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Regional S udies
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Place leade ship and egional economic
de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional
analysis
And ew Bee , Sa ah Ay es, Te y Clowe , Fabian Falle , Alessand o Sancino &
Ma kku So a au a
To ci e his a icle: And ew Bee , Sa ah Ay es, Te y Clowe , Fabian Falle , Alessand o Sancino
& Ma kku So a au a (2019) Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o
c oss- egional analysis, Regional S udies, 53:2, 171-182, DOI: 10.1080/00343404.2018.1447662
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00343404.2018.1447662
© 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
Published online: 04 Ap 2018.
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Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen :
a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis
And ew Bee
a
, Sa ah Ay es
b
, Te y Clowe
c
, Fabian Falle
d
,
Alessand o Sancino
e
and Ma kku So a au a
ABSTRACT
This pape examines he leade ship o places –ci ies, egions, communi ies –in Aus alia, Finland, Ge many, I aly, he Uni ed
S a es and he Uni ed Kingdom and explo es he capaci y o igne es o gene a e new, heo e ical and empi ical insigh s. I
uses igne es o iden i y he ea u es o place leade ship e iden in 12 case s udies ac oss six na ions. The esea ch finds
significan commonali ies in place leade ship wi h espec o he impo ance a ached o bounda y spanning, he ole o
go e nmen o ficials in esponding o he p ospec o egional decline o g ow h and how he na u e o he challenge
con on ing a locali y de e mines he adequacy o he esponse.
KEYWORDS
place leade ship; c oss-na ional; economic ansi ion; egional economic de elopmen ; igne e
JEL R, R5, R58
HISTORY Recei ed 21 Ap il 2017; in e ised o m 22 Feb ua y 2018
INTRODUCTION
O e he pas decade inc easing a en ion has been paid
wi hin egional esea ch o ques ions o ci y and egional
leade ship (Collinge, Gibney, & Mabey, 2010a; Gibney,
2014; No mann, 2013), and he pa played by he delib-
e a i e ac ions o key indi iduals and ins i u ions in shaping
he u u e o places (Ay es, Flinde s, & Sand o d, 2017;
So a au a, 2016; S imson, S ough, & Salaza , 2009).
Quan i a i e esea che s ha e sough o include leade ship
as a a iable wi hin endogenous g ow h models (S imson
e al., 2009), while o he s ha e examined he pa played
by economic-de elopmen p o essionals wo king as a ne -
wo k (Ay es e al., 2017; So a au a, 2009,2010). Some
policy- ocused esea che s ha e asked: Unde which ci -
cums ances do go e nmen agencies ake on he place
leade ship challenge, and how do hose esponsibili ies si
wi h o he dimensions o au ho i y, and he p i a e sec o ?
The e also is an eme ging co pus o wo k ha examines he
ole o highe educa ion ins i u ions as place leade s (Ben-
newo h, Pinhei o, & Ka lsen, 2017; Raagmaa & Kee -
be g, 2017), while o he schola ship has conside ed
leade ship wi hin he con ex o pe iphe al economies
(Ho lings & Pad , 2013; K oehn, Maude, & Bee ,
2010), i s con ibu ion o he eme gence o ‘sma ci ies’
(Nicholds, Gibney, Collinge, & Ha , 2017), and i s ole
in achie ing en i onmen al, economic and social sus ain-
abili y (So a au a, Ho lings, & Liddle, 2012).
Se e al summa ies o place-based leade ship ha e been
p oduced (Bee & Clowe , 2014), and he e ha e been
ecen significan heo e ical con ibu ions (So a au a,
Bee , & Gibney, 2017) a guing place leade ship is
© 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-
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upon in any way.
CONTACT
a
(Co esponding au ho ) and ew[email p o ec ed]
The Uni e si y o Sou h Aus alia Business School, Adelaide, SA, Aus alia.
b
[email p o ec ed]k
School o Policy S udies, Uni e si y o B is ol, B is ol, UK.
c
[email p o ec ed]
Scha School o Policy and Go e nmen , Geo ge Mason Uni e si y, A ling on, VA, USA.
d
[email p o ec ed]kiel.de
Depa men o Geog aphy, Kiel Uni e si y, Kiel, Ge many.
e
alessand [email protected]
The Open Uni e si y Business School, Mil on Keynes, UK.
Ma kku.So a au a@s a .u a.fi; @So a au a
Facul y o Managemen , Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland.
REGIONAL STUDIES
2019, VOL. 53, NO. 2, 171–182
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00343404.2018.1447662
ans o ma i e a he han ansac ional (Collinge e al.,
2010a), and he p oduc o collabo a ion a he han he
e o s o an indi idual (Hamble on, 2015). Place leade -
ship is undamen ally shaped by con ex (Gibney, 2014),
and hus highly di e en ia ed in i s exp ession (Nicholds
e al., 2017). The ci cums ances a ec ing a egion, ci y,
own o small u al communi y de e mine he capaci y o
leade ship o eme ge, and shape he ways in which i is
exp essed (Bee , 2014). While much o he li e a u e is
d awn om he expe ience o ad anced economies, he e
is inc easing ecogni ion o compa able, bu dis inc i e,
dimensions o place leade ship in eme ging economies
(Hu & Hassink, 2017). The e is a consensus ha place lea-
de s ha e he capaci y o influence o he s (Ha ley, 2002;
So a au a, 2009; Sydow, Le ch, Huxham, & Hibbe ,
2011), and i is his eliance on pe suasion ha di e en-
ia es leade ship in egions and ci ies om he leade ship
o hese communi ies (Collinge e al., 2010a).
The social and economic aming o place leade ship
has gene a ed significan challenges wi h many s udies ely-
ing upon case s udies (Pe e s, 2012; Raagmaa, Kindel, &
Lü i, 2012) wi h limi ed a emp s o gene alize findings.
