Leadership that Drives Social Change with Performance Measures

201 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es CHAPTER 11 Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es TOMI RAJALA Takeaways o Leading Change This chap e highligh s ha pe o mance measu es can be an in eg al pa o p oblem-sol ing and ha p oblem-sol ing d i es social change. P oblem-sol ing as a leade ship p ac ice is c ucial because i signals o he o ganisa ion wha is impo an o he leade . Iden i ied p oblems ep esen issues ha need o be ixed. The chosen solu ions de e mine which ac ions a e unde aken. In a simila ashion, pe o mance measu es used o p oblem-sol ing e eal some hing abou he leade s and hei alues. By using ce ain pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing, a leade signals wha is aluable and wha is no . Pe o mance measu es a e ya ds icks ha de ine wha ype o pe o mance is app ecia ed and wha is no . This indica es ha alues canno be de ached om pe o mance measu es and p oblem-sol ing. Pe o mance measu es can be used a e e y s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. The choice o measu es o be used a each s ep is c ucial. This choice can ei he suppo o hinde he social change leade s a e a emp ing o engende . The implica ion is ha hose who aim o exe cise leade ship in any o m mus conside wha implemen ing and igno ing ce ain pe o mance measu es signals o membe s o he o ganisa ion and o he s akeholde s. I is also impo an o unde s and how leade s y o d i e social change by shaping pe cep ions h ough he use o ce ain measu es in hei he o ic and w i ings add essing p oblems. 202 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es I has been claimed “ ha p oblems d i e change mo e e ec i ely han oppo uni ies do” (G e e, 2008, p. 200). This no ion is especially ue in complex en i onmen s, whe e hose in leade ship oles equen ly deal wi h wicked p oblems. Because wicked p oblems o en canno be sol ed, conside able e o goes in o ongoing p oblem-sol ing p ocesses and he pu sui o empo al solu ions. Complex en i onmen s highligh he impo ance o p oblem-sol ing. A la ge and accessible in o ma ion base becomes e y aluable when people a e cons an ly ying o keep up wi h wicked p oblems. These canno be ackled wi h simple in o ma ion. Pe o mance measu es he e o e ake cen e s age when e sa ile in o ma ion bases a e equi ed o p oblem-sol ing pu poses. Pe o mance measu es eco d how social change is occu ing (c . Schalock, 2001). Widely used indica o s, such as g eenhouse gas emissions, obesi y, li e expec ancy, household income, income inequali y, in la ion, unemploymen a e, and economic g ow h a e all examples o pe o mance measu es ha eco d how social change occu (c . Ha y, 2006). Because measu es eco d social change, hey a e used o ame he p oblems and solu ions we see in socie y. Fo example, unemploymen s a is ics a e pe o mance measu es which epo he numbe o unemployed people. Leade s can use his measu e when hey sugges ha a gi en numbe o unemployed people is a p oblem. As a solu ion o he unemploymen p oblem, a go e nmen may y o change he si ua ion h ough in e en ions ha help people ob ain jobs. The in e en ion is he go e nmen ’s solu ion o he p oblema ic unemploymen si ua ion. The e ec s o he in e en ion can be measu ed o some ex en ia pe o mance measu es. The pu pose o measu ing hese e ec s is o e eal whe he o no he chosen in e en ion was e ec i e. Because pe o mance measu es can e eal he e ec i eness o solu ions, hese measu es can de e mine he solu ions people choose. I is well known ha p oblem-sol ing and he use o pe o mance measu es a e leade ship p ac ises ha d i e social change (Yukl, 2013). Howe e , i is less clea exac ly how leade ship, social change, pe o mance measu es, and p oblem-sol ing ela e o each o he as concep s (c . Hun , 1991). P ecisely how leade s a emp o c ea e social change by using pe o mance measu es in hei p oblem-sol ing p ocesses is also unclea (c . Yukl, 2013). The pu pose 203 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es o his chap e is o demons a e leade ship p ac ises ha u ilise pe o mance measu es and p oblem-sol ing oge he . I ask he ollowing h ee esea ch ques ions: 1. Wha do leade ship, social change, pe o mance measu emen , and p oblem-sol ing mean as concep s and how do hese concep s ela e o each o he ? 