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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
CHAPTER 11
Leade ship Tha D i es
Social Change Wi h
Pe o mance Measu es
TOMI RAJALA
Takeaways o Leading Change
This chap e highligh s ha pe o mance measu es can be an in eg al
pa o p oblem-sol ing and ha p oblem-sol ing d i es social change.
P oblem-sol ing as a leade ship p ac ice is c ucial because i signals o he
o ganisa ion wha is impo an o he leade . Iden i ied p oblems ep esen
issues ha need o be ixed. The chosen solu ions de e mine which ac ions
a e unde aken. In a simila ashion, pe o mance measu es used o
p oblem-sol ing e eal some hing abou he leade s and hei alues. By
using ce ain pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing, a leade signals
wha is aluable and wha is no . Pe o mance measu es a e ya ds icks
ha de ine wha ype o pe o mance is app ecia ed and wha is no . This
indica es ha alues canno be de ached om pe o mance measu es
and p oblem-sol ing. Pe o mance measu es can be used a e e y s ep o
he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. The choice o measu es o be used a each
s ep is c ucial. This choice can ei he suppo o hinde he social change
leade s a e a emp ing o engende . The implica ion is ha hose who
aim o exe cise leade ship in any o m mus conside wha implemen ing
and igno ing ce ain pe o mance measu es signals o membe s o he
o ganisa ion and o he s akeholde s. I is also impo an o unde s and
how leade s y o d i e social change by shaping pe cep ions h ough he
use o ce ain measu es in hei he o ic and w i ings add essing p oblems.
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
I
has been claimed “ ha p oblems d i e change mo e e ec i ely han
oppo uni ies do” (G e e, 2008, p. 200). This no ion is especially ue
in complex en i onmen s, whe e hose in leade ship oles equen ly
deal wi h wicked p oblems. Because wicked p oblems o en canno be
sol ed, conside able e o goes in o ongoing p oblem-sol ing p ocesses
and he pu sui o empo al solu ions. Complex en i onmen s highligh
he impo ance o p oblem-sol ing. A la ge and accessible in o ma ion
base becomes e y aluable when people a e cons an ly ying o keep up
wi h wicked p oblems. These canno be ackled wi h simple in o ma ion.
Pe o mance measu es he e o e ake cen e s age when e sa ile
in o ma ion bases a e equi ed o p oblem-sol ing pu poses.
Pe o mance measu es eco d how social change is occu ing (c .
Schalock, 2001). Widely used indica o s, such as g eenhouse gas emissions,
obesi y, li e expec ancy, household income, income inequali y, in la ion,
unemploymen a e, and economic g ow h a e all examples o pe o mance
measu es ha eco d how social change occu (c . Ha y, 2006). Because
measu es eco d social change, hey a e used o ame he p oblems and
solu ions we see in socie y. Fo example, unemploymen s a is ics a e
pe o mance measu es which epo he numbe o unemployed people.
Leade s can use his measu e when hey sugges ha a gi en numbe o
unemployed people is a p oblem.
As a solu ion o he unemploymen p oblem, a go e nmen may y
o change he si ua ion h ough in e en ions ha help people ob ain
jobs. The in e en ion is he go e nmen ’s solu ion o he p oblema ic
unemploymen si ua ion. The e ec s o he in e en ion can be measu ed
o some ex en ia pe o mance measu es. The pu pose o measu ing hese
e ec s is o e eal whe he o no he chosen in e en ion was e ec i e.
Because pe o mance measu es can e eal he e ec i eness o solu ions,
hese measu es can de e mine he solu ions people choose.
I is well known ha p oblem-sol ing and he use o pe o mance measu es
a e leade ship p ac ises ha d i e social change (Yukl, 2013). Howe e , i is
less clea exac ly how leade ship, social change, pe o mance measu es, and
p oblem-sol ing ela e o each o he as concep s (c . Hun , 1991). P ecisely
how leade s a emp o c ea e social change by using pe o mance measu es
in hei p oblem-sol ing p ocesses is also unclea (c . Yukl, 2013). The pu pose
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
o his chap e is o demons a e leade ship p ac ises
ha u ilise pe o mance measu es and p oblem-sol ing
oge he . I ask he ollowing h ee esea ch ques ions:
1.
