o capaci y o adap o clima e change and enhancemen o coope a ion in esea ch and echnological de elopmen Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Suppo o de eloping coun ies in s eng hening hei scien iƼc and echnological capaci y Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac sa Implemen a ion o clima e change mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac educ ion measu es Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building Ta ge 14.4: By 2020, e ec i ely egula e ha es ing and end o e Ƽshing, illegal, un epo ed and un egula ed Ƽshing and des uc i e Ƽshing p ac ices and implemen science-based managemen plans, in o de o es o e Ƽsh s ocks in he sho es ime easible, a leas o le els ha can p oduce maximum sus ainable yield as de e mined by hei biological cha ac e is ics Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y (including aquacul u e and ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable ood p oduc ion and main aining ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y o wild species Goal 8: P omo e sus ained, inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen and decen wo k o all Suppo o p oduc i e ac i i ies Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Achie emen o sus ainable managemen and eƾcien use o na u al esou ces, educ ion in ood losses along p oduc ion and supply chains, including pos -ha es losses, s eng hening o scien iƼc and echnological capaci y o mo e owa ds mo e sus ainable pa e ns o consump ion and p oduc ion, and phasing ou o ha m ul subsidies Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Enhancemen o pa ne ships o sus ainable de elopmen Ŵŵŵŵ31 Chap e 1: O e all summa y 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu ed o by he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Ta ge 14.5: By 2020, conse e a leas 10ɸpe ɸcen o coas al and ma ine a eas, consis en wi h na ional and in e na ional law and based on he bes a ailable scien iƼc in o ma ion Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Main enance o ecosys ems, s eng hening o capaci y o adap o clima e change, and enhancemen o coope a ion in esea ch and echnological de elopmen Goal 11: Make ci ies and human se lemen s inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable P ese a ion o and suppo o hose ecosys ems ha a o d p o ec ion om disas e s o coas al communi ies Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and p omo e sus ainable use o e es ial ecosys ems, sus ainably manage o es s, comba dese iƼca ion, and hal and e e se land deg ada ion and hal biodi e si y loss Reduc ion in he deg ada ion o na u al habi a s and loss o biodi e si y, and p e en ion o he ex inc ion o species Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building Ta ge 14.6: By 2020, p ohibi ce ain o ms o Ƽshe ies subsidies which con ibu e o o e capaci y and o e Ƽshing, elimina e subsidies ha con ibu e o illegal, un epo ed and un egula ed Ƽshing and e ain om in oducing new such subsidies, ecognizing ha app op ia e and e ec i e special and di e en ial ea men o de eloping and leas de eloped coun ies should be an in eg al pa o he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion Ƽshe ies subsidies nego ia ionb Goal 8: P omo e sus ained, inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen and decen wo k o all Suppo o p oduc i e ac i i ies Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Achie emen o sus ainable managemen and eƾcien use o na u al esou ces, educ ion in ood losses along p oduc ion and supply chains, including pos -ha es losses, s eng hening o scien iƼc and echnological capaci y o mo e owa ds mo e sus ainable pa e ns o consump ion and p oduc ion, and phasing ou o ha m ul subsidies Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Enhancemen o pa ne ships o sus ainable de elopmen Ta ge 14.7: By 2030, inc ease he economic beneƼ s o small island de eloping S a es and leas de eloped coun ies om he sus ainable use o ma ine esou ces, including h ough sus ainable managemen o Ƽshe ies, aquacul u e and ou ism Goal 1: End po e y in all i s o ms e e ywhe e Reduc ion in exposu e and building o esilience o en i onmen al shocks and disas e s Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y (including aquacul u e and ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable ood p oduc ion and main aining ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y o wild species 32ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu ed o by he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Goal 8: P omo e sus ained, inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen and decen wo k o all P o ision o oppo uni ies o sus ained economic g ow h and sus ainable ou ism Goal 9: Build esilien in as uc u e, p omo e inclusi e and sus ainable indus ializa ion and os e inno a ion Enhancemen o scien iƼc esea ch, upg ade o he echnological capabili ies o indus ial sec o s in all coun ies, in pa icula de eloping coun ies, and encou agemen o inno a ion Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Achie emen o sus ainable managemen and eƾcien use o na u al esou ces, and s eng hening o scien iƼc and echnological capaci y Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac sa Implemen a ion o clima e change mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac educ ion measu es Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building Ta ge 14.a: Inc ease scien iƼc knowledge, de elop esea ch capaci y and ans e ma ine echnology, aking in o accoun he In e go e nmen al Oceanog aphic Commission C i e ia and Guidelines on he T ans e o Ma ine Technology, in o de o imp o e ocean heal h and o enhance he con ibu ion o ma ine biodi e si y o he de elopmen o de eloping coun ies, in pa icula small island de eloping S a es and leas de eloped coun ies Goal 9: Build esilien in as uc u e, p omo e inclusi e and sus ainable indus ializa ion and os e inno