The e o s o S imson e al. (2009) and he O ganisa ion
o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD)
(2009) o include leade ship in hei models o g ow h
ailed o es ablish a sys ema ic amewo k o compa ing
impac s ac oss egions. Epis emologically, place leade ship
has emained an ideog aphic phenomenon, wi h esea ch-
e s p oducing a po olio o in-dep h case s udies bu
unable o d aw conclusions ac oss wide spa ial scales,
economic s uc u es, ime pe iods o sys ems o go e n-
men . A limi ed olume o esea ch has a emp ed ei he
o d aw compa isons be ween na ions (Budd & Sancino,
2016; So a au a & Bee , 2017), o o use o mal su eys
o explo e leade ship- ela ed issues (Smailes, 2002;
So enson & Epps, 1996; So a au a, 2016) o o explo e
long- e m leade ship p ocesses, i.e., leade ship elays
(So a au a & Mus ikkamaki, 2012). O he wo k has
applied new heo e ical pe spec i es, wi h No mann,
Johnsen, Knudsen, Vass om, and Johnsen (2017) examin-
ing he po en ial o field heo y. While hese a e impo an
s eps, g ea e me hodological inno a ion is needed o
enable schola ship o ad ance beyond a collec ion o one-
o and single-case s udies owa ds eplicable compa a i e
esea ch and a eliable cumula i e body o knowledge
abou place leade ship in di e en con ex s.
The objec i e o his pape is o fill a gap in he li e a-
u e on place leade ship by examining a ia ion in he p ac-
ices o place leade ship ac oss six coun ies in o de o
dis inguish hose ea u es ha appea common and hose
ha a e con ex dependen . I makes use o egional econ-
omic de elopmen issues, and does so in ecogni ion o
bo h he c i ical ole o economics in shaping ci y and
egional u u es, and he sea ch by many esea che s o
unde s and be e he social and ins i u ional dimensions
o egional g ow h (Budd e al., 2017; Rod íguez-Pose,
2013).
The pape is s uc u ed as ollows. The nex sec ion
examines he concep ual amewo k ha unde pins
con empo a y unde s andings o place leade ship and i s
ela ionship wi h au ho i y, he ans o ma ion o places
and he sha ing o esponsibili y. The pape hen mo es
on o discuss he me hods used in his esea ch, including
concep ual and p ac ical ounda ions o igne e esea ch.
The hi d sec ion examines he findings and ocuses in pa -
icula on he o e all adequacy o place leade ship in each
case s udy, as well as on he ole o he p i a e sec o and
key indi iduals. A en ion is also paid o he ole o bound-
a y spanning ac oss he six na ions as locali ies a e con-
on ed by new ci cums ances. The pape concludes wi h
a discussion o he majo ou comes o his wo k, including
he finding ha while each coun y is associa ed wi h a dis-
inc i e app oach o, and s uc u e o , he deli e y o place
leade ship, significan commonali ies we e also e iden .
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: PLACE
LEADERSHIP IN REGIONAL ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Why place leade ship in egional de elopmen ?
Fo a long ime, egional economic de elopmen was seen
mainly as a ques ion o in es men s in physical capi al. The
g owing impo ance o he endogenous g ow h heo y in
he 1990s shi ed he a en ion o schola s and policy-
make s inc easingly o issues ela ed o educa ion and
inno a ion (Rod íguez-Pose, 2013). This esul ed in an
e e -g owing body o esea ch ocusing on, o example,
egional inno a ion sys ems (Cooke, U anga, & E xeba ia,
1997), ela ed a ie y a a egional le el (Ha og, Boschma,
& So a au a, 2012), and knowledge flows and knowledge
bases (F a esi, 2015). All his has changed one’s unde -
s anding o egional de elopmen dynamics, and hence
also in e ac i e modes o go e nance a e emphasized
oday mo e han p e iously, as he many s udies d awing
upon he endogenous g ow h heo y emphasize he need
o pool he esou ces, knowledge and capabili ies o many
ac o s.
Consequen ly, he e is a apidly eme ging need o
unde s and who and/o wha p o ides he collec i e de el-
opmen e o s wi h u u e di ec ions, i he ‘policy wisdom’
does no eside only on he op. This again has b ough up
ques ions ela ed o leade ship in egional de elopmen
(Bowden & Liddle, 2017), and he a emp s o shed a
ligh , as So a au a e al. (2017, p. 191) pu i , ‘on he ques-
ions o why, and in whose in e es , leade ship is enac ed in
di e en places and a di e en imes’. Mo eo e , ecog-
ni ion o leade ship in de e mining he pe o mance and
cha ac e o egions places agency, i.e., he ole o he key
ac o s, a he cen e o egional and u ban analyzes and
d aws a en ion o he p ocesses ha inhibi o p omo e
i s eme gence. Hence, inc easing in e es owa ds leade -
ship in local and egional economic de elopmen is a pa
o a u n owa ds ques ions ela ed o agency (Uya a, Fla-
nagan, Mag o, Wilson, & So a au a, 2017). So a au a e al.
(2017) sugges ha a deepe unde s anding o wha can be
labelled b oadly as ‘place leade ship’is one way o shed an
addi ional ligh on issues ela ed o he ela ionship
be ween go e nance and ac o s.
172 And ew Bee e al.
REGIONAL STUDIES
In summa y, he ecen academic and policy li e a u e
shows ha leade ship is an impo an con ibu o o he
success o ci ies and egions (e.g., Bennewo h e al., 2017;
Nicholds e al., 2017;OECD,2009; Raagmaa & Kee be g,
2017; So a au a, 2016). Howe e , i is oo ea ly o seek caus-
ali y be ween leade ship and egional economic de elopmen
as he e is a dange o ending up sea ching o causali y
be ween o mal au ho i y and g oss domes ic p oduc
(GDP) g ow h ins ead o fi s iden i ying he ue na u e
o place leade ship in di e en con ex s (So a au a, 2016).
