The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume I
The Second
Wo ld Ocean
Assessmen
WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II
Volume I
Co e pho o: Yung-Sen Wu
Uni ed Na ions Wo ld Oceans Day Pho o Compe i ion
Uni ed Na ions publica ion
Sales no.: E.21.V.5
ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0
eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2
Copy igh © Uni ed Na ions, 2021
All igh s ese ed
P in ed a he Uni ed Na ions, New Yo k
iii
Fo ewo d
by he Sec e a y-Gene al
The pas yea has p esen ed unp eceden ed challenges. The co ona i us disease (COVID-19)
pandemic has dis up ed li es and li elihoods and exposed ou socie ies’ agili y. Sadly, he pan-
demic is no he only c isis ha humani y aces. Clima e change and biodi e si y loss con inue
unaba ed, h ea ening sus ainable de elopmen and ou iabili y as a species. These challenges
a e pa icula ly e iden when we look a he s a e o ou plane ’s li e suppo sys em, he ocean.
In 2015, he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen wa ned ha many a eas o he ocean had been se i-
ously deg aded, he g ea es h ea o he ocean being he ailu e o deal wi h he many p essu es
caused by human ac i i ies. The message in he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen is ha he
si ua ion has no imp o ed, wi h he many beneƼ s ha he ocean p o ides a isk. The Assess-
men ad ises ha , o ensu e sus ainabili y, we mus wo k oge he o imp o e in eg a ed ocean
managemen , including h ough join esea ch, capaci y de elopmen and he sha ing o da a,
in o ma ion and echnology.
The ocean plays a c ucial ole in he achie emen o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals and he
li elihoods o billions o people. We u gen ly need o change how we in e ac wi h i . The o h-
coming Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science o Sus ainable De elopmen and he Uni ed
Na ions Decade on Ecosys em Res o a ion p o ide oppo uni ies o us o unde s and mo e and
o e e se he damage ha has al eady been done. The in o ma ion in he second Assessmen
can assis in his p ocess, as well as in o m ele an in e go e nmen al con e ences scheduled
o 2021.
I u ge leade s and all s akeholde s o heed he wa nings in he Assessmen as we wo k o con-
se e and sus ainably manage ou plane ’s ma ine en i onmen . Le us os e no only a g een
bu also a blue eco e y om he COVID-19 pandemic.
AǞǘǞǣǝ GǗǘȨǚǚȨǙ

Summa y
In i s esolu ions 57/141 and 58/240, he Gene al Assembly decided o es ablish a egula p o-
cess unde he Uni ed Na ions o global epo ing and assessmen o he s a e o he ma ine
en i onmen , including socioeconomic aspec s, bo h cu en and o eseeable, building on exis -
ing egional assessmen s. In i s esolu ion 71/257, he Assembly ecalled ha he scope o he
Ƽ s cycle o he Regula P ocess ocused on es ablishing a baseline and decided ha he scope
o he second cycle would ex end o e alua ing ends and iden i ying gaps. The p og amme o
wo k o he pe iod 2017–2020 o he second cycle o he Regula P ocess includes he p epa-
a ion by he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing and Assessmen o
he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, o he second Wo ld
Ocean Assessmen , building on he baselines es ablished by he Fi s Global In eg a ed Ma ine
Assessmen (Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ). In i s esolu ion 72/73, he Assembly decided ha
he G oup o Expe s should p oceed on he basis o a single comp ehensi e assessmen . The
p esen documen was p epa ed by he G oup o Expe s in acco dance wi h hose decisions.
Disclaime
The p esen documen is a p oduc o he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global Repo ing
and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s, which is
esponsible o he con en s o he publica ion. The membe s o he G oup o Expe s and he pool o ex-
pe s who pa icipa ed in he w i ing o he second Wo ld Ocean Assessmen con ibu ed in hei pe sonal
capaci y. The membe s o he G oup and he pool a e no ep esen a i es o any Go e nmen o any o he
au ho i y o o ganiza ion.
The designa ions employed, including geog aphical names, and he p esen a ion o he ma e ials in he
p esen publica ion, including he ci a ions, maps and bibliog aphy, do no imply he exp ession o any
opinion wha soe e on he pa o he Uni ed Na ions conce ning he names and legal s a us o any coun-
y, e i o y, ci y o a ea o o i s au ho i ies o conce ning he delimi a ion o i s on ie s o bounda ies
and do no imply oƾcial endo semen o accep ance by he Uni ed Na ions. In o ma ion con ained in
he p esen publica ion emana ing om ac ions and decisions aken by S a es does no imply oƾcial
endo semen , accep ance o ecogni ion by he Uni ed Na ions o such ac ions and decisions, and such
in o ma ion is included wi hou p ejudice o he posi ion o any S a e Membe o he Uni ed Na ions.
ii
P e ace
The goal o he Gene al Assembly in c ea ing
he Regula P ocess o he Global Repo ing
and Assessmen o he S a e o he Ma ine En-
i onmen , including Socioeconomic Aspec s,
was o ensu e a comp ehensi e o e iew o
he ocean and he ela ionships be ween he
ocean and humans, co e ing all en i onmen al,
social and economic aspec s. Such an o e -
iew would se e as a backg ound o he many
decisions ha mus be aken in ha Ƽeld a he
in e na ional, na ional and local le els in pu sui
o sus ainable de elopmen . The Ƽ s Wo ld
Ocean Assessmen was comple ed in 2015 and
ep esen s a majo s ep owa ds ha goal.
