Place leadership and regional economic development: a framework for cross-regional analysis

Full Te ms & Condi ions o access and use can be ound a h p://www. and online.com/ac ion/jou nalIn o ma ion?jou nalCode=c es20 Regional S udies ISSN: 0034-3404 (P in ) 1360-0591 (Online) Jou nal homepage: h p://www. and online.com/loi/c es20 Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis And ew Bee , Sa ah Ay es, Te y Clowe , Fabian Falle , Alessand o Sancino & Ma kku So a au a To ci e his a icle: And ew Bee , Sa ah Ay es, Te y Clowe , Fabian Falle , Alessand o Sancino & Ma kku So a au a (2019) Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis, Regional S udies, 53:2, 171-182, DOI: 10.1080/00343404.2018.1447662 To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00343404.2018.1447662 © 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup Published online: 04 Ap 2018. Submi you a icle o his jou nal A icle iews: 2746 View C ossma k da a Ci ing a icles: 3 View ci ing a icles Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis And ew Bee a , Sa ah Ay es b , Te y Clowe c , Fabian Falle d , Alessand o Sancino e and Ma kku So a au a ABSTRACT This pape examines he leade ship o places –ci ies, egions, communi ies –in Aus alia, Finland, Ge many, I aly, he Uni ed S a es and he Uni ed Kingdom and explo es he capaci y o igne es o gene a e new, heo e ical and empi ical insigh s. I uses igne es o iden i y he ea u es o place leade ship e iden in 12 case s udies ac oss six na ions. The esea ch finds significan commonali ies in place leade ship wi h espec o he impo ance a ached o bounda y spanning, he ole o go e nmen o ficials in esponding o he p ospec o egional decline o g ow h and how he na u e o he challenge con on ing a locali y de e mines he adequacy o he esponse. KEYWORDS place leade ship; c oss-na ional; economic ansi ion; egional economic de elopmen ; igne e JEL R, R5, R58 HISTORY Recei ed 21 Ap il 2017; in e ised o m 22 Feb ua y 2018 INTRODUCTION O e he pas decade inc easing a en ion has been paid wi hin egional esea ch o ques ions o ci y and egional leade ship (Collinge, Gibney, & Mabey, 2010a; Gibney, 2014; No mann, 2013), and he pa played by he delib- e a i e ac ions o key indi iduals and ins i u ions in shaping he u u e o places (Ay es, Flinde s, & Sand o d, 2017; So a au a, 2016; S imson, S ough, & Salaza , 2009). Quan i a i e esea che s ha e sough o include leade ship as a a iable wi hin endogenous g ow h models (S imson e al., 2009), while o he s ha e examined he pa played by economic-de elopmen p o essionals wo king as a ne - wo k (Ay es e al., 2017; So a au a, 2009,2010). Some policy- ocused esea che s ha e asked: Unde which ci - cums ances do go e nmen agencies ake on he place leade ship challenge, and how do hose esponsibili ies si wi h o he dimensions o au ho i y, and he p i a e sec o ? The e also is an eme ging co pus o wo k ha examines he ole o highe educa ion ins i u ions as place leade s (Ben- newo h, Pinhei o, & Ka lsen, 2017; Raagmaa & Kee - be g, 2017), while o he schola ship has conside ed leade ship wi hin he con ex o pe iphe al economies (Ho lings & Pad , 2013; K oehn, Maude, & Bee , 2010), i s con ibu ion o he eme gence o ‘sma ci ies’ (Nicholds, Gibney, Collinge, & Ha , 2017), and i s ole in achie ing en i onmen al, economic and social sus ain- abili y (So a au a, Ho lings, & Liddle, 2012). Se e al summa ies o place-based leade ship ha e been p oduced (Bee & Clowe , 2014), and he e ha e been ecen significan heo e ical con ibu ions (So a au a, Bee , & Gibney, 2017) a guing place leade ship is © 2018 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc- nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way. CONTACT a (Co esponding au ho ) and ew[email p o ec ed] The Uni e si y o Sou h Aus alia Business School, Adelaide, SA, Aus alia. b [email p o ec ed]k School o Policy S udies, Uni e si y o B is ol, B is ol, UK. c [email p o ec ed] Scha School o Policy and Go e nmen , Geo ge Mason Uni e si y, A ling on, VA, USA. d [email p o ec ed]kiel.de Depa men o Geog aphy, Kiel Uni e si y, Kiel, Ge many. e alessand [email