The concep o leade ship in essence
The na u e, a icula ion and enac men o leade ship
emains a significan a ea o academic endea ou in many
disciplines, especially in managemen and business- ela ed
fields conce ned wi h he pe o mance o la ge o ganiz-
a ions (Bligh, 2006). Despi e his, as Hei e z (2010) main-
ains, people o en equa e leade ship wi h a posi ion o
o mal au ho i y and app oach ans o ma i e challenges
as i hey we e echnical p oblems. He also adds ha
many see leade ship as a se o pe sonal ai s a he han
as se o ac i i ies, o define leade ship as a alue- ee,
ins ead o a alue-d i en, p ac ice. Leade ship s udies
e eal ha , a i s bes , leade ship is a con ex -dependen ,
sophis ica ed and complex a , no a s aigh o wa d man-
age ial and echnical ac (G in , 1997).
Acco ding o Komi es and Dugan (2010), p esen -day
leade ship heo ies app oach leade ship as a ecip ocal and
dynamic p ocess be ween people who pu sue, and seek,
common goals in a alue-based and complex ne wo k
ha needs guidance owa ds he accomplishmen o com-
mon good h ough collec i e ac ion. Leade s a e seen o
be esponsible o de eloping pa hways in collec i e ac ion,
and hence p o ide suppo o ac o s o b oaden hei capa-
bili ies o unde s and complexi y, cla i y ision and con-
s uc sha ed men al models. One main unc ion o
leade s is o enhance collec i e lea ning (Senge, 1990),
and o cho eog aph and di ec sha ed lea ning p ocesses
in complex ne wo ks wi h he aim o boos ing, one way
o ano he , egional de elopmen . As Hei e z (1994)
a gues, a majo challenge is o d aw a en ion o a chal-
lenge, and ha ing secu ed public and go e nmen al in e -
es , deflec i o he issues ha need o be aced and
e amed in a egion (So a au a, 2016).
All in all, leade ship s udies o en ocus on issues ela ed
o go e nance; influence and powe ; social ne wo ks; ol-
lowe s; goals and objec i es; mo emen and di ec ion,
i.e., p ocesses; mobiliza ion; coo dina ion and access o dis-
pe sed se s o esou ces and capabili ies.
Basic ene s o place leade ship
T adi ionally, he ques ion o how leade ship in places is
unde s ood wi h espec o he o mal p ocesses o go e n-
men and au ho i y has been an impo an ocus o scho-
la ship, and he e o e he emphasis has o en been on he
issues ela ed o go e nmen ope a ions in specific
loca ions. O cou se, he in e p e a ion o ‘significa ion’
o place leade ship is c i ical, as ‘ aming’de e mines he
in e ac ions be ween leade s and go e nmen s, ins i u ions
and he communi y (Ben o d & Snow, 2000). Obse -
a ions om con empo a y place leade ship s udies loca e
i no in he a ibu es o indi iduals o go e nmen s uc-
u es as such, bu in he ela ionships connec ing ac o s in
specific places and a ious de elopmen p ocesses. Place
leade ship is hus a scalable concep ha may be used ac oss
di e en le els o spa ial analysis (ci ies, sub- egions,
egions, illages, neighbou hoods e c.) co e ing loca ion (a
specific physical loca ion), locale ( he cons uc ion o a mul-
iplici y o social ela ions) and he sense o place (subjec i e
emo ional a achmen s) (Collinge & Gibney, 2010).
Impo an ly, ollowing Bass and Riggio (2006), place-
based leade ship implies ans o ma ion, bu such a change
can also be inhibi ed by hose who hold o mal au ho i y.
Fo example, he OECD (2009) concluded he de elop-
men o some egions in Mexico was impeded by eli es
who ac ed as a b ake on egional de elopmen because
hey p io i ized hei abili y o main ain local influence.
Simila ly, G ay (1991) no ed he ongoing influence o
landholde s as ga ekeepe s con olling he na u e and a e
o g ow h in u al Aus alia. This ‘ aming’, o sha ed
unde s anding, o place leade ship p o ides social legi ima-
ion o he po en ially dis up i e impac s o leade s who
d i e o acili a e change, a he han sa egua d he s a us
quo. Bu , as So a au a (2016) poin s ou , ans o ma i e
indi iduals may also include ac o s wi h no o mal au h-
o i y who ins ead de i e hei influence om hei capaci y
o pe suade o he s (Smailes, 2002).
As con empo a y wo k on place leade ship s esses, he
need o each beyond issues o o mal au ho i y aises a co e
ques ion abou how indi iduals o g oups may mobilize and
coo dina e ans o ma i e wo k in hei communi ies ha
makes a di e ence. D awing upon F ench and Ra en
(1959), So a au a (2016, pp. 67–68) examined he in e -
ela ionship be ween knowledge and au ho i y, acknowled-
ging six ypes o powe : legi imacy based on posi ions held;
e e en powe ha desc ibes he capaci y o a ac o he s
and build loyal y; he powe o expe ise, which is based
on skill; in o ma ion powe , which enables leade s o pe -
suade o he s; he powe ha comes om being able o
o e ma e ial ewa ds; and powe a ached o he capaci y
o coe ce o he s. C i ically, place leade s ely upon hei
capaci y o influence o he s and ypically ha e access o
some o ms o powe – e e en , in o ma ion and po en-
ially expe ise. Leade ship –as agency –is cen al o
go e nance, wi h he agency o leade ship (Ay es, 2014)
enabling go e nance s uc u es o ope a e in new, mo e
e ec i e, ways (So a au a, 2016, p. 30). Wi hin his con-
ex , i is impo an o unde s and which go e nmen ac o s
ake on he place leade ship challenge, and how hose
esponsibili ies si wi h espec o o he dimensions o
au ho i y. Addi ionally, he place leade ship discou se is
also ocused on he p i a e sec o and i s capaci y o
b ing abou change in ways ha a e beyond he capaci ies
o public ins i u ions (MacNeill & S eine , 2011). The e
is an expec a ion ha p i a e en e p ises a e in eg al o
e o s ei he o a ac new businesses o a egion o o
p o ec agains job loss. Business associa ions o a ious
o ms, such as chambe s o comme ce, a e also a condui
Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis 173
REGIONAL STUDIES
o ep esen ing he egion and ha e he po en ial o lead
change in hei own igh (Bee , Haugh on, & Maude,
2003). In examining place leade ship ac oss na ional
bounda ies, one he e o e needs o unde s and he na u e
and le el o p i a e sec o engagemen .