2. Acco ding o measu emen handbook ins uc ions w i en by leade s, wha asks in p oblem-sol ing a e ecommended o be done using pe o mance measu es? 3. How can leade s u ilise pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing in public speeches? The i s esea ch ques ion is answe ed in he nex sec ion by e iewing he exis ing li e a u e. Sec ion 3 p o ides a heo e ical pe spec i e on using pe o mance measu es in p oblem-sol ing. In sec ion 4, he ecommended asks associa ed wi h pe o mance measu es in p oblem- sol ing a e iden i ied om leade s’ ins uc ions as gi en in measu emen handbooks. Sec ion 5 analyses he public speeches by Ba ack Obama and Geo ge W. Bush o demons a e how pe o mance measu es a e used in p oblem-sol ing embedded in public speeches. Sec ion 6 p esen s he discussion and highligh s he implica ions o his esea ch. The chap e iews leade ship and change om an o ganisa ional pe spec i e. This pe spec i e was used because many social changes eme ge and sp ead o wide socie y om o ganisa ions. The esea ch se ing allows cla i ica ion o he concep ual ela ionships be ween key concep s and iden i ica ion o leade ship p ac ises u ilising pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing. De ining Leade ship, Social Change, Pe o mance Measu emen , and P oblem-Sol ing The e a e many di e en de ini ions o leade ship (Al esson, 2017). In his chap e , leade ship is de ined as a ela ional leade ship (Ropo, Salo aa a, Saue , & De Paoli, 2015) which anyone can exe cise. He e, ela ional The pu pose o his chap e is o demons a e leade ship p ac ises ha u ilise pe o mance measu es and p oblem-sol ing oge he . 204 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es leade ship is also unde s ood as an in luence p ocess h ough which social changes in beha iou s eme ge (c . Uhl-Bien, 2006, p. 665). Acco ding o his de ini ion, leade ship in ol es s i ing o in luence social change. In luence e e s o a o ce ha pe son X exe s on pe son Y o change he la e ’s beha iou (c . F ench & Ra en, 1959). This o ce can be di ec o indi ec (Yukl, 2013). Di ec leade ship equi es immedia e con ac be ween hose who lead and hose who a e being led. In indi ec leade ship, people a e in luenced e en hough he e is no di ec con ac be ween hose who lead and hose who a e being led (Jensen & O e man, 2003). This s udy concen a es on bo h indi ec and di ec leade ship p ac ises ha u ilise pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing. Leade s can in luence he beha iou s o people wo king in o ganisa ions indi ec ly by making decisions abou , o example, compe i i e s a egy, o ganisa ional s uc u e, o managemen p og ammes (Yukl, 2013). Ins uc ions in measu emen handbooks, which a e examined in his chap e , a e pa o managemen p og ams ha a emp o change o ganisa ional beha iou . These ins uc ions a e a o m o indi ec leade ship because he w i e s o hese ins uc ions a e no di ec ly in con ac wi h hose who ead he ins uc ions. Ins ead, he w i e s ope a e h ough w i en ins uc ions and he ins uc ions a e he medium h ough which people a e in luenced. The people who a e being led a e in ol ed di ec ly wi h he handbook ins uc ions bu no wi h he leade s. A leade ’s di ec in luence can be di ided in o h ee ca ego ies: ask- o ien ed, ela ions-o ien ed, and change-o ien ed beha iou s. Task- o ien ed beha iou s a e aimed a imp o ing e iciency and p ocess eliabili y o speci ic asks in he o ganisa ion. Rela ions-o ien ed beha iou s ocus on human ela ions and human esou ces wi hin he o ganisa ion. Change- o ien ed beha iou s concen a e on ad ancing “inno a ion and adap a ion o he ex e nal en i onmen ” (Yukl, 2013, p. 281). This chap e ocuses on he la e , by examining how leade s u ilise pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing in public speeches. Social change, as de ined by Vago (1980), is a p ocess o al e a ions in social phenomena. In his chap e , social change is unde s ood as any al e a ion in o ganisa ional pe o mance. In gene al, pe o mance is a socially cons uc ed concep wi h no objec i e desc ip ion. E e y pe son simply de ines 205 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es pe o mance in hei own way (Neely, 2007). In his chap e , pe o mance e e s simul aneously o human ac ion and he esul o his ac ion (c . Neely, 2002). Pe o mance is me ely