Wha do leade ship, social change, pe o mance
measu emen , and p oblem-sol ing mean as concep s and
how do hese concep s ela e o each o he ?
2.
Acco ding o measu emen handbook ins uc ions
w i en by leade s, wha asks in p oblem-sol ing a e
ecommended o be done using pe o mance measu es?
3.
How can leade s u ilise pe o mance measu es o
p oblem-sol ing in public speeches?
The i s esea ch ques ion is answe ed in he nex sec ion
by e iewing he exis ing li e a u e. Sec ion 3 p o ides a
heo e ical pe spec i e on using pe o mance measu es
in p oblem-sol ing. In sec ion 4, he ecommended asks
associa ed wi h pe o mance measu es in p oblem-
sol ing a e iden i ied om leade s’ ins uc ions as gi en in
measu emen handbooks. Sec ion 5 analyses he public speeches by Ba ack
Obama and Geo ge W. Bush o demons a e how pe o mance measu es a e
used in p oblem-sol ing embedded in public speeches. Sec ion 6 p esen s
he discussion and highligh s he implica ions o his esea ch. The chap e
iews leade ship and change om an o ganisa ional pe spec i e. This
pe spec i e was used because many social changes eme ge and sp ead o
wide socie y om o ganisa ions. The esea ch se ing allows cla i ica ion
o he concep ual ela ionships be ween key concep s and iden i ica ion o
leade ship p ac ises u ilising pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing.
De ining Leade ship, Social Change, Pe o mance
Measu emen , and P oblem-Sol ing
The e a e many di e en de ini ions o leade ship (Al esson, 2017). In his
chap e , leade ship is de ined as a ela ional leade ship (Ropo, Salo aa a,
Saue , & De Paoli, 2015) which anyone can exe cise. He e, ela ional
The pu pose o
his chap e is
o demons a e
leade ship
p ac ises
ha u ilise
pe o mance
measu es and
p oblem-sol ing
oge he .
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
leade ship is also unde s ood as an in luence p ocess h ough which social
changes in beha iou s eme ge (c . Uhl-Bien, 2006, p. 665). Acco ding o his
de ini ion, leade ship in ol es s i ing o in luence social change. In luence
e e s o a o ce ha pe son X exe s on pe son Y o change he la e ’s
beha iou (c . F ench & Ra en, 1959). This o ce can be di ec o indi ec
(Yukl, 2013). Di ec leade ship equi es immedia e con ac be ween hose
who lead and hose who a e being led. In indi ec leade ship, people a e
in luenced e en hough he e is no di ec con ac be ween hose who
lead and hose who a e being led (Jensen & O e man, 2003). This s udy
concen a es on bo h indi ec and di ec leade ship p ac ises ha u ilise
pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing.
Leade s can in luence he beha iou s o people wo king in o ganisa ions
indi ec ly by making decisions abou , o example, compe i i e s a egy,
o ganisa ional s uc u e, o managemen p og ammes (Yukl, 2013).
Ins uc ions in measu emen handbooks, which a e examined in his
chap e , a e pa o managemen p og ams ha a emp o change
o ganisa ional beha iou . These ins uc ions a e a o m o indi ec
leade ship because he w i e s o hese ins uc ions a e no di ec ly in
con ac wi h hose who ead he ins uc ions. Ins ead, he w i e s ope a e
h ough w i en ins uc ions and he ins uc ions a e he medium h ough
which people a e in luenced. The people who a e being led a e in ol ed
di ec ly wi h he handbook ins uc ions bu no wi h he leade s.