In many accoun s o place leade ship, one o a small
numbe o indi iduals a e acco ded conside able signifi-
cance in eshaping local communi ies (Kenyon, 2004; So -
enson & Epps, 1996). The e o e, he capaci y o leade s o
eme ge om wi hin he communi y is one key dimension
o place leade ship (Collinge e al., 2010a; Pa kinson,
1990). In compa ing place leade ship ac oss coun ies,
one seeks o unde s and how communi y membe s ise
o posi ions o influence, and he ole o he communi y
oles play in assis ing hei eme gence. Wi hin hese
a eas o enqui y esea che s ha e also conside ed di e -
ences be ween coun ies, including he ways in which he
exp ession o leade ship is specific o indi idual cul u es
due o alignmen wi h b oade social and cul u al alues
(Ha og e al., 1999). C i ically, Ha og e al. (1999,
p. 219) ound ‘specific aspec s o cha isma ic/ ans o ma-
ional leade ship a e s ongly and uni e sally endo sed
ac oss cul u es’. In ha espec , he p esen s udy con ib-
u es o he wide li e a u e in es iga ing he ela ionship
be ween cul u e and leade ship (e.g., Ho s ede, 2001;
House, Hanges, Ja idan, Do man, & Gup a, 2004), and
employing he igne es me hod in ocus g oups ecognizes
he dynamic and in e ac i e na u e o leade ship as a social
cons uc as posi ed by Jepson (2009). Many accoun s o
place-based ac ion conside one-o e en s ha ha e eli-
ci ed an immedia e eac ion om leade s who pool
capaci ies o gi e shape o an e ec i e esponse (K oehn
e al., 2010). Howe e , such a esponsi eness is jus one
dimension o place leade ship. Mo e undamen ally, lea-
de s ac s a egically o se a long- e m ision o he ci y
o egion (S imson e al., 2009; McNeil & S eine ,
2010), which highligh s he impo ance o ocusing on
local o egional pa icula i ies o e na ional s e eo ypes.
S ough, DeSan is, S imson, and Robe s (2001), o
example, obse ed he impo ance o key indi iduals and
ins i u ions in shaping s a egic plans, while So a au a
(2009,2010) documen ed he ways p o essional s a
exe significan leade ship in b inging s a egic plans
in o e ec and/o use hem as ehicles o enhanced com-
munica ion be ween s akeholde s.
A key ea u e o he li e a u e on place leade ship is he
way key indi iduals and agencies sha e esponsibili y o
enac change and span adminis a i e, poli ical and o he
s uc u es (Collinge, Gibney, & Mabey, 2010b). Bounda y
spanning is cen al o place leade ship, wi h he p ocess o
eaching ou o o he s c i ical in d awing in suppo – e e -
en powe ; making use o he legi imacy o a key indi iduals
and agencies; mobilizing expe ise wi hin he communi y;
and accessing he necessa y in o ma ion o gene a e
in o med decisions. In looking o unde s and place leade -
ship ac oss na ions we mus examine he deg ee o which i
is common o all loca ions and how i finds exp ession
unde a ying ci cums ances. Finally, i is easonable o
assume ha place leade ship will no be equally well de el-
oped unde all ci cums ances. Some sys ems o go e n-
men , na ional and egional cul u es, economic s uc u es
and pa e ns o u ban se lemen a e mo e likely o esul
in obus place leade ship when compa ed wi h o he s.
The limi ed olume o wo k o compa e loca ions o e en
na ions lends suppo o his hypo hesis (Budd & Sancino,
2016; So a au a & Bee , 2017). The e o e, we need o shed
a ligh on whe he economic and social challenges a he
egional o u ban scale ecei e adequa e esponses.
METHODOLOGY
Me hodological inno a ion in he analysis o he leade ship
o places calls o he explo a ion o new echniques wi h
he po en ial o p oduce obus , ep oducible and gene al-
izable ou comes. In his pape we conside he igne e
app oach as an addi ion o he epe oi e o ools used by
esea che s ocused on place leade ship, while also es ing
he capaci y o compa e place leade ship p ac ices ac oss
na ions. Impo an ly, igne es enable he gene a ion o
new insigh s in o place leade ship, and along he way es ab-
lish he condi ions ha allow o compa isons ac oss
egions and na ions (Figu e 1).
Colle and Childs (2011, p. 513) desc ibed igne es as
‘de ailed scena ios p esen ed o subjec s, whe e hey a e an
ac o o obse e ’, while Ke linge (1996, p. 23) defined
hem as ‘b ie conc e e desc ip ions o ealis ic si ua ions
so cons uc ed ha esponses o hem –will yield measu es
o a iables’. Vigne es a e widely used by social science
esea che s, especially in disciplines such as o ganiza ional
beha iou and ma ke ing (Wason, Polonsky, & Hyman,
Figu e 1. T ansla ing place leade ship as a concep in o a wo kable me hod.
174 And ew Bee e al.
REGIONAL STUDIES

2002), influenced by he adi ions o social psychology.