human beha iou in he o ganisa ional con ex and he ou comes o his beha iou . This can be seen in bo h he o ganisa ion and he su ounding en i onmen (Schalock, 2001). Pe o mance measu es ack o ganisa ional pe o mance. The esea ch li e a u e lis s se e al ypes o pe o mance ha can ake place in an o ganisa ion (Ha y, 2006). Fo he pu pose o his chap e , i is no necessa y o iden i y all ypes o pe o mance ha occu in an o ganisa ion. Ins ead, he ocus he e is on ou ypes o o ganisa ional pe o mance: leade ship, w i en handbook ins uc ions, pe o mance measu emen , and p oblem-sol ing. Because handbook ins uc ions a e he esul o w i ing ins uc ions, hese ins uc ions can be seen as pe o mance (see he de ini ion o pe o mance used in his chap e ). A p oblem can be de ined as a ma e ega ded as unwelcome o ha m ul. I is some hing needing o be deal wi h and sol ed (Ox o d English Dic iona y, 2018). In he con ex o o ganisa ional pe o mance, p oblems a e associa ed wi h ouble in pe o mance. P oblems a e sol ed h ough a p oblem-sol ing p ocess (Da idson & S e nbe g, 2003), and pe o mance measu es can acili a e he p oblem-sol ing p ocess a each s ep (c . Ha y, 2006). Howe e , p oblems can also be sol ed wi hou pe o mance measu es. T adi ionally, he p oblem-sol ing p ocess is desc ibed as a cycle consis ing o he se en s eps p esen ed in Figu e 1. 7. Assess he solu ion o co ec ness 6. Measu e he de elopmen owa ds eaching he objec i e 5. Assign men al, physical and ime esou ces o sol ing he p oblem 4. Pu in o de he knowledge conce ning he p oblem 3. C ea e a solu ion 2. Rep esen he p oblem men ally 1. De ec he p oblem FIGURE 1. The p oblem-sol ing p ocess (adop ed om Da idson and S e nbe g, 2003) 206 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es Figu e 2 summa ises he key concep s in his esea ch and hei in e - ela ionships. As he igu e shows, social change is unde s ood o necessi a e a change in p oblem-sol ing, whe eas p oblem- sol ing encompasses o ganisa ional beha iou ha may o may no be changing. When he p oblem-sol ing changes, a social change occu s. I he p oblem-sol ing does no change, hen social change in (beha iou in he o ganisa ion and i s ou comes) SOCIAL CHANGE (change in p oblem-sol ing) Pe o mance Leade ship p ac ices included in his esea ch PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT (measu e pe o mance) WRITTEN HANDBOOK INSTRUCTIONS (ins uc pe o mance) PROBLEM- SOLVING (sol e p oblems in pe o mance) PERFORMANCE TYPES INCLUDED IN THIS RESEARCH LEADERSHIP (in luence on pe o mance) FIGURE 2. Key concep s 207 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es p oblem-sol ing does no occu . The concep o pe o mance comp ises abo emen ioned pe o mance ypes: leade ship, w i en handbook ins uc ions, pe o mance measu emen , and p oblem-sol ing. Leade ship is unde s ood as he p ocess o in luencing pe o mance. Pe o mance measu emen indica es he ac o measu ing pe o mance. P oblem-sol ing is unde s ood as he ac o sol ing p oblems ela ing o pe o mance. W i en handbook ins uc ions p o ide guidance o pe o mance. W i en handbook ins uc ions, pe o mance measu emen , and p oblem-sol ing a e no only pe o mance. In his chap e , hey a e also unde s ood as leade ship p ac ices. Using Pe o mance Measu es in P oblem-Sol ing – A Theo e ical Pe spec i e on he Topic This sec ion p esen s a sho e iew on he esea ch li e a u e desc ibing uses o pe o mance measu es in p oblem-sol ing p ocesses. The aim o his e iew is o highligh es able hypo heses o he empi ical examina ion. The li e a u e is used o demons a e ha pe o mance measu es can be used in each s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Acco ding o Wagne (2014), p oblems can be ecognised by judging pe o mance agains he expec ed s anda d o pe o mance. In his p ocess, pe o mance measu es a e used o e i y on a egula basis wha is happening and wha should be happening i pe o mance s anda ds a e me . A subs an ial di e ence be ween wha is going on and wha should be going on e eals he exis ence o a p oblem. By p esen ing an unme pe o mance s anda d, measu es p o ide a men al model o p oblema ic pe o mance. P esen ing he p oblem men ally means desc ibing “exac ly wha is happening, whe e i is happening, when is i happening, and o wha ex en i is happening” (Wagne , 2014, p. 160–161). Pe o mance measu