Ine i ably, wi h such an ambi ious goal, no
only we e some aspec s no ully co e ed in he
Ƽ s ou pu o he Regula P ocess, bu also, as
ime passed, he assessmen ha was made
up o 2015 needed o be upda ed. The Gene al
Assembly he e o e p o ided o u he global
in eg a ed ma ine assessmen s o eco d de-
elopmen s om he baseline p o ided by he
Ƽ s Assessmen and, whe e possible, o show
ends. In 2016, i decided ha a second com-
p ehensi e assessmen should be p epa ed by
he end o 2020.
The p esen olume con ains he second
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen . I p o ides mo e
in o ma ion on aspec s o he ocean and i s
ela ionships wi h humans, including sepa a e
assessmen s o he abyssal plains and ma ine
hyd a es, and b ings oge he in speciƼc chap-
e s ma e s ha we e add essed in di e en
sec ions o he Ƽ s Assessmen , such as he
s a e o Ƽsh species and ma ine in as uc u e.
As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p oduc ion
o he p esen Assessmen has been a majo
ask, elying essen ially on olun a y e o s o
hund eds o expe s in many Ƽelds, wi h suppo
om he egula budge o he Uni ed Na ions.
As be o e, i has been a p i ilege o he G oup
o Expe s o he Regula P ocess o Global
Repo ing and Assessmen o he S a e o he
Ma ine En i onmen , including Socioeconomic
Aspec s, o o ganize, con ibu e o and Ƽnalize
he Assessmen . C ucial suppo has again been
p o ided by he Sec e a ia , including he Di i-
sion o Ocean A ai s and he Law o he Sea,
se e al in e na ional o ganiza ions and a num-
be o S a es Membe s o he Uni ed Na ions,
as de ailed in chap e 2. The G oup o Expe s
is g a e ul o all hose people and ins i u ions
bu , unde he e ms o e e ence and wo king
me hods endo sed by he Gene al Assembly, is
ul ima ely esponsible o he Ƽnal ex .
The bulk o he ex was w i en be o e he ou -
b eak o he co ona i us disease (COVID-19)
pandemic. Some men ion o he e ec s o ha
pandemic has been included ( o example, in
he sec ions o chap e 8A dealing wi h Ƽshe -
ies, shipping and ou ism), bu he ull implica-
ions o he pandemic on human in e ac ions
wi h he ocean a e s ill being wo ked ou and
will need o be explo ed ully in he hi d cycle o
he Regula P ocess. Ne e heless, he ocean
and he se ices ha i p o ides will ha e an im-
po an ole in he eco e y om he pandemic.
I is hoped ha he in o ma ion in he p esen
Assessmen will help wi h ha p ocess.
As wi h he Ƽ s Assessmen , he p esen
documen con ains no policy analysis o
ecommenda ions, in line wi h he guidance
endo sed by he Gene al Assembly. I is he e-
o e o na ional Go e nmen s and compe en
in e na ional au ho i ies o decide wha ac ion
should be aken in he ligh o he assessmen s
unde he Regula P ocess.
RȨǞǣǙǝǞ RǗǕȳ and AǠȳǞ Sǣǟȱǝȱǡ
Join Coo dina o s o
he G oup o Expe s o he Regula P ocess
JǚǞ SȱǤǟǣȰǘ
Membe o he G oup o Expe s o he
Regula P ocess, assis ing he Join Coo dina o s
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Con en s
Page
Chap e 7I: Sal ma shes ................................................... 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 385
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 386
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 386
5. Ou look ........................................................ 387
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 388
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 389
Re e ences......................................................... 389
Chap e 7J: Con inen al slopes and subma ine canyons......................... 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. De elopmen s in unde s anding o slopes and canyons ............... 399
3. Ecosys em se ices and beneƼ s on slopes and in canyons ............ 404
4. Human impac s ................................................. 405
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 406
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 407
Re e ences ........................................................ 408
Chap e 7K: High-la i ude ice................................................ 421
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 423
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 423
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020...... 424
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 428
4. Ou look ........................................................ 430
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 431
Re e ences......................................................... 431
Chap e 7L: Seamoun s andɸpinnacles........................................ 437
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 439
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 439
2. Desc ip ion o changes in knowledge be ween 2010 and 2020.......... 440
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes......................... 441
4. Key egion-speciƼc esea ch in ecen yea s ......................... 442
5. Ou look ........................................................ 444
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 444
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 445
Re e ences......................................................... 446

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Chap e 7M: Abyssal plains ................................................. 453
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 455
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 455
2. Shi ing baselines and documen ing s a us and change in abyssal
biodi e si y ..................................................... 456
3. Majo na u al and an h opogenic p essu es.......................... 464
4. Consequences o he changes on human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 465
5. Ou look ........................................................ 468
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 468
Re e ences......................................................... 469
Chap e 7N: Open ocean.................................................... 477
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 479
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 479
2. En i onmen al changes in he open ocean since 2010................. 481
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 484
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 486
5. Ou look ........................................................ 487
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 488
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 488
Re e ences......................................................... 488
Chap e 7O: Ridges, pla eaux and enches.................................... 495
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 497
1. In oduc ion and summa y o he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 497
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al changes be ween 2010 and 2020 ..... 499
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social changes be ween 2010 and 2020 . . . 502
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 505
5. Ou look ........................................................ 506
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 507
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 507
Re e ences ........................................................ 508
Chap e 7P: Hyd o he mal en s and coldɸseeps ............................... 513
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 515
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 515
2. En i onmen al changes since he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ........ 518
3. Economic and social consequences................................ 519
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 521
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5. Ou look ........................................................ 523
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 523
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps .............................. 524
Re e ences......................................................... 524
Chap e 7Q: Sa gasso Sea .................................................. 531
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 533
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 533
2. Change o s a e ................................................. 534
3. Ins i u ional a angemen s ........................................ 537
4. Consequences o changes ........................................ 538
5. Ou look ........................................................ 539
Re e ences......................................................... 540
Volume II
Chap e 8: T ends in he s a e o human socie y in ela ion o he ocean.............. 1