protected] The Open Uni e si y Business School, Mil on Keynes, UK. Ma kku.So a au a@s a .u a.fi; @So a au a Facul y o Managemen , Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland. REGIONAL STUDIES 2019, VOL. 53, NO. 2, 171–182 h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00343404.2018.1447662 ans o ma i e a he han ansac ional (Collinge e al., 2010a), and he p oduc o collabo a ion a he han he e o s o an indi idual (Hamble on, 2015). Place leade - ship is undamen ally shaped by con ex (Gibney, 2014), and hus highly di e en ia ed in i s exp ession (Nicholds e al., 2017). The ci cums ances a ec ing a egion, ci y, own o small u al communi y de e mine he capaci y o leade ship o eme ge, and shape he ways in which i is exp essed (Bee , 2014). While much o he li e a u e is d awn om he expe ience o ad anced economies, he e is inc easing ecogni ion o compa able, bu dis inc i e, dimensions o place leade ship in eme ging economies (Hu & Hassink, 2017). The e is a consensus ha place lea- de s ha e he capaci y o influence o he s (Ha ley, 2002; So a au a, 2009; Sydow, Le ch, Huxham, & Hibbe , 2011), and i is his eliance on pe suasion ha di e en- ia es leade ship in egions and ci ies om he leade ship o hese communi ies (Collinge e al., 2010a). The social and economic aming o place leade ship has gene a ed significan challenges wi h many s udies ely- ing upon case s udies (Pe e s, 2012; Raagmaa, Kindel, & Lü i, 2012) wi h limi ed a emp s o gene alize findings. The e o s o S imson e al. (2009) and he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD) (2009) o include leade ship in hei models o g ow h ailed o es ablish a sys ema ic amewo k o compa ing impac s ac oss egions. Epis emologically, place leade ship has emained an ideog aphic phenomenon, wi h esea ch- e s p oducing a po olio o in-dep h case s udies bu unable o d aw conclusions ac oss wide spa ial scales, economic s uc u es, ime pe iods o sys ems o go e n- men . A limi ed olume o esea ch has a emp ed ei he o d aw compa isons be ween na ions (Budd & Sancino, 2016; So a au a & Bee , 2017), o o use o mal su eys o explo e leade ship- ela ed issues (Smailes, 2002; So enson & Epps, 1996; So a au a, 2016) o o explo e long- e m leade ship p ocesses, i.e., leade ship elays (So a au a & Mus ikkamaki, 2012). O he wo k has applied new heo e ical pe spec i es, wi h No mann, Johnsen, Knudsen, Vass om, and Johnsen (2017) examin- ing he po en ial o field heo y. While hese a e impo an s eps, g ea e me hodological inno a ion is needed o enable schola ship o ad ance beyond a collec ion o one- o and single-case s udies owa ds eplicable compa a i e esea ch and a eliable cumula i e body o knowledge abou place leade ship in di e en con ex s. The objec i e o his pape is o fill a gap in he li e a- u e on place leade ship by examining a ia ion in he p ac- ices o place leade ship ac oss six coun ies in o de o dis inguish hose ea u es ha appea common and hose ha a e con ex dependen . I makes use o egional econ- omic de elopmen issues, and does so in ecogni ion o bo h he c i ical ole o economics in shaping ci y and egional u u es, and he sea ch by many esea che s o unde s and be e he social and ins i u ional dimensions o egional g ow h (Budd e al., 2017; Rod íguez-Pose, 2013). The pape is s uc u ed as ollows. The nex sec ion examines he concep ual amewo k ha unde pins con empo a y unde s andings o place leade ship and i s ela ionship wi h au ho i y, he ans o ma ion o places and he sha ing o esponsibili y. The pape hen mo es on o discuss he me hods used in his esea ch, including concep ual and p ac ical ounda ions o igne e esea ch. The hi d sec ion examines he findings and ocuses in pa - icula on he o e all adequacy o place leade ship in each case s udy, as well as on he ole o he p i a e sec o and key indi iduals. A en ion is also paid o he ole o bound- a y spanning ac oss he six na ions as locali ies a e con- on ed by new ci cums ances. The pape concludes wi h a discussion o he majo ou comes o his wo k, including he finding ha while each coun y is associa ed wi h a dis- inc i e app oach o, and s uc u e o , he deli e y