a ion Enhancemen o scien iƼc esea ch, upg ade o he echnological capabili ies o indus ial sec o s in all coun ies, in pa icula de eloping coun ies, and encou agemen o inno a ion Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Achie emen o sus ainable managemen and eƾcien use o na u al esou ces, and s eng hening o scien iƼc and echnological capaci y Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building Ta ge 14.b: P o ide access o small-scale a isanal Ƽshe s o ma ine esou ces and ma ke s Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Inc ease in ag icul u al p oduc i i y (including aquacul u e and ma icul u e), ensu ing sus ainable ood p oduc ion and main aining ecosys ems and he gene ic di e si y o wild species Ŵŵŵŵ33 Chap e 1: O e all summa y 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu ed o by he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Goal 8: P omo e sus ained, inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen and decen wo k o all Imp o ed esou ce eƾciency in consump ion and p oduc ion Goal 9: Build esilien in as uc u e, p omo e inclusi e and sus ainable indus ializa ion and os e inno a ion Enhancemen o scien iƼc esea ch and echnological de elopmen , esea ch and inno a ion in de eloping coun ies Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Sus ainable managemen and eƾcien use o na u al esou ces, and implemen a ion o ools o moni o ing sus ainable de elopmen impac s o sus ainable ou ism ha c ea es jobs and p omo es local cul u e and p oduc s Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Imp o ed access o science, echnology and inno a ion, enhanced knowledge-sha ing and ans e o echnology, and capaci y-building Ta ge 14.c: Enhance he conse a ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces by implemen ing in e na ional law as eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea, which p o ides he legal amewo k o he conse a ion and sus ainable use o oceans and hei esou ces, as ecalled in pa ag aph 158 o “The u u e we wan ” Goal 2: End hunge , achie e ood secu i y and imp o ed nu i ion and p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e Ensu ing o sus ainable ood p oduc ion sys ems, main enance o ecosys ems and s eng hening o capaci y o adap o clima e change, ex eme wea he , d ough , ƽooding and o he disas e s Goal 3: Ensu e heal hy li es and p omo e well-being o all a all ages Reduc ion in haza dous chemicals, pollu ion and con amina ion Goal 6: Ensu e a ailabili y and sus ainable managemen o wa e and sani a ion o all Reduc ion in pollu ion, imp o ed was ewa e managemen and p o ec ion and es o a ion o wa e - ela ed ecosys ems Goal 7: Ensu e access o a o dable, eliable, sus ainable and mode n ene gy o all Imp o ed sou ces and eƾciencies in ene gy and associa ed educ ion in emissions Goal 11: Make ci ies and human se lemen s inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable Sus ainable u baniza ion and educ ion in he en i onmen al impac o ci ies, and p o ec ion and sa egua ding o cul u al and na u al he i age Goal 12: Ensu e sus ainable consump ion and p oduc ion pa e ns Sus ainable managemen and use o na u al esou ces, en i onmen ally sound managemen o chemicals and all was es h oughou hei li e cycle, wi hin ag eed in e na ional amewo ks 34ŵŵŵ Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I 8a Ke s unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals con ibu ed o by he achie emen o Goal 14 Mechanism Goal 13: Take u gen ac ion o comba clima e change and i s impac sa Implemen a ion o clima e change mi iga ion, adap a ion and impac educ ion measu es, and in eg a ion o clima e change measu es in o na ional policies, s a egies and planning Goal 15: P o ec , es o e and p omo e sus ainable use o e es ial ecosys ems, sus ainably manage o es s, comba dese iƼca ion, and hal and e e se land deg ada ion and hal biodi e si y loss Reduc ion in he deg ada ion o na u al habi a s and loss o biodi e si y, and p e en ion o he ex inc ion o species Goal 16: P omo e peace ul and inclusi e socie ies o sus ainable de elopmen , p o ide access o jus ice o all and build e ec i e, accoun able and inclusi e ins i u ions a all le els P omo ion o he ule o law a he na ional and in e na ional le els Goal 17: S eng hen he means o implemen a ion and e i alize he Global Pa ne ship o Sus ainable De elopmen Enhancemen o policy cohe ence o sus ainable de elopmen a Acknowledging ha he Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change is he p ima y in e na ional, in e go e nmen al o um o nego ia ing he global esponse o clima e change. b Taking in o accoun ongoing Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion nego ia ions, he Doha De elopmen Agenda and he Hong Kong minis e ial manda e. 35 Chap e 1: O e all summa y 0andscape o subKoals unde Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 14 and ele an chap e s P o ec ing ma ine ecosys ems Chap. 25 Cumula i e impac s Cleaning up he ocean Chap. 10 Nu ien pollu ion Chap. 11 Haza dous subs ances Chap. 12 Solid was e Chap. 20 Noise Economic use Chap. 8 Human socie y Chap. 14 Ma ine in as uc u e Chap. 18 Seabed mining Chap. 19 Hyd oca bon Chap. 21 Renewable ene gy Chap. 22 In asi e species Chap. 23 Ma ine gene ic esou ces Chap. 24 Ma ine hyd a es S a e Chap. 6 Biodi e si y Chap. 7 Habi a s Chap. 28 O e all beneƼ s In e na ional law o he sea Chap. 28 O e all beneƼ s Unde s anding he ocean Chap. 3 Scien iƼc unde s anding Chap. 5 Physical and chemical s a e Chap. 9 Clima e change P essu e P essu e Response Socie al beneƼ s P omo ing sa e y om he ocean Chap. 5 Physical and chemical s a e Chap. 9 Clima e change Chap.10 Nu ien pollu ion Chap.13 E osion and sedimen a ion Sus ainable ood (and economic use) Chap. 15 Cap u e Ƽshe ies Chap. 16 Aquacul u e Chap. 17 Seaweed ha es ing P essu e P essu e D i e s Chap. 4 D i e s Managemen Chap. 26 Ma ine spa ial planning Chap. 27 Managemen app oach