The igne e me hod has been subjec o ongoing deba e
and in es iga ion (Colle & Childs, 2011), bu con inues
o be used o e alua e alues and belie s (Finch, 1987)
and he a ia ion in he p ac ices o medical p ac i ione s
(Veloski, Tai, E ans, & Nash, 2005) and social wel a e
sys ems (Fi zpa ick & S ephens, 2014).
Vigne es a e commonly used in leade ship s udies
wi h, o example, Kelloway, Ba ling, Kelley, Com ois,
and Ga ien (2003) applying his echnique o es he
capaci y o g oups o dis inguish be ween s yles o leade -
ship. Impo an ly, igne es ha e been employed in a num-
be o c oss-na ional s udies o social and economic issues.
Gup a, K is ensen, and Pozzoli (2010), o example, dis-
cussed he use o igne es in c oss-na ional heal h s udies
and inco po a ed hose findings in o logi models p edic -
ing heal h ou comes. Mo e subs an i ely, Fi zpa ick and
S ephens (2014) applied igne es o unde s anding how
app oaches o homelessness a ied ac oss six Eu opean
na ions. Thei analysis led hem o conclude alues
embedded in na ional poli ical cul u es de e mined how
homelessness in e en ions we e implemen ed, and shaped
hei e ec i eness. They concluded igne es we e a alid
echnique o explo ing complex social, economic and
poli ical issues and we e an impo an fi s s ep owa ds
la ge-scale da a collec ions ac oss na ions.
We conduc ed ocus g oup discussions in Aus alia,
Finland, Ge many, I aly, he UK and he Uni ed S a es
in o de o explo e how pa icipan in e p e leade ship,
and whe e, and om whom, his migh emana e. (The
chosen cases a e de eloped economies, bu encompass
significan di e ences in hei sys ems o go e nmen ,
economies and social and cul u al no ms; Polli & Bouck-
e , 2004.) Aus alia, Ge many and he Uni ed S a es a e
ede a ions, while he UK, Finland and I aly ha e uni a y
sys ems o go e nmen , wi h powe s delega ed o he
local le el. The deg ee o which decision-making au ho i y
is sha ed a ies e en wi hin hese ca ego ies: Aus alia’s
ede a ion is mo e highly cen alized han ha o he
Uni ed S a es (B own & Bellamy, 2006), while Finland’s
uni a y sys em o go e nmen has a a g ea e deg ee o
powe sha ing (S ough e al., 2001) han e iden in he
UK (Ay es, 2017).
The igne es
In each ocus g oup he pa icipan s we e p esen ed wi h
wo igne es as con as ing scena ios:
.Scena io 1: A la ge mul ina ional co po a ion announces
i is in es iga ing he possibili y o loca ing a new p o-
duc ion acili y in he egion wi h he po en ial o c ea -
ing 2000 jobs. This new in es men would be dependen
on suppo om go e nmen o build i s new acili y,
ex end elec ici y and wa e in as uc u e o i s p e-
e ed si e, and up-skill local wo ke s. I also asks o
elie om local axes o se en yea s.
.Scena io 2: The majo employe in you communi y
an icipa es closing in wo yea s because o alling
demand o i s p oduc , ela i ely high p oduc ion
cos s and a desi e o build new p oduc ion acili ies else-
whe e. The e is li le p ospec o he decision being
e e sed and he closu e ep esen s a majo challenge
because o he impac on bo h di ec employmen and
fi ms in he supply chain. Go e nmen agencies make
a commi men o find al e na i e indus ies o he
egion, while local business leade s seek in es men
oppo uni ies o suppo hei egion.
These igne es we e discussed wi h in o med pa icipan s
a wo ocus g oups pe coun y. Da a collec ion ook place
in he fi s six mon hs o 2016, ollowing pilo ing o he
igne es in each na ion. The esea che s consul ed wi h
place leade s known o hem, bu li ing ou side he selec ed
case s udies, abou he scena ios p esen ed, he ques ions o
be asked and he mos app op ia e app oaches o gene a -
ing a de ailed esponse. The cul u al and poli ical di e si y
embedded in his esea ch p esen ed concep ual and
p ac ical challenges, as he esea che s acknowledged no
all dimensions o place leade ship we e likely o be p esen
in e e y ins ance, and ha s uc u es o go e nmen
and go e nance may ende some dimensions o place
leade ship o c i ical impo ance in one locali y bu i ele-
an elsewhe e. We he e o e accep ed no all opics
would be ge mane in all ci cums ances, wi h he ‘absen ’
esponses o some ques ions as impo an as de ailed
esponses om o he s. Second, he esea ch eam was ca e-
ul o de elop igne es ha we e meaning ul in each
coun y. O iginally, ou igne es we e de eloped and
examined, wi h wo selec ed based on he likely capaci y
o esponden s o make in o med commen , he opicali y
o he issues and hei ele ance o place leade s in each
na ion.
Following e hics app o al he ocus g oups we e unde -
aken wi h wo esea che s p esen , wi h he fi s leading
he discussion and he second aking no es. In some places
he discussions we e eco ded, and his was dependen on
he deg ee o which his p ac ice was accep able o he pa -
icipan s. Focus g oup membe s we e ec ui ed om he
egion and in i ed o pa icipa e based on hei in ol emen
in he de elopmen o hei egions o communi ies, hei
capaci y o influence o shape decisions, and hei p o-
essional oles. A significan p opo ion o in o man s
we e in ol ed in economic de elopmen . Ac oss he 12
ocus g oups pa icipan s we e d awn om a wide a ie y
o occupa ions and sec o s, wi h bo h public- and p i-
a e-sec o ep esen a i es s ongly ep esen ed. The 90
pa icipan s included local go e nmen o ficials, public
and p i a e sec o chie execu i e o fice s, egional
de elopmen s a , indus y associa ions, local go e nmen
councillo s, consul an s, local business bodies, olun a y
sec o ep esen a i es, u ili y p o ide s, ade unions, and
jou nalis s.