A leade ’s di ec in luence can be di ided in o h ee ca ego ies: ask-
o ien ed, ela ions-o ien ed, and change-o ien ed beha iou s. Task-
o ien ed beha iou s a e aimed a imp o ing e iciency and p ocess eliabili y
o speci ic asks in he o ganisa ion. Rela ions-o ien ed beha iou s ocus
on human ela ions and human esou ces wi hin he o ganisa ion. Change-
o ien ed beha iou s concen a e on ad ancing “inno a ion and adap a ion
o he ex e nal en i onmen ” (Yukl, 2013, p. 281). This chap e ocuses
on he la e , by examining how leade s u ilise pe o mance measu es o
p oblem-sol ing in public speeches.
Social change, as de ined by Vago (1980), is a p ocess o al e a ions in social
phenomena. In his chap e , social change is unde s ood as any al e a ion in
o ganisa ional pe o mance. In gene al, pe o mance is a socially cons uc ed
concep wi h no objec i e desc ip ion. E e y pe son simply de ines
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
pe o mance in hei own way (Neely, 2007). In his chap e , pe o mance
e e s simul aneously o human ac ion and he esul o his ac ion (c . Neely,
2002). Pe o mance is me ely human beha iou in he o ganisa ional con ex
and he ou comes o his beha iou . This can be seen in bo h he o ganisa ion
and he su ounding en i onmen (Schalock, 2001). Pe o mance measu es
ack o ganisa ional pe o mance. The esea ch li e a u e lis s se e al ypes
o pe o mance ha can ake place in an o ganisa ion (Ha y, 2006). Fo he
pu pose o his chap e , i is no necessa y o iden i y all ypes o pe o mance
ha occu in an o ganisa ion. Ins ead, he ocus he e is on ou ypes o
o ganisa ional pe o mance: leade ship, w i en handbook ins uc ions,
pe o mance measu emen , and p oblem-sol ing. Because handbook
ins uc ions a e he esul o w i ing ins uc ions, hese ins uc ions can be
seen as pe o mance (see he de ini ion o pe o mance used in his chap e ).
A p oblem can be de ined as a ma e ega ded as unwelcome o ha m ul.
I is some hing needing o be deal wi h and sol ed (Ox o d English
Dic iona y, 2018). In he con ex o o ganisa ional pe o mance, p oblems
a e associa ed wi h ouble in pe o mance. P oblems a e sol ed h ough a
p oblem-sol ing p ocess (Da idson & S e nbe g, 2003), and pe o mance
measu es can acili a e he p oblem-sol ing p ocess a each s ep (c .
Ha y, 2006). Howe e , p oblems can also be sol ed wi hou pe o mance
measu es. T adi ionally, he p oblem-sol ing p ocess is desc ibed as a cycle
consis ing o he se en s eps p esen ed in Figu e 1.
7.
Assess
he solu ion o
co ec ness
6.
Measu e he
de elopmen
owa ds eaching
he objec i e
5.
Assign men al,
physical and ime
esou ces o sol ing
he p oblem
4.
Pu in o de
he knowledge
conce ning
he p oblem
3.
C ea e
a solu ion
2.
Rep esen
he p oblem
men ally
1.
De ec
he p oblem
FIGURE 1. The p oblem-sol ing p ocess (adop ed om Da idson and S e nbe g, 2003)

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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
Figu e 2 summa ises he key concep s in his esea ch and hei
in e - ela ionships. As he igu e shows, social change is unde s ood
o necessi a e a change in p oblem-sol ing, whe eas p oblem-
sol ing encompasses o ganisa ional beha iou ha may o may no
be changing. When he p oblem-sol ing changes, a social change
occu s. I he p oblem-sol ing does no change, hen social change in
(beha iou in he o ganisa ion and i s ou comes)
SOCIAL
CHANGE
(change in
p oblem-sol ing)
Pe o mance
Leade ship
p ac ices
included in his
esea ch
PERFORMANCE
MEASUREMENT
(measu e
pe o mance)
WRITTEN
HANDBOOK
INSTRUCTIONS
(ins uc
pe o mance)
PROBLEM-
SOLVING
(sol e p oblems
in pe o mance)
PERFORMANCE TYPES
INCLUDED IN THIS RESEARCH
LEADERSHIP
(in luence on pe o mance)
FIGURE 2. Key concep s
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
p oblem-sol ing does no occu . The concep o pe o mance comp ises
abo emen ioned pe o mance ypes: leade ship, w i en handbook
ins uc ions, pe o mance measu emen , and p oblem-sol ing.