o place leade ship, significan commonali ies we e also e iden . CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: PLACE LEADERSHIP IN REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Why place leade ship in egional de elopmen ? Fo a long ime, egional economic de elopmen was seen mainly as a ques ion o in es men s in physical capi al. The g owing impo ance o he endogenous g ow h heo y in he 1990s shi ed he a en ion o schola s and policy- make s inc easingly o issues ela ed o educa ion and inno a ion (Rod íguez-Pose, 2013). This esul ed in an e e -g owing body o esea ch ocusing on, o example, egional inno a ion sys ems (Cooke, U anga, & E xeba ia, 1997), ela ed a ie y a a egional le el (Ha og, Boschma, & So a au a, 2012), and knowledge flows and knowledge bases (F a esi, 2015). All his has changed one’s unde - s anding o egional de elopmen dynamics, and hence also in e ac i e modes o go e nance a e emphasized oday mo e han p e iously, as he many s udies d awing upon he endogenous g ow h heo y emphasize he need o pool he esou ces, knowledge and capabili ies o many ac o s. Consequen ly, he e is a apidly eme ging need o unde s and who and/o wha p o ides he collec i e de el- opmen e o s wi h u u e di ec ions, i he ‘policy wisdom’ does no eside only on he op. This again has b ough up ques ions ela ed o leade ship in egional de elopmen (Bowden & Liddle, 2017), and he a emp s o shed a ligh , as So a au a e al. (2017, p. 191) pu i , ‘on he ques- ions o why, and in whose in e es , leade ship is enac ed in di e en places and a di e en imes’. Mo eo e , ecog- ni ion o leade ship in de e mining he pe o mance and cha ac e o egions places agency, i.e., he ole o he key ac o s, a he cen e o egional and u ban analyzes and d aws a en ion o he p ocesses ha inhibi o p omo e i s eme gence. Hence, inc easing in e es owa ds leade - ship in local and egional economic de elopmen is a pa o a u n owa ds ques ions ela ed o agency (Uya a, Fla- nagan, Mag o, Wilson, & So a au a, 2017). So a au a e al. (2017) sugges ha a deepe unde s anding o wha can be labelled b oadly as ‘place leade ship’is one way o shed an addi ional ligh on issues ela ed o he ela ionship be ween go e nance and ac o s. 172 And ew Bee e al. REGIONAL STUDIES In summa y, he ecen academic and policy li e a u e shows ha leade ship is an impo an con ibu o o he success o ci ies and egions (e.g., Bennewo h e al., 2017; Nicholds e al., 2017;OECD,2009; Raagmaa & Kee be g, 2017; So a au a, 2016). Howe e , i is oo ea ly o seek caus- ali y be ween leade ship and egional economic de elopmen as he e is a dange o ending up sea ching o causali y be ween o mal au ho i y and g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP) g ow h ins ead o fi s iden i ying he ue na u e o place leade ship in di e en con ex s (So a au a, 2016). The concep o leade ship in essence The na u e, a icula ion and enac men o leade ship emains a significan a ea o academic endea ou in many disciplines, especially in managemen and business- ela ed fields conce ned wi h he pe o mance o la ge o ganiz- a ions (Bligh, 2006). Despi e his, as Hei e z (2010) main- ains, people o en equa e leade ship wi h a posi ion o o mal au ho i y and app oach ans o ma i e challenges as i hey we e echnical p oblems. He also adds ha many see leade ship as a se o pe sonal ai s a he han as se o ac i i ies, o define leade ship as a alue- ee, ins ead o a alue-d i en, p ac ice. Leade ship s udies e eal ha , a i s bes , leade ship is a con ex -dependen , sophis ica ed and complex a , no a s aigh o wa d man- age ial and echnical ac (G in , 1997). Acco ding o Komi es and Dugan (2010), p esen -day leade ship heo ies app oach leade ship as a ecip ocal and dynamic p ocess be ween people who pu sue, and seek, common goals in a alue-based and complex ne wo k ha needs guidance owa ds he accomplishmen o com- mon good h ough collec i e ac ion. Leade s a e seen o be esponsible o de eloping pa hways in collec i e ac ion, and hence p o ide suppo o ac o s o b oaden hei capa- bili ies o unde s and complexi y, cla i y ision and con- s uc sha ed men al models. One main unc ion o