es epo wha is happening, whe e and when i is happening, and o wha ex en i is happening (Ha y, 2006). P esen ing he p oblem men ally also pu s in o de he knowledge conce ning he p oblem. Pe o mance measu es also communica e he success o go e nmen p og ams and 208 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es se ices (Schalock, 2001). By doing so, hey demons a e he e ec i eness o go e nmen solu ions. Mo eo e , pe o mance measu es a e o en used o alloca e esou ces o solu ions in budge ing p ocesses (Ha y, 2006). In summa y, se en hypo heses can be deduced om he p e ious li e a u e. • Hypo hesis 1: Pe o mance measu es a e used o de ec p oblems. • Hypo hesis 2: Pe o mance measu es a e used o ep esen p oblems men ally. • Hypo hesis 3: Pe o mance measu es a e used o c ea e solu ions o p oblems. • Hypo hesis 4: Pe o mance measu es a e used o pu in o de he knowledge conce ning he p oblem. • Hypo hesis 5: Pe o mance measu es a e used o assign esou ces o sol ing he p oblem. • Hypo hesis 6. Pe o mance measu es a e used o measu e he de elopmen owa ds he objec i e • Hypo hesis 7: Pe o mance measu es a e used o assess he solu ion o co ec ness Indi ec Leade ship ia Handbook Ins uc ions This chap e uses leade s’ ins uc ions in measu emen handbooks as esea ch ma e ial. These ins uc ions we e analysed o in es iga e wha p oblem-sol ing asks a e ecommended o be done using pe o mance measu es. The measu emen handbooks examined a e lis ed in Table 1. The handbooks we e chosen om public sec o o ganisa ions ope a ing in he Uni ed S a es and om wo mul ina ional companies. In he public sec o con ex , pe o mance measu emen handbooks issued by na ional, s a e, and municipal go e nmen s we e examined. The Uni ed S a es ope a es unde a ede al sys em o go e nmen , whe e he na ional go e nmen sha es du ies wi h s a e and municipal go e nmen s, such as coun ies. Measu emen handbooks om he ede al, s a e and municipal le els we e used wi h an aim owa ds cap u ing empi ical da a om all h ee le els o go e nmen . 209 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es Measu emen handbooks aim o in luence how people beha e a each s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Thus, he w i e s o hese handbooks a e exe cising indi ec leade ship. This indi ec leade ship is aimed a con incing o he s ha pe o mance measu es say some hing impo an abou an o ganisa ion’s pe o mance. The handbooks sugges ha people should pay a en ion o hese measu es in p oblem-sol ing. In gene al, he measu emen handbooks p o ide guidelines on how o use in o ma ion abou pe o mance (S a e o Washing on, 2016). The pu pose o hese guidelines is o inc ease he abili y o he o ganisa ion o use such measu es. These handbooks ha e also been designed o assis wi h he implemen a ion and use o pe o mance measu es, and hey d i e social change in o ganisa ions’ p oblem-sol ing p ocesses (c . E ns & Young [EY], 1995; Fai ax Coun y, 2009). Measu emen handbooks a e also ypically used o ein o ce he willingness o he o ganisa ion o use pe o mance measu es (e.g. OPM, 2017). Deduc i e con en analysis was he esea ch me hod u ilised o assessing he handbooks. The ex in he 10 handbooks lis ed in Table 1 was coded in o se en ca ego ies. The se en coding ca ego ies eme ged om he se en hypo heses p esen ed in he li e a u e e iew (see also Appendix 1). I ex in he measu emen handbooks co esponded o he coding ca ego y, hen his ex was coded acco dingly. The coding ca ego ies aimed o add ess whe he o no , acco ding o he handbooks, pe o mance measu es a e used in di e en p oblem-sol ing s eps. The analysis e ealed ha all 10 measu emen handbooks desc ibe how pe o mance measu es should be used a all se en s ages o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Al hough he handbook ins uc ions do no p esen p oblem-sol ing p ocesses in he same manne as his chap e , he ins uc ions indica e ha measu es can be used in each s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Nex , a sho o e iew is p o ided o he measu emen handbook ins uc ions conce ning he p oblem-sol ing s eps. Du ing his o e iew, he hypo heses de i ed om he li e a u e a e es ed using he coding amewo k p esen ed in Appendix 1. Measu emen handbooks aim o in luence how people beha e a each s ep o he p oblem- sol ing p ocess. 