Chap e 8A: Coas al communi ies andɸma i ime indus ies ...................... 3
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 5
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 5
2. Coas al communi ies............................................. 6
3. Cap u e Ƽshe ies, shellƼsh ha es ing and aquacul u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4. Shipping........................................................ 10
5. Seabed mining .................................................. 14
6. O sho e hyd oca bons ........................................... 15
7. Tou ism and ec ea ion ........................................... 15
8. Ma ine gene ic esou ces ......................................... 20
9. Ma ine enewable ene gy ......................................... 21
10. Desaliniza ion................................................... 21
11. Sal p oduc ion.................................................. 22
12. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 23
13. Ou look ........................................................ 24
Re e ences......................................................... 24
Chap e 8B: Human heal h as a ec ed by he ocean ............................ 31
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 33
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 33
2. Gene al aspec s o he ela ionship be ween human heal h and he ocean 33
3. Heal h o coas al communi ies ela i e o inland communi ies.......... 39
4. E ec s o exposu e o con amina ed seawa e ....................... 39
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5. P oblems o human heal h posed by ood om he sea ............... 42
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 44
7. Ou look ........................................................ 45
Re e ences......................................................... 45
Pa Ƽ e: T ends in p essu es onɸ he ma ine en i onmen .......................... 53
Chap e : P essu es om chanKes in clima e and a mosphe e ..................... 55
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 57
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 57
2. Clima e p essu es: ex eme clima e e en s and p essu es om changes
in ocean physical and chemical p ope ies........................... 58
3. Capaci y-building: Global Ocean AcidiƼca ion Obse ing Ne wo k and
Global Ocean Oxygen Ne wo k .................................... 67
4. Summa y....................................................... 68
Re e ences......................................................... 69
Chap e 1: ChanKes in nu ien inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen ................... 77
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 79
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 79
2. Si ua ion epo ed in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 81
3. Global-scale pa e ns and ends................................... 82
4. Pa e ns and ends wi hin egions ................................. 85
5. Ou look ........................................................ 91
Re e ences......................................................... 92
Chap e 11: ChanKes in liUuid and a mosphe ic inpu s o he ma ine en i onmen om
land includinK h ouKh K oundwa e  ships and o sho e ins alla ions............... 101
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 103
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 104
2. Si ua ion eco ded in he Ƽ s Wo ld Ocean Assessmen ............... 104
3. Pe sis en o ganic pollu an s, including un-o om he use o
ag icul u al pes icides............................................ 105
4. Me als ......................................................... 112
5. Radioac i e subs ances .......................................... 122
6. Pha maceu icals and pe sonal ca e p oduc s ........................ 127
7. A mosphe ic pollu an s (ni ogen oxides, sul u oxides) ............... 131
8. Hyd oca bons om e es ial sou ces, ships and o sho e ins alla ions,
including a angemen s o esponse o spills and discha ges .......... 132
9. O he subs ances used on, and discha ged om, o sho e ins alla ions . . 134
10. Rela ionship o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals .................. 135
11. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 136
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12. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 138
Re e ences......................................................... 139
Chap e 12: ChanKes in inpu s and dis ibu ion o solid was e o he han d edKed
ma e ial in he ma ine en i onmen ............................................. 151
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 153
1. Ac i i ies esul ing in ma ine deb is, including plas ics, abandoned Ƽshing
gea , mic opa icles and nanopa icles, and es ima es o sou ces om
land, ships and o sho e ins alla ions ............................... 153
2. Dumping a sea, including ga bage om ships and sewage sludge . . . . . . 171
Re e ences......................................................... 177
Chap e 1: ChanKes in e osion and sedimen a ion................................ 185
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 187
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 187
2. Changes in s a e o coas al e osion and sedimen a ion................ 188
3. Consequences o he changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 192
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 193
5. Ou look ........................................................ 195
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps ................ 195
Re e ences......................................................... 196
Chap e 14: ChanKes in coas al and ma ine in as uc u e.......................... 201
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 203
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 203
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o ma ine and coas al in as uc u es . 204
3. Consequences o changes o human communi ies, economies
andɸwell-being................................................... 207
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 207
5. Ou look ........................................................ 210
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 211
Re e ences......................................................... 211
Chap e 1: ChanKes in cap u e Ƽshe ies and ha es inK o wild ma ine in e eb a es.. 215
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 217
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 217
2. Ca ch-landing dispa i ies, Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
and small-scale Ƽshe ies ......................................... 220
3. In e eb a e landings ............................................ 224
4. Le els o by-ca ch and side e ec s ................................ 225
5. Pos -ha es Ƽsh losses .......................................... 225
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6. Po en ial o Ƽshe ies enhancemen ................................ 225
7. Ma ine p o ein and oils in ag icul u e and aquacul u e................. 225
8. Illegal, un epo ed o un egula ed Ƽshing ............................ 226
9. Ou look ........................................................ 227
10. Key knowledge gaps ............................................. 228
11. Key capaci y-building gaps........................................ 228
Re e ences......................................................... 228
Chap e 1: ChanKes in aUuacul u e............................................. 235
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 237
1. Cu en s a us and majo imp o emen s ............................ 237
2. Aquacul u e and he en i onmen .................................. 240
3. Aquacul u e and socie y .......................................... 241
4. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 241
5. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 242
6. Ou look ........................................................ 243
Re e ences......................................................... 244
Chap e 17: ChanKes in seaweed ha es inK andɸuse .............................. 247
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 249
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 249
2. Documen ed changes in he s a e o seaweed p oduc ion and uses
(2012–2017) .................................................... 250
3. Consequences o changes in seaweed ha es ing and use o
communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ............................ 253
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 253
5. Ou look ........................................................ 254
6. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 254
Re e ences......................................................... 255
Chap e 18: ChanKes in seabed mininK .......................................... 257
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 259
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 259
2. Changes in scale and signiƼcance o sea ƽoo mining ................ 262
3. En i onmen al aspec s ........................................... 270
4. Economic and social impac s...................................... 273
5. Capaci y-building needs .......................................... 276
Re e ences......................................................... 277
Chap e 1: ChanKes in hyd oca bon e plo a ion and e ac ion .................... 281
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 283
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 283

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2. O sho e hyd oca bon explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning . . . 285
3. Economic, social, and en i onmen al aspec s o o sho e hyd oca bon
explo a ion, p oduc ion and decommissioning ....................... 288
4. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 290
5. Role o he o sho e hyd oca bon indus y in acili a ing he ma ine
enewable ene gy indus y ........................................ 291
6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292
Re e ences ........................................................ 293
Chap e 2: T ends in inpu s o an h opoKenic noise in o he ma ine en i onmen ..... 297
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 299
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 299
2. Desc ip ion o he en i onmen al s a us............................. 300
3. Desc ip ion o economic and social consequences and o he economic
o social changes ............................................... 308
4. Key egion-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 308
5. Ou look ........................................................ 310
6. Key emaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312
7. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps............................... 313
Re e ences ........................................................ 313
Chap e 21: De elopmen s in enewable ene Ky sou ces ........................... 321
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 323
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 323
2. S a e o ma ine enewable ene gy a he global le el .................. 324
3. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s o ma ine enewable ene gy
de elopmen ................................................... 329
4. Socioeconomic beneƼ s and impac s om ma ine enewable ene gy
deploymen ..................................................... 332
5. Key emaining knowledge and capaci y-building gaps................. 333
6. An icipa ed u u e ends.......................................... 335
Re e ences......................................................... 336
Chap e 22: In asi e species ................................................... 343
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 345
1. In oduc ion .................................................... 345
2. Documen ed baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347
3. Consequences o human communi ies, economies andɸwell-being ..... 348
4. Key egion-speciƼc baselines, changes and consequences............. 350
5. Ou look ........................................................ 354
6. O he .......................................................... 356
Re e ences......................................................... 356
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Chap e 2: De elopmen s in he e plo a ion o and use o ma ine Kene ic esou ces . 363
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 365
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 365
2. T ends be ween 2010 and 2020.................................... 366
3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370
4. Key egion-speciƼc de elopmen s in knowledge and hei consequences 371
5. Capaci y-building gaps ........................................... 371
6. Me hodological challenges and u u e ends ........................ 373
7. Ma ine gene ic esou ces and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals...... 374
Re e ences......................................................... 376
Chap e 24: 1a ine hyd a esɸƁ a po en ially eme KinK issue ........................ 381
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 383
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 383
2. Wha a e ma ine hyd a es? ........................................ 383
3. Po en ial isks om ma ine me hane hyd a es ....................... 386
4. Ma ine hyd a es as a sou ce o ene gy.............................. 388
5. Key knowledge and capaci y-building gaps .......................... 390
6. Ou look ........................................................ 390
Re e ences......................................................... 390
Chap e 25: Cumula i e e ec s................................................. 395
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 397
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 397
2. Cumula i e e ec s assessmen s................................... 398
3. Regional applica ions o cumula i e e ec s assessmen s on
he ma ine en i onmen : dis ibu ion and app oaches ................. 402
4. Ou look ........................................................ 406
Re e ences......................................................... 413
Pa si : T ends in manaKemen app oaches o he ma ine en i onmen ............. 421
Chap e 2: De elopmen s in ma ine spa ial planninK.............................. 423
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 425
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 425
2. Types o ma ine spa ial planning ................................... 426
3. Ma ine spa ial planning: a s ep-by-s ep app oach owa d
ecosys em-based managemen .................................... 427
4. Tools o ma ine spa ial planning................................... 428
5. P og ess in implemen ing ma ine spa ial planning .................... 430
Re e ences......................................................... 436
Ŵŵŵŵxxiii
Con en s
Page
Chap e 27: De elopmen s in manaKemen app oaches............................ 441
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 443
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 443
2. Managemen app oaches......................................... 444
3. Ad ances in ocean managemen app oaches........................ 448
4. Managemen ools o suppo mi iga ion o and adap a ion o clima e
change, including building esilience................................ 458
5. Key egion-speciƼc issues ........................................ 460
6. Capaci y-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
7. Gaps and u u e pe spec i es...................................... 462
8. Ou look ........................................................ 463
Re e ences......................................................... 465
Chap e 28: De elopmen sɸin he unde s andinK o o e all beneƼ s
om he ocean o humans ..................................................... 471
Keyno e poin s ..................................................... 473
1. In oduc ion..................................................... 473
2. BeneƼ s and hei dis ibu ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3. DisbeneƼ s o humans............................................ 478
4. Th ea s o ocean ecosys em se ices............................... 479
5. Sa egua ding ocean beneƼ s h ough egional and in e na ional
coope a ion and imp o ed implemen a ion o in e na ional law as
eƽec ed in he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Law o he Sea ....... 480
Re e ences......................................................... 483
Anne es ................................................................. 487
Anne I: O iKinal membe s o he w i inK eams app o ed by he &u eau ............. 489
Anne II: Pee e iewe s nomina ed o each chap e .............................. 497
47
Chap e 3
Scien i ic
unde s anding
o  he ocean
Con ibu o s: Bing Qiao (con ene ), Ca los F ancisco And ade, Paulo An unes Ho a, Nene Bi
T ace Boni ace, Sanae Chiba (co-lead membe ), Mohammad Zahedu Rahman Chowdhu y, An o-
nio Di Na ale, Ka en E ans, Ca los Ga cia-So o (co-lead membe ), En ique Ma scho , Colin Mo a ,
Jocelyne Mpemba Kazadi, Henn Oja ee , Renison Ruwa (lead membe ), Jö n Schmid (co-lead
membe ), Hoinsoude Segniagbe o, Sekou Tidiane Bangou a, Kedong Yin, Chang-Ik Zhang and
Tymon Zielinski (co-lead membe ).
54ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
i s ole in coo dina ing egional obse a ion
ne wo ks in he No h PaciƼc and se es as
he pla o m o sha ing knowledge among
scien is s and he b idge be ween science
and policymake s. In he pe iod since he Ƽ s
Assessmen , i has eleased wo special publi-
ca ions: one on ocean acidiƼca ion and deoxy-
gena ion in he No h PaciƼc Ocean (Ch is ian
and Ono, 2019); and ano he on he e ec s o
ma ine deb is caused by he 2011 sunami in
Japan (Cla ke Mu ay and o he s, 2019). I has
also u he ed unde s anding o clima e and
ecosys em p edic abili y, d i e s o algal and
jellyƼsh blooms, ma ine ecosys ems and he
se ices ha hey p o ide, human well-being
and op p eda o s (Wa anuki and o he s, 2016;
Makino and Pe y, 2017; T aine , 2017; Uye and
B odeu , 2017; Zhang and o he s, 2015; Jang
and Cu chi se , 2018). The o ganiza ion pe i-
odically p oduces a No h PaciƼc ecosys em
s a us epo aimed a e iewing and summa-
izing he s a us and ends o ma ine ecosys-
ems in he No h PaciƼc, in which i conside s
he ac o s ha a e causing o a e expec ed o
cause change in he nea u u e. The hi d e-
po , which will con ain de ails o he ends o
physical, chemical and biological p ope ies o
he No h PaciƼc Ocean h oughou he 2010s,
is cu en ly being p epa ed.
In ensi e expansion o ma ine esea ch capa-
bili y and capaci y, including emo e sensing
and in si u pla o ms and land-based in a-
s uc u e, by China (Chen and Lei, 2019), has
enhanced moni o ing capaci y in wa e s o
Sou h-Eas Asia. The sys em has suppo ed
p og ess in egional coope a ion in sus ain-
able de elopmen and ma ine and clima e
esea ch.
12 See www.ma ineho spo s.o g.
13 See www.imosocean epo .o g.au.
14 See www.me .igp.gob.pe/elnino/en en.
15 See h p:// pos2020.o g.
16 See www.pmel.noaa.go /g mba/mission.
3.6. Sou h Paci ic Ocean
New unde s anding o he e ec s o clima e
change and ocean wa ming has helped o
iden i y majo ho spo s wi hin he Sou h PaciƼc
Ocean, including sou h-eas o Aus alia, wes o
he Galapagos Islands, eas e n Mic onesia and
he D ake Passage, whe e egions a e wa ming
a a es abo e he global a e age.12 A he same
ime, desc ip ions and unde s anding o ma ine
hea wa es and hei impac s on ma ine ecosys-
ems ha e p og essed (Oli e and o he s, 2018;
Fo dyce and o he s, 2019). Assessmen s o
co al a olls ac oss he egion ha e e ealed no
widesp ead signs o physical des abiliza ion in
he ace o sea le el ise, wi h land a ea emain-
ing s able (Du a , 2018). Obse ing sys ems
in he egion a e now collec ing ime se ies o
a a ie y o ocean obse a ions, including he
physical and chemical en i onmen , biological
p oduc i i y and ma ine animals o which
ends and changes a e being epo ed.13
New egional pa ne ships among he mem-
be s o he Pe manen Commission o he
Sou h PaciƼc (Chile, Colombia, Ecuado and
Pe u) ha e been de eloped wi h he aim o
moni o ing and o ecas ing oceanog aphic
and clima ic a iabili y.14 In he ecen epo
on he T opical PaciƼc Obse ing Sys em,15
ecommenda ions we e made o a edesigned
moo ed a ay16 ha could imp o e obse a-
ions in he opical PaciƼc Ocean.
E e y Ƽ e yea s, he Go e nmen o Aus alia
p oduces a epo on he s a e o he Aus alian
en i onmen , he mos ecen o which was is-
sued in 2016 (Cla k and Johns on, 2016; E ans
and o he s, 2016; E ans and o he s, 2018). I
was concluded in he ma ine and coas al he-
ma ic epo s ha he o e all s a e o he Aus-
alian coas al and ma ine en i onmen s could
be ega ded as good. Howe e , he his o ical

Ŵŵŵŵ55
Chap e 3: Scien iƼc unde s anding o he ocean
impac s o a numbe o p essu es, such as
comme cial and ec ea ional Ƽshing, and
ongoing p essu es caused by ac i i ies ha
a e cu en ly inadequa ely managed, such as
clima e change and ma ine deb is, ha e led o
a de e io a ion in hose en i onmen s and a e
con inuing o ha e a nega i e e ec on hem.