Leade ship is unde s ood as he p ocess o in luencing pe o mance.
Pe o mance measu emen indica es he ac o measu ing pe o mance.
P oblem-sol ing is unde s ood as he ac o sol ing p oblems ela ing
o pe o mance. W i en handbook ins uc ions p o ide guidance o
pe o mance. W i en handbook ins uc ions, pe o mance measu emen ,
and p oblem-sol ing a e no only pe o mance. In his chap e , hey a e
also unde s ood as leade ship p ac ices.
Using Pe o mance Measu es in P oblem-Sol ing
– A Theo e ical Pe spec i e on he Topic
This sec ion p esen s a sho e iew on he esea ch li e a u e desc ibing
uses o pe o mance measu es in p oblem-sol ing p ocesses. The aim o his
e iew is o highligh es able hypo heses o he empi ical examina ion.
The li e a u e is used o demons a e ha pe o mance measu es can be
used in each s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess.
Acco ding o Wagne (2014), p oblems can be ecognised by judging
pe o mance agains he expec ed s anda d o pe o mance. In his
p ocess, pe o mance measu es a e used o e i y on a egula basis wha
is happening and wha should be happening i pe o mance s anda ds a e
me . A subs an ial di e ence be ween wha is going on and wha should
be going on e eals he exis ence o a p oblem. By p esen ing an unme
pe o mance s anda d, measu es p o ide a men al model o p oblema ic
pe o mance. P esen ing he p oblem men ally means desc ibing “exac ly
wha is happening, whe e i is happening, when is i happening, and o wha
ex en i is happening” (Wagne , 2014, p. 160–161). Pe o mance measu es
epo wha is happening, whe e and when i is happening, and o wha
ex en i is happening (Ha y, 2006). P esen ing he p oblem men ally
also pu s in o de he knowledge conce ning he p oblem. Pe o mance
measu es also communica e he success o go e nmen p og ams and
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
se ices (Schalock, 2001). By doing so, hey demons a e he e ec i eness
o go e nmen solu ions. Mo eo e , pe o mance measu es a e o en used
o alloca e esou ces o solu ions in budge ing p ocesses (Ha y, 2006).
In summa y, se en hypo heses can be deduced om he p e ious li e a u e.
• Hypo hesis 1: Pe o mance measu es a e used o de ec p oblems.
• Hypo hesis 2: Pe o mance measu es a e used o ep esen
p oblems men ally.
• Hypo hesis 3: Pe o mance measu es a e used o c ea e solu ions
o p oblems.
• Hypo hesis 4: Pe o mance measu es a e used o pu in o de
he knowledge conce ning he p oblem.
• Hypo hesis 5: Pe o mance measu es a e used o assign esou ces
o sol ing he p oblem.
• Hypo hesis 6. Pe o mance measu es a e used o measu e
he de elopmen owa ds he objec i e
• Hypo hesis 7: Pe o mance measu es a e used o assess he solu ion
o co ec ness
Indi ec Leade ship ia Handbook Ins uc ions
This chap e uses leade s’ ins uc ions in measu emen handbooks as
esea ch ma e ial. These ins uc ions we e analysed o in es iga e wha
p oblem-sol ing asks a e ecommended o be done using pe o mance
measu es. The measu emen handbooks examined a e lis ed in Table 1.
The handbooks we e chosen om public sec o o ganisa ions ope a ing
in he Uni ed S a es and om wo mul ina ional companies. In he
public sec o con ex , pe o mance measu emen handbooks issued by
na ional, s a e, and municipal go e nmen s we e examined. The Uni ed
S a es ope a es unde a ede al sys em o go e nmen , whe e he na ional
go e nmen sha es du ies wi h s a e and municipal go e nmen s, such as
coun ies. Measu emen handbooks om he ede al, s a e and municipal
le els we e used wi h an aim owa ds cap u ing empi ical da a om all
h ee le els o go e nmen .