216 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es Nex , Bush’s use o pe o mance measu es in each o he se en s eps o he p oblem-sol ing is s udied. In he quo a ion abo e, Bush uses economic expe s and hei pe o mance measu es as a sou ce o in o ma ion when he desc ibes he inancial c isis as a p oblem. By doing so, Bush comple es s ep one in he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Bush also o e s e e yday examples o c ea e a men al model o he p oblem, and while doing so, he indi ec ly e e s o pe o mance measu es used by economis s, such as s ock ma ke indexes, c edi a ings, in la ion, and unemploymen s a is ics. This is s ep wo in Bush’s p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Economis s use economic o ecas s as pe o mance measu es when hey gi e wa nings o socie y. The e o e, Bush u ilises hese o ecas s and makes hem unde s andable o a laype son. The e e yday examples o p oblems embody how he knowledge is pu in o de in he speech. Pu ing knowledge in o de is s ep ou in Bush’s p oblem-sol ing p ocess. As a solu ion, Bush p o ides a plan de eloped “in close consul a ion wi h” se e al people. The plan is he hi d s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Again, Bush does no use any p ecise pe o mance measu es in his he o ic. Ins ead, he indica es ha he has elied on he expe ise o Paulson, Be nanke, and Cox, all o whom ha e economic o ecas s a hei disposal. Howe e , i is unclea wha p ecise pe o mance measu es Bush has used in c a ing his plan. By men ioning he help o expe s, Bush adds c edibili y o his p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Bush also p oposes esou ces o p oblem- sol ing by sugges ing ha $700 billion dolla s should be used o pu chase oubled asse s. He e, some measu es acking he oubled asse s a e used. The budge p oposal is s ep i e in Bush’s p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Assigning measu es o ack he de elopmen is s ep six o he p oblem- sol ing p ocess. To ack u u e achie emen s, Bush s a es ha he success o his plan will be seen in economic g ow h. Economic g ow h poin s o measu es like g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP) and g oss na ional p oduc (GNP), which will be used o assess he co ec ness o he solu ion, o in Bush’s case, he success o his plan. Al hough Bush does no assess he co ec ness o his plan, he does assess one o he solu ions included in his plan by e alua ing how he insu ed deposi s ha e wo ked in he pas 75 yea s. By assessing his solu ion ia pe o mance measu es, Bush conduc s he inal s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. 217 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es Discussion This chap e has in es iga ed di ec leade ship p ac ices in which pe o mance measu es we e used in p oblem-sol ing asks. I also examined indi ec leade ship ia measu emen handbook ins uc ions by asking wha asks in p oblem-sol ing a e ecommended o be done using pe o mance measu es. The aim o he s udy was o map ou he p oblem- sol ing asks in which pe o mance measu es could be used o se e leade ship objec i es. As he main inding, cu en leade ship p ac ices demons a e ha pe o mance measu es can be used o de ec and ep esen p oblems, o pu in o de he knowledge ela ing o p oblems, o p o ide solu ions and alloca e esou ces, and o assess solu ions and p og ess owa ds achie ing goals. This inding con ibu es o p e ious pe o mance measu emen li e a u e (c . Neely, 2002) by iden i ying how pe o mance measu es can be used in p oblem-sol ing aimed a se ing leade ship pu poses. By mapping ou he oppo uni ies o use pe o mance measu es in p oblem-sol ing, his esea ch p o ides ools o leade s dealing wi h wicked p oblems. The second majo con ibu ion is he concep ual model p esen ed in Figu e 1. This model p o ides concep ual cla i y o he leade ship li e a u e (c . Yukl, 2013). By showing how hese concep s ela e o each o he and wha sepa a es hem, his concep ual model cla i ies he language used in cu en leade ship and managemen li e a u e. Such cla i y will hope ully ansla e o a be e unde s anding o he phenomena. The chap e also demons a ed ha he se en-s ep p oblem-sol ing p ocess can be d as ically di e en depending he agenda o he leade . Indeed, he wo speeches by he wo o me Uni ed S a es p esiden s displayed signi ican di e ences wi h ega d o p oblem-sol ing p ocesses. The