As a esul , he ou look o he coas al and ma-
ine en i onmen was ega ded as mixed and
la gely depended on he escala ing ajec o y
o clima e- ela ed p essu es and he ongoing
expansion o coas al and ma ine de elopmen .
New Zealand also egula ly p oduces epo s
on he s a e o i s ma ine en i onmen ; wo
ha e been eleased since he Ƽ s Assess-
men , in 2016 and 2019.17 The mos ecen
epo highligh ed ongoing issues, including
he ac ha many species and habi a s a e
unde h ea , pollu ion inpu s a e inc easing,
as is sedimen accumula ion o he ma ine en-
i onmen , and boa ac i i y and shipping a e
inc easing, esul ing in he sp ead o non-na-
i e species and pollu ion, inc eased coas al
de elopmen and unp eceden ed change in
he ma ine en i onmen associa ed wi h cli-
ma e change. I is wo h no ing ha he epo
highligh ed ha he cumula i e e ec o such
p essu es was he mos u gen p oblem aced
by he ocean.
3.7. Sou he n Ocean
The Sou he n Ocean Obse ing Sys em, a
join ini ia i e o he Scien iƼc Commi ee on
An a c ic Resea ch and he Scien iƼc Commi -
ee on Oceanic Resea ch es ablished in 2011,
acili a es he collec ion o essen ial physical,
chemical and biological oceanog aphic ob-
se a ions in he Sou he n Ocean. Regional
ne wo ks o obse a ional ac i i ies ope a ing
unde he amewo k o he Sou he n Ocean
Obse ing Sys em acili a e in o ma ion
exchange, echnology ans e , he s anda d-
iza ion o measu emen s and da a sha ing.18
17 See www. m e.go .nz.
18 See h p://soos.aq/ac i i ies/cwg/soƽux.
Tools de eloped by he sys em include an
open-access in e ac i e web-based pla o m,
which allows use s o explo e ci cumpola
da a se s and acili a e he exchange o sci-
en iƼc in o ma ion. A da abase o upcoming
expedi ions o he Sou he n Ocean enables us-
e s o disco e which expedi ions, such as oy-
ages, ƽigh s o a e ses, a e planned o help
o acili a e he coo dina ion o Ƽeld ac i i ies
(Newman and o he s, 2019). The sys em has
suppo ed p og ess in he numbe o obse a-
ions collec ed since he Ƽ s Assessmen , in
pa icula wi h ega d o moni o ing inc eases
in ocean empe a u e (Roemmich and o he s,
2015), inc eases in wes e ly winds o e he
An a c ic ci cumpola cu en (Gen , 2016)
and eshening o he ocean, mos no ably
close o he con inen (Schmid ko and o he s,
2014). Deploymen o biochemical senso s
has inc eased measu emen s o chlo ophyll a,
ni a e, oxygen, ligh , op ical p ope ies and pH
h oughou he Sou he n Ocean (Newman and
o he s, 2019). Ice-capable bio-A go ƽoa s a e
now collec ing in o ma ion on biogeochemical
cycles du ing ice-co e ed pe iods (B iggs and
o he s, 2017), and glide s a e adding o he
collec ion o ocean obse a ions (Newman
and o he s, 2019). As ecosys ems a e chang-
ing, a iable e ec s on ma ine p eda o s ha e
been obse ed; some popula ions o he Adélie
penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) and he chins ap
penguin (Pygoscelis an a c icus) ha e de-
clined, while some popula ions o he gen oo
penguin (Pygoscelis papua) ha e inc eased
(T i elpiece and o he s, 2011; Hinke and o h-
e s, 2017; see also chap. 7K). Long- e m mon-
i o ing o ma ine species, including penguins
and seals, con inues o be unde aken h ough
he Con en ion on he Conse a ion o An -
a c ic Ma ine Li ing Resou ces as pa o he
managemen o k ill Ƽshe ies and is inc easing
unde s anding o hei o aging beha iou and
demog aphics (Newman and o he s, 2019).
56ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
4. Ou look o scien i ic unde s anding o he ocean
19 See Gene al Assembly esolu ion 72/73; see also www.oceandecade.o g.
20 See www.oceanobs19.ne /sessions.
21 In e na ional Ma i ime O ganiza ion, documen BWM/CONF/36, annex; see also www.imo.o g/en/Abou /
Con en ions/Pages/In e na ional-Con en ion- o - he-Con ol-and-Managemen -o -Ships’-Ballas -Wa e -and-
Sedimen s-(BWM).aspx.
Fu he scien iƼc esea ch will help in assess-
ing he achie emen o a ge s unde Sus ain-
able De elopmen Goal 14, especially du ing
he Uni ed Na ions Decade o Ocean Science
o Sus ainable De elopmen .19 As pa o he
Decade, inno a i e app oaches o science,
in ol ing many disciplines and many sec o s
o socie y, a e ecognized as being necessa y
o achie e he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable
De elopmen . Wi h ega d o ocean and coas -
al obse a ion in gene al, he OceanObs’19
Con e ence20 has pu o wa d a se ies o
ecommenda ions ha a e ocused, in e alia,
on sus aining ocean obse a ions; connec ing
wi h use s and s akeholde s; iden i ying he
beneƼ s o socie y o obse a ions; u he de-
eloping indica o s o he ocean; and os e -
ing ans-disciplina y app oaches o esea ch.