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
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Measu emen handbooks aim o in luence how people beha e a each
s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Thus, he w i e s o hese handbooks
a e exe cising indi ec leade ship. This indi ec leade ship is aimed a
con incing o he s ha pe o mance measu es say some hing impo an
abou an o ganisa ion’s pe o mance. The handbooks sugges ha people
should pay a en ion o hese measu es in p oblem-sol ing. In gene al, he
measu emen handbooks p o ide guidelines on how o use in o ma ion
abou pe o mance (S a e o Washing on, 2016). The pu pose o hese
guidelines is o inc ease he abili y o he o ganisa ion o use such
measu es. These handbooks ha e also been designed o assis wi h he
implemen a ion and use o pe o mance measu es, and hey d i e social
change in o ganisa ions’ p oblem-sol ing p ocesses
(c . E ns & Young [EY], 1995; Fai ax Coun y,
2009). Measu emen handbooks a e also ypically
used o ein o ce he willingness o he o ganisa ion
o use pe o mance measu es (e.g. OPM, 2017).
Deduc i e con en analysis was he esea ch
me hod u ilised o assessing he handbooks. The
ex in he 10 handbooks lis ed in Table 1 was coded
in o se en ca ego ies. The se en coding ca ego ies
eme ged om he se en hypo heses p esen ed in
he li e a u e e iew (see also Appendix 1). I ex
in he measu emen handbooks co esponded o
he coding ca ego y, hen his ex was coded acco dingly. The coding
ca ego ies aimed o add ess whe he o no , acco ding o he handbooks,
pe o mance measu es a e used in di e en p oblem-sol ing s eps.
The analysis e ealed ha all 10 measu emen handbooks desc ibe
how pe o mance measu es should be used a all se en s ages o he
p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Al hough he handbook ins uc ions do no
p esen p oblem-sol ing p ocesses in he same manne as his chap e ,
he ins uc ions indica e ha measu es can be used in each s ep o
he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Nex , a sho o e iew is p o ided o he
measu emen handbook ins uc ions conce ning he p oblem-sol ing
s eps. Du ing his o e iew, he hypo heses de i ed om he li e a u e
a e es ed using he coding amewo k p esen ed in Appendix 1.
Measu emen
handbooks aim o
in luence how people
beha e a each s ep
o he p oblem-
sol ing p ocess.
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
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Nex , Bush’s use o pe o mance measu es in each o he se en s eps o
he p oblem-sol ing is s udied. In he quo a ion abo e, Bush uses economic
expe s and hei pe o mance measu es as a sou ce o in o ma ion when
he desc ibes he inancial c isis as a p oblem. By doing so, Bush comple es
s ep one in he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Bush also o e s e e yday examples
o c ea e a men al model o he p oblem, and while doing so, he indi ec ly
e e s o pe o mance measu es used by economis s, such as s ock ma ke
indexes, c edi a ings, in la ion, and unemploymen s a is ics. This is
s ep wo in Bush’s p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Economis s use economic
o ecas s as pe o mance measu es when hey gi e wa nings o socie y.
The e o e, Bush u ilises hese o ecas s and makes hem unde s andable
o a laype son. The e e yday examples o p oblems embody how he
knowledge is pu in o de in he speech. Pu ing knowledge in o de is
s ep ou in Bush’s p oblem-sol ing p ocess.
As a solu ion, Bush p o ides a plan de eloped “in close consul a ion
wi h” se e al people. The plan is he hi d s ep o he p oblem-sol ing
p ocess. Again, Bush does no use any p ecise pe o mance measu es in his
he o ic. Ins ead, he indica es ha he has elied on he expe ise o Paulson,
Be nanke, and Cox, all o whom ha e economic o ecas s a hei disposal.
Howe e , i is unclea wha p ecise pe o mance measu es Bush has used in
c a ing his plan. By men ioning he help o expe s, Bush adds c edibili y
o his p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Bush also p oposes esou ces o p oblem-
sol ing by sugges ing ha $700 billion dolla s should be used o pu chase
oubled asse s. He e, some measu es acking he oubled asse s a e used.