mos subs an ial di e ence was ha hey pe cei ed di e en p oblems and solu ions and hey used di e en me hods o loca e hese p oblems and solu ions. Fo Obama, he p oblem was income inequali y whe eas Bush’s p oblem was he inancial c isis. Obama ep esen ed he p oblem men ally by saying ha “ he op one pe cen o Ame icans we e cap u ing mo e han 90 pe cen o income g ow h” while Bush desc ibed ailing banks, expensi e loans, and so on. Obama’s solu ion was u he 218 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es in es men s in in as uc u e and Bush’s solu ion was o buy he oubled asse s clogging he inancial sys em. Rega ding hei me hods, Bush based his speech on pe o mance measu es ha o ecas he u u e, whe eas Obama elied on pe o mance measu es ha looked a he pas . Mo eo e , he p esiden s used di e en measu es o de ec ing and ep esen ing p oblems, c ea ing solu ions, pu ing knowledge in o de , alloca ing esou ces o p oblem-sol ing, acking de elopmen , and assessing solu ions. Obama and Bush used di e en measu es because hese measu es we e equi ed o suppo hei public p oblem-sol ing pe o mance. Fo example, i Obama had used GDP o demons a e he income inequali y p oblem, he would ha e looked i a ional and incompe en o hose who unde s and wha GDP measu es and does no measu e. As a measu e, GDP does no explain how weal h is di ided among ci izens. In ac , GDP measu es he ma ke alue o all inal goods and se ices p oduced in a ce ain pe iod ime wi hin he examined coun y. I Obama had chosen he w ong pe o mance measu es, he would ha e unde mined his own pe o mance a each s ep o he p oblem-sol ing p ocess. Fo his eason, using measu es such as GDP would no ha e bene i ed Obama’s cause. Ins ead, by using income inequali y and po e y measu es, Obama was able o ca y ou he p oblem-sol ing p ocess in a way ha suppo ed his causes and alues. In a simila ashion, Bush chose measu es ha suppo ed his agenda and alues. This indica es ha pe o mance measu es can suppo a leade ’s cause o ac agains i . Con incing leade s selec con incing pe o mance measu es o back up hei cases. As a limi a ion, he eade should no e ha he documen sample used in his esea ch was no s a is ically ep esen a i e. The a ailabili y o handbooks es ic ed sample collec ion, and pu posi e sampling had o be adop ed. Thus, he esul s o his s udy canno be gene alised o he whole go e nmen o he Uni ed S a es o go e nmen s in gene al. Mo eo e , hey do no e lec how mul ina ional companies usually see he asks o pe o mance measu es in p oblem-sol ing p ocesses. Con incing leade s selec con incing pe o mance measu es o back up hei cases. 219 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es Ano he limi a ion ela es o he chosen speeches. The quo a ions om he speeches we e used only o demons a e how speeches can u ilise pe o mance measu es o p oblem-sol ing. Empi ical da a was no used o de e mine how con en ional i is o conduc p oblem-sol ing based on pe o mance measu es in speeches. Fo his eason, he eade should no gene alise he indings o his esea ch o all poli ical speeches. Whe he o no he chosen quo a ions ep esen a ypical way o unde aking p oblem-sol ing in speeches emains unce ain. Fu u e esea ch could answe hese ques ions h ough he collec ion o di e en kinds o empi ical da a. They migh del e mo e deeply in o how public and p i a e sec o ac o s use pe o mance measu es in hei p oblem-sol ing p ocesses. I would also be in e es ing o see whe he o no p oblem- sol ing p ocesses u ilising pe o mance measu es ac ually lead o he social changes o which leade s a e aiming. Re e ences Al esson, M. (2017). S udying leade ship: Taking meaning, ela ionali y and ideology se iously. In J. S o ey, J. Ha ley, J-L. Denis, P. Ha , & D. Ul ich (Eds.), The Rou ledge companion o leade ship (pp. 67–88). New Yo k, NY: Rou ledge. Bonne ille Powe Adminis a ion. (1992). Quali y imp o emen ools. Po land, OR. Bush, G. (2008, Sep embe 24). Speech on inancial c isis and eco e y plan [T ansc ip ]. Ame ican Rhe o ic Online Speech Bank. Re ie ed om h p://ame ican he o ic.com/speeches/ gwbushspeechon heeconomy.h m Da idson, J., & S e nbe g, R. (Eds.). (2003). The psychology o p oblem sol ing. Camb idge, England: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. E ns & Young. (1995). The E ns & Young guide o pe o mance measu emen o inancial