Wo k has begun on oad maps o u he he
de elopmen o a global ocean obse ing
sys em ha includes and in eg a es abio ic
and bio ic obse a ions and goes beyond
adi ional obse a ion echnologies (Speich
and o he s, 2019). Toge he wi h ad ances in
compu ing echnology and analy ical me h-
ods, he ou pu s o eDNA s udies will help in
he analysis o biodi e si y obse a ions, wi h
a esul ing imp o emen in he inpu o in o -
ma ion in o ecosys em models and hei use
in ecosys em-based managemen .
The In e na ional Con en ion o he Con ol
and Managemen o Ships’ Ballas Wa e and
Sedimen s en e ed in o o ce in 2017.21 I is
aimed a p e en ing he sp ead o ha m ul
aqua ic o ganisms om one egion o ano he
by es ablishing s anda ds and p ocedu es o
he managemen and con ol o ships’ ballas
wa e and sedimen s. Fu he scien iƼc wo k
is needed o gene a e he equi ed e idence
and knowledge, including on he basis o ob-
se a ions and echnology de elopmen , o
assis manage s and s akeholde s, including
go e nmen au ho i ies, in implemen ing he
Con en ion.
5. Key emaining knowledge gaps
The nea - u u e scien iƼc challenges a e ela -
ed o opics such as unde s anding and an ici-
pa ing El Niño Sou he n Oscilla ion e en s and
ma ine ecosys em ipping poin s, quan i ying
he cumula i e e ec s o mul iple p essu es
on ma ine en i onmen s, de eloping adap i e
managemen app oaches and making hem
mo e ope a ional, and encou aging b oade
conside a ion and in eg a ion o local, adi-
ional and indigenous knowledge in ma ine
ecosys em assessmen and managemen .
Global dispa i ies in unde s anding and knowl-
edge gaps a he con inen al egional le el
emain. The bulk o he esea ch and he in o -
ma ion eadily a ailable (based on he numbe
o publica ions) ela es o he No h A lan ic
Ocean, he No h PaciƼc Ocean and he A c ic
Ocean. Fo o he a eas, in pa icula A ica,
Oceania and Sou h Ame ica (UNESCO-IOC,
2017b), he e is less in o ma ion a ailable.
Timely dissemina ion o collec ed measu e-
men s is e y impo an o he e ec i e usage
Ŵŵŵŵ57
Chap e 3: Scien iƼc unde s anding o he ocean
o da a in oday’s connec ed ocean p edic ion
and moni o ing sys ems. Tha aspec o mak-
ing da a a ailable and he so wa e o quali y
con ol a e essen ial o making he bes use o
ocean obse a ions.
Cu en ly, mos global obse a ion ne wo ks
do no inco po a e economic, social and
cul u al aspec s o he ocean and, as a con-
sequence, ocused, sus ained and publicly
accessible obse a ions o hose aspec s o
ma ine sys ems in s anda dized o ma s a he
egional and global le els a e lacking (E ans
and o he s, 2019). The compila ion o econom-
ic, social and cul u al in o ma ion in useable
o ma s o inclusion in an assessmen ame-
wo k o syn hesis on a global scale equi es
conside able e o , o en beyond he abili y o
hose indi iduals o g oups o indi iduals in-
ol ed in con ibu ing o p esen Assessmen .
I is an a ea in which an ex ension o cu en
22 See h p://soos.aq/ac i i ies/cwg/soƽux.
obse a ion amewo ks o inco po a e sus-
ained and s anda dized moni o ing o eco-
nomic, social and cul u al aspec s o he ocean
would signiƼcan ly imp o e assessmen s un-
de aken in he amewo k o he Assessmen
(E ans and o he s, 2019). IPBES has made
clea he need o inc ease capaci y no only o
moni o biodi e si y bu also o unde s and i s
unc ions and he e ec ha human ac i i ies,
including clima e change, ha e on biodi e si y
(IPBES, 2019). One o he aims o he a iables
being de eloped unde he Global Ocean Ob-
se ing Sys em is o expand obse a ions o
p essu es placed on ma ine ecosys ems by
human ac i i ies o include ocean noise and
ma ine deb is, including plas ics. The ou pu s
o he Assessmen could assis in guiding he
p ocess o iden i ying such a iables and, in
so doing, could p o ide a mu ual pa hway o
u he imp o emen s o he obse a ions ha
con ibu e o u u e assessmen s.
6. Key emaining capaci y-building gaps
Ad ances in global unde s anding o scien iƼc
knowledge depend on uni o mi y in e o s o
engage in esea ch globally ac oss he con-
inen al egions. The uni o mi y o esea ch
e o s globally u he depends on how ad-
anced in as uc u e, specialized scien iƼc
human capaci y and echnology a e dis ib-
u ed and sha ed h ough pa ne ships. Many
na u al science disciplines, such as physical,
chemical and biological oceanog aphy and
ma ine geology, equi e esea ch essels o
o he specialized equipmen and upg aded
mode n echnology and he suppo o land-
based labo a o ies equipped wi h mode n
equipmen o suppo esea ch su eys in he
en i e dep h ange o he global ocean. Fu he
suppo needs o be p o ided h ough he use
o sa elli es o emo e-sensing s udies o he
ocean. Inno a ion o cos -e ec i e in si u ob-
se a ion ools and me hods is also needed.