The budge p oposal is s ep i e in Bush’s p oblem-sol ing p ocess.
Assigning measu es o ack he de elopmen is s ep six o he p oblem-
sol ing p ocess. To ack u u e achie emen s, Bush s a es ha he success
o his plan will be seen in economic g ow h. Economic g ow h poin s o
measu es like g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP) and g oss na ional p oduc
(GNP), which will be used o assess he co ec ness o he solu ion, o in
Bush’s case, he success o his plan. Al hough Bush does no assess he
co ec ness o his plan, he does assess one o he solu ions included in his
plan by e alua ing how he insu ed deposi s ha e wo ked in he pas 75
yea s. By assessing his solu ion ia pe o mance measu es, Bush conduc s
he inal s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess.

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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
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Discussion
This chap e has in es iga ed di ec leade ship p ac ices in which
pe o mance measu es we e used in p oblem-sol ing asks. I also
examined indi ec leade ship ia measu emen handbook ins uc ions by
asking wha asks in p oblem-sol ing a e ecommended o be done using
pe o mance measu es. The aim o he s udy was o map ou he p oblem-
sol ing asks in which pe o mance measu es could be used o se e
leade ship objec i es. As he main inding, cu en leade ship p ac ices
demons a e ha pe o mance measu es can be used o de ec and
ep esen p oblems, o pu in o de he knowledge ela ing o p oblems,
o p o ide solu ions and alloca e esou ces, and o assess solu ions and
p og ess owa ds achie ing goals. This inding con ibu es o p e ious
pe o mance measu emen li e a u e (c . Neely, 2002) by iden i ying how
pe o mance measu es can be used in p oblem-sol ing aimed a se ing
leade ship pu poses. By mapping ou he oppo uni ies o use pe o mance
measu es in p oblem-sol ing, his esea ch p o ides ools o leade s
dealing wi h wicked p oblems.
The second majo con ibu ion is he concep ual model p esen ed in
Figu e 1. This model p o ides concep ual cla i y o he leade ship li e a u e
(c . Yukl, 2013). By showing how hese concep s ela e o each o he and
wha sepa a es hem, his concep ual model cla i ies he language used in
cu en leade ship and managemen li e a u e. Such cla i y will hope ully
ansla e o a be e unde s anding o he phenomena.
The chap e also demons a ed ha he se en-s ep p oblem-sol ing
p ocess can be d as ically di e en depending he agenda o he leade .
Indeed, he wo speeches by he wo o me Uni ed S a es p esiden s
displayed signi ican di e ences wi h ega d o p oblem-sol ing p ocesses.
The mos subs an ial di e ence was ha hey pe cei ed di e en
p oblems and solu ions and hey used di e en me hods o loca e hese
p oblems and solu ions. Fo Obama, he p oblem was income inequali y
whe eas Bush’s p oblem was he inancial c isis. Obama ep esen ed he
p oblem men ally by saying ha “ he op one pe cen o Ame icans we e
cap u ing mo e han 90 pe cen o income g ow h” while Bush desc ibed
ailing banks, expensi e loans, and so on. Obama’s solu ion was u he
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Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
in es men s in in as uc u e and Bush’s solu ion was o buy he oubled
asse s clogging he inancial sys em.
Rega ding hei me hods, Bush based his speech on pe o mance
measu es ha o ecas he u u e, whe eas Obama elied on pe o mance
measu es ha looked a he pas . Mo eo e , he p esiden s used di e en
measu es o de ec ing and ep esen ing p oblems, c ea ing solu ions,
pu ing knowledge in o de , alloca ing esou ces o p oblem-sol ing,
acking de elopmen , and assessing solu ions. Obama and Bush used
di e en measu es because hese measu es we e equi ed o suppo
hei public p oblem-sol ing pe o mance. Fo
example, i Obama had used GDP o demons a e
he income inequali y p oblem, he would ha e
looked i a ional and incompe en o hose who
unde s and wha GDP measu es and does no
measu e. As a measu e, GDP does no explain how
weal h is di ided among ci izens. In ac , GDP
measu es he ma ke alue o all inal goods and
se ices p oduced in a ce ain pe iod ime wi hin
he examined coun y. I Obama had chosen
he w ong pe o mance measu es, he would ha e unde mined his own
pe o mance a each s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Fo his eason,
using measu es such as GDP would no ha e bene i ed Obama’s cause.