Responses we e eco ded o each ocus g oup on a
sp eadshee popula ed wi h p ede e mined ques ions o
maximize he ans e abili y o he in o ma ion ga he ed.
In addi ion, a na a i e was p oduced o each ocus g oup.
Focus g oups we e unde aken in disc e e loca ions in
each na ion included in he s udy (Figu e 2). In I aly,
Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis 175
REGIONAL STUDIES
Be gamo a p o incial ci y in Lomba dy, no h-eas o
Milan, was one subjec o he esea ch. I has a popula ion
o 120,000 pe sons and a b oade egional popula ion o 1.1
million. The second ocus g oup in I aly was conduc ed in
Rie i, a p o incial ci y in he Lazio egion no h-eas o
Rome. Rie i has 48,000 inhabi an s, while i s p o incial
a ea has a u he 160,000 esiden s. The Aus alian case
s udies we e unde aken in and a ound Adelaide, he capi-
al o Sou h Aus alia, a ci y o 1.1 million people. One
ocus g oup was unde aken in no he n Adelaide, a man-
u ac u ing and anspo egion, wi h he second conduc ed
o i s immedia e no h in he Ba ossa Valley, a wine and
ood p oduc ion hub. The US case s udies we e loca ed
nea Washing on, DC in no he n Vi ginia and Ma yland.
In Ge many, Lübeck and Kiel in he no he n pa o he
coun y hos ed he ocus g oups, wi h Lübeck a ci y o
220,000 pe sons ha se es as a majo po on he Bal ic
Sea. Kiel has 240,000 esiden s, is capi al o he s a e o
Schleswig-Hols ein, and is also a ma i ime hub, as well
as a cen e o mos ly mili a y shipbuilding. The Ci y o
Tampe e and he wide Tampe e egion we e he ocus
o he Finnish ocus g oups, wi h he o me popula ion
s anding a 380,000 and he la e a 510,000 pe sons.
O e ecen decades i has been impo an o echnological
indus ies including Nokia and Mic oso , wi h significan
es uc u ing aking place o e he pas decade. Finally, he
UK da a collec ion was unde aken in B is ol, a majo ci y
o 440,000 esiden s in he wes o England. I was one o
he fi s UK ci ies o mo e o an elec ed mayo (Hamble on
& Swee ing, 2015) wi h consequen impac s on public li e
and go e nance.
Each egion in he s udy has expe ienced subs an ial
change o e he pas decade, and he leade ship o hese
places has de eloped echniques and s a egies o accom-
moda ing economic shocks. The s a egies used, howe e ,
ha e a ied wi h expe ience, go e nmen al a angemen s,
indus y s uc u e and poli ical alues.
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
The adequacy o place leade ship
In o de o assess he o e all s eng h o place-based leade -
ship in each case s udy, he pa icipan s we e p esen ed
wi h he wo igne es and hen asked i hey belie ed an
adequa e esponse would be de eloped o each challenge.
Fo his and all o he ocus g oup ques ions, he iews o
he esponden s we e eco ded and a he conclusion he
esea che s assigned a sco e be ween 0 and 10, whe e 0
eflec ed an absen o poo esponse and 10 indica ed a
e y s ong esponse. This summa i e assessmen ecog-
nized ha while o he pa s o he ocus g oup delibe a ions
examined specific ea u es o place leade ship, hey may no
p o ide insigh in o o e all e ficacy. I is no able ha ac oss
he na ions esponden s belie ed app op ia e esponses
would be de eloped o bo h scena ios, al hough scena io
1 was mo e likely o ecei e a s ong esponse and had a
g ea e chance o being add essed well. Also, esponden s
in di e en loca ions wi hin coun ies ga e simila answe s.
The Aus alian ocus g oup esponden s p o ided
mixed pe spec i es when asked i hei egion o commu-
ni y would be able o espond adequa ely o he wo
challenges. Responden s in no he n Adelaide el an
Figu e 2. Selec ion c i e ia o , and cha ac e is ics o , case s udies.
176 And ew Bee e al.
REGIONAL STUDIES
adequa e esponse o scena io 1 was p obable, bu in hei
assessmen a bes possible esponse was unlikely, while
comple e ailu e was possible. The same g oup epo ed
ha any esponse o a majo closu e would be a ec ed by
unde de eloped ad ocacy o he egion. In he Ba ossa
Valley, he p esence o a long-es ablished egional de elop-
men au ho i y mean esponden s we e confiden ha a
s ong esponse would be de eloped o scena io 1, and
an adequa e esponse o scena io 2. This a ia ion be ween
he wo locali ies –only 30 km apa –unde sco es he
locali y specific na u e o place leade ship. The US in o -
man s epo ed a s ong esponse would be deli e ed in
hei egion o bo h scena ios, wi h he economic de elop-
men co po a ions leading. They obse ed he e was
capable leade ship in he egion able o manage hese chal-
lenges. The I alian ocus g oups epo ed a s ong esponse
would be de eloped o scena io 1 and a e y s ong
esponse o scena io 2. The in o man s commen ed ha
a ious place leade s –including mayo s –would wo k
oge he o find solu ions o he impending a i al o a
la ge employe , while he loss o a majo en e p ise would
igge a ange o communi y ac o s wo king oge he .
The B is ol ocus g oup esponden s belie ed a s ong
esponse would be implemen ed o bo h scena ios, hough
hey no ed he lack o coo dina ion a he subna ional le el.