Cu en ly, he le el o scien iƼc unde s anding
is egionally skewed because o dispa i ies in
he capaci ies o egional in as uc u e and
in specialized p o essional human capaci y.
Such dispa i ies, he e o e, a ec possibili ies
o engaging in compe i i e ocean esea ch
and, in u n, lead o he obse ed dispa i ies
in scien iƼc unde s anding o oceans a he
egional le el.
Fo imp o ing he o ecas capaci ies o he El
Niño Sou he n Oscilla ion and o he ocean-cli-
ma ic a ia ions, ocean obse ing sys ems
need o be s eng hened and pa ne ships
wi h egional coun ies p omo ed in o de o
enhance local capaci ies.22 In o de o moni o
58ŵŵŵ
Wo ld Ocean Assessmen II:ŴVolume I
he signiƼcan changes in physical and bioge-
ochemical en i onmen s and hei impac s on
ecosys ems and socie y, u he in eg a ion o
mul idisciplina y obse a ions and a educ ion
in he unce ain y o p edic ion models a e
needed. Inno a ion in unding s a egies is
also equi ed o sus ain in eg a ed obse ing
sys ems.
The ocean science communi y has p oposed
ac ion plans o he coming decade (Speich
and o he s, 2019), which include e o s o in-
c ease he eƾciency o he ocean in o ma ion
alue chain (Tanhua and o he s, 2019b). To
maximize he alue o ocean da a o socie al
use, he in e ace o each se ice, scien iƼc
obse a ion, da a assembly and managemen
and policy should be smoo hly s eamlined.
Fo example, he in eg a ion o obse ing sys-
ems and Ƽndable, accessible, in e ope able
and eusable da a p incipals mus be imple-
men ed in a ha monized manne . The aim o
he p esen Assessmen is o enable scien iƼc
knowledge o be con eyed as in o ma ion ha
is usable and unde s andable o non-academ-
ic use s and hus can se e as an impo an
link in he ocean da a alue chain.
Local, adi ional and indigenous knowledge
needs o be u he in eg a ed, and concep s
ela ing o acili a ing collabo a ion o p o-
ide oppo uni ies o ecognizing syne gies
and o sha ing and exchanging in o ma ion
(W igh and o he s, 2019) need o become
bes p ac ices.
Re e ences
A c ic Moni o ing and Assessmen P og amme (AMAP) (2018). AMAP Assessmen 2018: A c ic Ocean
AcidiƼca ion. T omsø, No way: AMAP.
__________ (2019). AMAP Clima e Change Upda e 2019: An Upda e o Key Findings o Snow, Wa e , Ice and
Pe ma os in he A c ic (SWIPA) 2017. Oslo, No way: AMAP, p.ɸ12.
Audzijony e, As a, and o he s (2019). A lan is: a spa ially explici end- o-end ma ine ecosys em model wi h
dynamically in eg a ed physics, ecology and socio-economic modules. Me hods in Ecology and
E olu ion, ol.ɸ10, No.ɸ10, pp.ɸ1814–1819. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/2041-210X.13272.
Bojinski, S ephan, and o he s (2014). The concep o essen ial clima e a iables in suppo o clima e
esea ch, applica ions, and policy. Bulle in o he Ame ican Me eo ological Socie y, ol.ɸ95, No.ɸ9,
pp.ɸ1431–1443.
Bossie , Sieme, and o he s (2018). The Bal ic Sea A lan is: An in eg a ed end- o-end modelling amewo k
e alua ing ecosys em-wide e ec s o human-induced p essu es. PloS One, ol.ɸ13, No.ɸ7.
B iggs, Ellen M., and o he s (2017). Physical and biological d i e s o biogeochemical ace s wi hin he
seasonal sea ice zone o he Sou he n Ocean om p oƼling ƽoa s. Jou nal o Geophysical Re-
sea ch: Oceans, 123(2), pp.ɸ746–758. h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/2017JC012846.
B is ow, L.A., and o he s (2017). N2 p oduc ion a es limi ed by ni i e a ailabili y in he Bay o Bengal
oxygen minimum zone. Na u e Geoscience, ol.ɸ10, No.ɸ1, pp.ɸ24–29. h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/
ngeo2847.
Camus, Lionel, and o he s (2019). Au onomous su ace and unde wa e ehicles e eal new disco e ies in
he a c ic ocean. In OCEANS 2019-Ma seille, pp.ɸ1–8. IEEE.
Canonico, Gab ielle, and o he s (2019). Global obse a ional needs and esou ces o ma ine biodi e si y.
F on ie s in Ma ine Science, ol.ɸ6, a . 367. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ ma s.2019.00367.
Chen, Lianzeng, and Bo Lei (2019). Ma ine science and echnology de elopmen o e he pas 70 yea s in
China. Haiyang Xuebao, 41(10): 3–22. h ps://doi.o g/10.3969/j.issn.0253-4193.2019.10.002.
Ŵŵŵŵ59
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Ch is ian, James R., and Tsuneo Ono, eds. (2019). Ocean AcidiƼca ion and (eo ygena ion in he No h
PaciƼc Ocean. PICES Special Publica ion 5. No h PaciƼc Ma ine Science O ganiza ion (PICES).
Cla k G.F., and E.L. Johns on (2016). Coas s: coas s. In Aus alia S a e o he En i onmen 2016. Canbe a:
Aus alian Go e nmen Depa men o he En i onmen and Ene gy. h ps://soe.en i onmen .go .
au/ heme/coas s.
Cla ke Mu ay, Ca h yn, and o he s, eds. (2019). The E ec s o Ma ine Deb is Caused by he G ea Japan
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