Ins ead, by using income inequali y and po e y measu es, Obama was able
o ca y ou he p oblem-sol ing p ocess in a way ha suppo ed his causes
and alues. In a simila ashion, Bush chose measu es ha suppo ed his
agenda and alues. This indica es ha pe o mance measu es can suppo
a leade ’s cause o ac agains i . Con incing leade s selec con incing
pe o mance measu es o back up hei cases.
As a limi a ion, he eade should no e ha he documen sample used
in his esea ch was no s a is ically ep esen a i e. The a ailabili y o
handbooks es ic ed sample collec ion, and pu posi e sampling had
o be adop ed. Thus, he esul s o his s udy canno be gene alised o
he whole go e nmen o he Uni ed S a es o go e nmen s in gene al.
Mo eo e , hey do no e lec how mul ina ional companies usually
see he asks o pe o mance measu es in p oblem-sol ing p ocesses.
Con incing leade s
selec con incing
pe o mance measu es
o back up hei cases.
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Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
Ano he limi a ion ela es o he chosen speeches. The quo a ions om
he speeches we e used only o demons a e how speeches can u ilise
pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing. Empi ical da a was no used
o de e mine how con en ional i is o conduc p oblem-sol ing based on
pe o mance measu es in speeches. Fo his eason, he eade should no
gene alise he indings o his esea ch o all poli ical speeches. Whe he
o no he chosen quo a ions ep esen a ypical way o unde aking
p oblem-sol ing in speeches emains unce ain. Fu u e esea ch could
answe hese ques ions h ough he collec ion o di e en kinds o
empi ical da a. They migh del e mo e deeply in o how public and
p i a e sec o ac o s use pe o mance measu es in hei p oblem-sol ing
p ocesses. I would also be in e es ing o see whe he o no p oblem-
sol ing p ocesses u ilising pe o mance measu es ac ually lead o he
social changes o which leade s a e aiming.
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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es
Copy igh © 2019 Tampe e Uni e si y P ess and he au ho s
Edi ed by Anni Kangas, Johanna Kujala, Anna Heikkinen,
An i Lönnq is , Ha i Laihonen and Julia Be hwai e
Tampe e: Tampe e Uni e si y P ess

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Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es
Appendix 1�
THE RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES AS CODING
CATEGORIES
THE STATEMENTS SEARCHED FROM THE
HANDBOOKS OR PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES
SEARCHED FROM SPEECHES
1. Pe o mance measu es a e
used o de ec p oblems
Pe o mance measu es a e used o iden i y unsuccess ul
pe o mance o p oblems, di icul ies, complica ions, and issues in
he pe o mance�
2. Pe o mance measu es a e
used o ep esen p oblems
men ally
A ailu e in pe o mance can be seen in pe o mance measu es�
3. Pe o mance measu es a e
used o c ea e solu ions o
p oblems
Pe o mance measu es o e solu ions, bes p ac ices,
imp o emen s, de elopmen oppo uni ies, p og ess, and
enhancemen s�
4. Pe o mance measu es a e
used o pu in o de he
knowledge conce ning he
p oblem
Pe o mance measu es eco d pe o mance o e ime�
5. Pe o mance measu es a e
used o assign esou ces o
sol ing he p oblem
Pe o mance measu es a e used o budge ing pu poses�
6. Pe o mance measu es
a e used o measu e he
de elopmen owa ds he
objec i e
Pe o mance measu es ack he p og ess owa ds goal achie emen �
7. Pe o mance measu es a e
used o assess he solu ion
o co ec ness
Pe o mance measu es ell whe he o no he pe o mance is
achie ing he o ganisa ional goals�
TABLE 2. The coding amewo k o he quali a i e con en analysis.