One local councillo no ed he complexi y b ough abou
by he ci y-mayo model: ‘In he pas a company migh
ha e con ac ed he Chie Execu i e o he Ci y Council
bu now i migh be he Mayo .’Impo an ly, local s ake-
holde s belie ed a la ge numbe o g oups and o ganiz-
a ions would be in ol ed in bo h ins ances. The Kiel and
Lübeck esponden s also epo ed a high likelihood o an
e ec i e eac ion o bo h scena ios, wi h economic de el-
opmen agencies leading he esponse in collabo a ion
wi h he mayo . Compa able ou comes we e likely in Tam-
pe e, wi h ocus g oup pa icipan s confiden a obus se o
ac ions would be es ablished. They a gued a decade o
economic es uc u ing had s eng hened hei p ocesses
unde bo h scena ios, wi h he po en ial eluc ance o pol-
i ical leade s o ake isk hei only conce n. In I aly, he e
was a ela i ely high deg ee o confidence in bo h he ocus
g oups on he capaci y o he place sys em o deal wi h he
wo challenges desc ibed, whe e he loss o a fi m being a
case pa icula ly opical o he I alian con ex ; howe e ,
in e es ingly, he o e all high adequacy o place leade ship
was conside ed as such by he key con ibu ions ha would
come om ci ic, non- adi ional leade s (e.g., social en e-
p eneu s and hi d-sec o /communi y leade s) and om
dense and in o mal ela ionships p e-exis ing by all he
di e en ypes o leade s, a he han by he us in he
ole o o mal ins i u ions such as he Eu opean Union o
local/ egional de elopmen bodies and/o in s a egic plans.
Fi ms as leade s
Much o he li e a u e sugges s ha p i a e sec o fi ms
may ha e he capaci y o p o ide leade ship in ways no
possible in he public sec o (MacNeill & S eine , 2011)
and pa icipan s in he ocus g oups we e asked o conside
wha ole businesses would play in esponding o he wo
scena ios. Significan ly, in all ins ances, bo h fi ms and
hei senio s a we e mo e likely o play a leade ship
ole when a business was en e ing he egion a he han
depa ing. In addi ion, fi m engagemen wi h scena io 1
was likely o be mode a ed by he ac ions o a local business
associa ion, which could be aligned o a specific sec o .
In he wo US ocus g oups, he leade s o majo com-
panies we e seen o be occasional pa icipan s in a ac ing
new fi ms o he egion and chambe s o comme ce we e
in equen ly in ol ed. Responden s no ed hei engage-
men was on ‘a case-by-case basis’, al hough in some coun-
ies he e we e ela ionships be ween local go e nmen and
banke s ha esul ed in a high le el o engagemen . The
p i a e sec o and i s senio s a we e less likely o espond
o a shu down, wi h hei ole es ic ed o conside ing hi -
ing e enched s a . A simila se o a angemen s was e i-
den in Tampe e and i s egion, wi h p i a e-sec o leade s
only pa icipa ing in he de elopmen o job-a ac ion
esponses occasionally, and unlikely o be engaged wi h
an impending shu down. In Kiel and Lübeck, and again
in Be gamo and Rie i, he e was a clea sense ha he
depa u e o a fi m was a ma e o unions and labou
laws, wi h indi idual fi ms only in ol ed i pa s o he ou -
going en e p ise could be bough by ano he business. By
con as , he p i a e sec o was likely o pa icipa e in
a ac ing a new fi m o a egion in B is ol, wi h he
chambe o comme ce and indus y bodies such as he
Wes o England Ae ospace Fo um cen al. UK legisla ion
equi ing a wo-yea no ice o closu e mean indi idual
fi ms, as well as ade bodies and he Ins i u e o Di ec o s
(IoD), would con ibu e o local esponses. In he wo I a-
lian case s udies, business associa ions, a he han indi id-
ual businesses, would be significan in aming egional
esponses o change. The e i o ial b anch o Confindus-
ia would assis incoming fi ms es ablish local con ac s,
bu would play a lesse ole wi h a depa ing fi m. Respon-
den s om he Aus alian ocus g oups p esen ed a pic u e
b oadly simila o he a angemen s e iden in o he
na ions. Indi idual p i a e businesses we e mo e likely o
pa icipa e in e o s o b ing a fi m o a egion han man-
age he depa u e o an en e p ise, and he e was a s ong
sec o al dimension o hei in ol emen . Fi ms joining an
es ablished o g owing indus y –de ence o no he n
Adelaide, wine o he Ba ossa Valley –we e likely o see
o he fi ms acili a e hei ec ui men . Such acili a ion,
howe e , included a deg ee o sel -in e es as:
In some ins ances local leade s would oppose a compe i o
coming in –e.g. in de ence –bu in some cases hey would
help oll ou he welcome ma and help a ac hem …depends
on he indus y ha he local leade is wo king in, ( hey) would
ce ainly do i i hey saw an ad an age o hem.