ins i u ions: Me hods o managing business esul s. New Yo k, NY: McG aw-Hill. Fai ax Coun y. (2009). A manual o pe o mance measu emen – Fai ax Coun y measu es up. Fai ax, VA: Fai ax Coun y. 220 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es F ench, J.R.P., & Ra en, B. (1959). The bases o social powe . In D. Ca w igh (Ed.), S udies in social powe (pp. 150–167). Ann A bo , MI: Ins i u e o Social Resea ch G e e, H. R. (2008). O ganiza ional ou ines and pe o mance eedback. In M. Becke (Ed.), Handbook o o ganiza ional ou ines (pp. 187–204). No hamp on, MA: Elga . Ha y, H. P. (2006). Pe o mance measu emen : Ge ing esul s. Washing on, D.C.: The U ban Ins i u e. h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/3381242 Hun , J. G. (1991). Leade ship: A new syn hesis. Newbu y Pa k, CA: Sage. Jensen, C. R., & O e man, S. J. (2003). Adminis a ion and managemen o physical educa ion and a hle ic p og ams. P ospec Heigh s, IL: Wa eland P ess. Ken Coun y. (2014). Pe o mance measu emen handbook o manage s. G and Rapids, MI: Ken Coun y. Mul nomah Coun y. (2007). Pe o mance measu emen manual FY 2009. Po land, OR: Mul nomah Coun y. Neely, A. D. (2002). Business pe o mance measu emen : Theo y and p ac ice. Camb idge, England: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. Neely, A. D. (2007). Business pe o mance measu emen : Uni ying heo ies and in eg a ing p ac ice. Camb idge, England: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. Obama, B. (2016, Sep embe 20). Final add ess o he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly [T ansc ip ]. Ame ican Rhe o ic Online Speech Bank. Re ie ed om h p://www.ame ican he o ic.com/speeches/ ba ackobama/ba ackobamauni edna ions71.h m OPM (2017). A Handbook o Measu ing Employee Pe o mance. Washing on, DC: Uni ed S a es O ice o Pe sonnel Managemen . Ox o d English Dic iona y. (2018). P oblem. Ox o d, England: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. Re ie ed om h ps://en.ox o ddic iona ies.com/de ini ion/p oblem P icewa e houseCoope s. (2007). Guide o key pe o mance indica o s. London, England: P icewa e houseCoope s LLP. Ropo, A., Salo aa a, P., Saue E., & De Paoli, D. (2015). Leade ship in spaces and places. Chel enham, England: Edwa d Elga Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.4337/9781783477920 221 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es Schalock, R. L. (2001). Ou come-based e alua ion. New Yo k, NY: Kluwe Academic/Plenum Publishe s. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-1-4757-2399-1 S a e o A izona. (1998). Managing o esul s. 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Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Copy igh © 2019 Tampe e Uni e si y P ess and he au ho s Edi ed by Anni Kangas, Johanna Kujala, Anna Heikkinen, An i Lönnq is , Ha i Laihonen and Julia Be hwai e Tampe e: Tampe e Uni e si y P ess 222 Leading Change in a Complex Wo ld: T ansdisciplina y Pe spec i es Leade ship Tha D i es Social Change Wi h Pe o mance Measu es Appendix 1� THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESES AS CODING CATEGORIES THE STATEMENTS SEARCHED FROM THE HANDBOOKS OR PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES SEARCHED FROM SPEECHES 1. Pe o mance measu es a e used o de ec p oblems Pe o mance measu es a e used o iden i y unsuccess ul pe o mance o p oblems, di icul ies, complica ions, and issues in he pe o mance� 2. Pe o mance measu es a e used o ep esen p oblems men ally A ailu e in pe o mance can be seen in pe o mance measu es� 3. Pe o mance measu es a e used o c ea e solu ions o p oblems Pe o mance measu es o e solu ions, bes p ac ices, imp o emen s, de elopmen oppo uni ies, p og ess, and enhancemen s� 4. Pe o mance measu es a e used o pu in o de he knowledge conce ning he p oblem Pe o mance measu es eco d pe o mance o e ime� 5. Pe o mance measu es a e used o assign esou ces o sol ing he p oblem Pe o mance measu es a e used o budge ing pu poses� 6. Pe o mance measu es a e used o measu e he de elopmen owa ds he objec i e Pe o mance measu es ack he p og ess owa ds goal achie emen � 7. Pe o mance measu es a e used o assess he solu ion o co ec ness Pe o mance measu es ell whe he o no he pe o mance is achie ing he o ganisa ional goals� TABLE 2. The coding amewo k o he quali a i e con en analysis.