(pa icipan 1, no he n Adelaide)
Leade ship wi hin he communi y
The ocus g oups asked a numbe o specific ques ions
abou he ole o key indi iduals and he pa hey would
play in making sense o fi m a i als o depa u es. The
Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis 177
REGIONAL STUDIES
Aus alian in o man s we e clea in hei opinion ha key
indi iduals wi hin he communi y would no be impo an
in o ming a esponse o ei he a plan closu e o he
announcemen o a new majo employe . Responden s
also el ha he communi y would no look o local leade s
o in e p e hese e en s o hem, no would hese indi id-
uals seek o do so, la gely because ‘ his is only bad publici y’
(pa icipan 3). The Finnish ocus g oups p oduced com-
pa able ou comes, wi h he in o man s no ing ha confi-
den iali y equi emen s o en p ecluded public deba e and
ha p o essional s a would be cen al o bo h nego ia ions
and he implemen a ion o plans. S a kly di e en ou -
comes we e e iden in Be gamo and Rie i, whe e he
mayo –as an indi idual wi h a legi imacy bes owed by
elec ion –was acknowledged as cen al (Sancino & Cas el-
lani, 2016) in bo h he challenges; pa icula ly, he mayo
was seen as cen al o de eloping an adequa e esponse
and wo king wi h o he s, including he ade unions, uni-
e si ies and he chu ch, o make sense o he p ocess o
change. In B is ol his iew was echoed by a olun a y-sec-
o esponden who sugges ed ha ‘ he Mayo has a key
ole in wo king wi h communi ies o leade s o coo dina e
a esponse’. In Kiel and Lübeck, a co e ole was a ibu ed
o he heads o he municipali y’s business de elopmen
agency and pa icula ac o s om he chambe o com-
me ce and indus y: ‘ he e a e ce ain aces ha always
show up when we alk abou hese economic scena ios’
(pa icipan 1, Kiel). In Kiel, he mayo was seen as mos
impo an o incoming fi ms a an ea ly s age o loca ional
decision (he would e e hem o he municipali y’s
business de elopmen agency); in Lübeck, he mayo was
seen as c ucial o communica ing pa icula ly losses o
fi ms o ci izens. The Vi ginia ocus g oups saw local econ-
omic de elopmen p ac i ione s as he key indi iduals
esponding o an incoming fi m, while he Ma yland
ocus g oup nomina ed he p esiden o he local uni e si y
o communi y college as cen al. In a simila ein, ano he
ins i u ion and i s membe s – he local wo k o ce boa d –
was seen as c i ical o making sense o he p ocess o change
o he wide communi y.
In agg ega e, leade s d awn om he b oade commu-
ni y we e seen o ha e a modes ole in ini ia ing esponses
o majo employmen change and in in e p e ing his se o
e en s o o he s. The wo I alian and Ge man case s udies
we e an excep ion, bu as an elec ed and paid o ficial wi h
s a , hei leade ship can be in e p e ed as a unc ion o
hei poli ical and p o essional esponsibili ies. Elsewhe e,
he sense o p o essionalized leade ship was no iceable,
especially in he Uni ed S a es and Finland. Economic
de elopmen o ficials wo king ac oss a ange o agencies
we e seen o guide esponses o bo h plan closu e and
inwa d in es men , and his finding is consis en wi h con-
empo a y accoun s o he ne wo king ac i i ies and ins i-
u ional en ep eneu ship o economic de elopmen s a
in many ad anced economies (So a au a, 2009,2010;
So a au a & Mus ikkamaki, 2012). In he wo US ocus
g oups, esponden s epo ed leade s o majo highe edu-
ca ion ins i u ions –communi y colleges and uni e si ies –
would po en ially play impo an oles in making sense o
change, bu in o man s a he Ge man and Finnish ocus
g oups a gued ha he de elopmen o his na a i e o
economic ans o ma ion would no eside wi hin he com-
muni y, bu ins ead si wi hin adminis a i e s uc u es.
The UK pa icipan s in he wo ocus g oups el indi id-
uals om leading fi ms would wo k wi h hei pee s o
find solu ions and de elop esponses ha eflec he com-
muni y o businesses wi hin he egion. In con as , pa ici-
pan s in he ocus g oups unde aken in and a ound
Adelaide obse ed key indi idual leade s would no lead a
communi y-wide discussion o he p ocesses o egional
change, no would ha challenge be aken on by go e n-
men p o essionals.
Bounda y spanning and he leade ship o
p o essionals
As no ed abo e, he capaci y o place leade s o span
bounda ies o es ablish new ela ionships and find new sol-
u ions o he oppo uni ies and challenges in on o a
egion is well documen ed in he li e a u e (Collinge
e al., 2010b). In all 12 ocus g oups in o man s we e
asked o eflec upon he deg ee o which bounda y span-
ning akes place, wi h he Eu opean in o man s epo ing
ha i would ake place o a high deg ee o o a e y high
deg ee unde bo h scena ios 1 and 2. The pa icipan s in
he US ocus g oups a ached a lesse p io i y and signifi-
cance o bounda y spanning, and in pa his was d i en
by a s ong ocus on comme cial confiden iali y. Key in o -
man s in he ocus g oups in no he n Adelaide and he
Ba ossa Valley epo ed place leade s we e mo e likely o
espond by looking o he esou ces wi hin hei esponsi-
bili y, and we e less likely o each ac oss bounda ies –
especially go e nmen al bounda ies – o achie e be e ou -
comes. This highly siloed app oach o egional de elop-
men is cha ac e is ic o egional de elopmen in
Aus alia (Bee , 2015).
Pa icipan s in he Finland ocus g oups had no doub
ha bounda y spanning and ne wo king would be a cen al
pa o he esponse o bo h scena ios. In hei iew, he
o mal –local go e nmen -led –p ocesses es ablished o
deal wi h economic de elopmen issues would p o ide
he co e o any eac ion, bu hese s uc u es would be
assis ed by he in o mal discussion o ideas and op ions.
By con as , he Aus alian ocus g oups p esen ed a
mo e equi ocal pic u e wi h espec o eaching ac oss
bounda ies: he fi s ocus g oup –as wi h hei I alian
pee s –sugges ed es ablished policy and p og amme
‘silos’(F oy & Gigue e, 2010) would emain in place,
wi h each go e nmen agency ac ing in isola ion. The
second g oup a gued limi ed bounda y spanning would
ake place, la gely amongs agencies seeking o mode a e
he impac o job losses. The wo B is ol ocus g oups
sugges ed a p ocess o bounda y spanning ha sa be ween
he Finnish and Aus alian expe ience. In bo h se s o dis-
cussions, and unde bo h scena ios, he in o man s belie ed
bounda y spanning would occu , bu in a somewha chao ic
and ad hoc ashion. Some el ha his was ‘o en he p o-
duc o mo e in o mal o social ela ionships be ween ci y
leade s, a he han wo king h ough mo e o mal ci y
178 And ew Bee e al.
REGIONAL STUDIES