leade s is o enhance collec i e lea ning (Senge, 1990), and o cho eog aph and di ec sha ed lea ning p ocesses in complex ne wo ks wi h he aim o boos ing, one way o ano he , egional de elopmen . As Hei e z (1994) a gues, a majo challenge is o d aw a en ion o a chal- lenge, and ha ing secu ed public and go e nmen al in e - es , deflec i o he issues ha need o be aced and e amed in a egion (So a au a, 2016). All in all, leade ship s udies o en ocus on issues ela ed o go e nance; influence and powe ; social ne wo ks; ol- lowe s; goals and objec i es; mo emen and di ec ion, i.e., p ocesses; mobiliza ion; coo dina ion and access o dis- pe sed se s o esou ces and capabili ies. Basic ene s o place leade ship T adi ionally, he ques ion o how leade ship in places is unde s ood wi h espec o he o mal p ocesses o go e n- men and au ho i y has been an impo an ocus o scho- la ship, and he e o e he emphasis has o en been on he issues ela ed o go e nmen ope a ions in specific loca ions. O cou se, he in e p e a ion o ‘significa ion’ o place leade ship is c i ical, as ‘ aming’de e mines he in e ac ions be ween leade s and go e nmen s, ins i u ions and he communi y (Ben o d & Snow, 2000). Obse - a ions om con empo a y place leade ship s udies loca e i no in he a ibu es o indi iduals o go e nmen s uc- u es as such, bu in he ela ionships connec ing ac o s in specific places and a ious de elopmen p ocesses. Place leade ship is hus a scalable concep ha may be used ac oss di e en le els o spa ial analysis (ci ies, sub- egions, egions, illages, neighbou hoods e c.) co e ing loca ion (a specific physical loca ion), locale ( he cons uc ion o a mul- iplici y o social ela ions) and he sense o place (subjec i e emo ional a achmen s) (Collinge & Gibney, 2010). Impo an ly, ollowing Bass and Riggio (2006), place- based leade ship implies ans o ma ion, bu such a change can also be inhibi ed by hose who hold o mal au ho i y. Fo example, he OECD (2009) concluded he de elop- men o some egions in Mexico was impeded by eli es who ac ed as a b ake on egional de elopmen because hey p io i ized hei abili y o main ain local influence. Simila ly, G ay (1991) no ed he ongoing influence o landholde s as ga ekeepe s con olling he na u e and a e o g ow h in u al Aus alia. This ‘ aming’, o sha ed unde s anding, o place leade ship p o ides social legi ima- ion o he po en ially dis up i e impac s o leade s who d i e o acili a e change, a he han sa egua d he s a us quo. Bu , as So a au a (2016) poin s ou , ans o ma i e indi iduals may also include ac o s wi h no o mal au h- o i y who ins ead de i e hei influence om hei capaci y o pe suade o he s (Smailes, 2002). As con empo a y wo k on place leade ship s esses, he need o each beyond issues o o mal au ho i y aises a co e ques ion abou how indi iduals o g oups may mobilize and coo dina e ans o ma i e wo k in hei communi ies ha makes a di e ence. D awing upon F ench and Ra en (1959), So a au a (2016, pp. 67–68) examined he in e - ela ionship be ween knowledge and au ho i y, acknowled- ging six ypes o powe : legi imacy based on posi ions held; e e en powe ha desc ibes he capaci y o a ac o he s and build loyal y; he powe o expe ise, which is based on skill; in o ma ion powe , which enables leade s o pe - suade o he s; he powe ha comes om being able o o e ma e ial ewa ds; and powe a ached o he capaci y o coe ce o he s. C i ically, place leade s ely upon hei capaci y o influence o he s and ypically ha e access o some o ms o powe – e e en , in o ma ion and po en- ially expe ise. Leade ship –as agency –is cen al o go e nance, wi h he agency o leade ship (Ay es, 2014) enabling go e nance s uc u es o ope a e in new, mo e e ec i e, ways (So a au a, 2016, p. 30). Wi hin his con- ex , i is impo an o unde s and which go e nmen ac o s ake on he place leade ship challenge, and how hose esponsibili ies si wi h espec o o he dimensions o au ho i y. Addi ionally, he place leade ship discou se is also ocused on he p i a e sec o and i s capaci y o b ing abou change in ways ha a e beyond he capaci ies o public ins i u ions (MacNeill & S eine , 2011). The e is an expec a ion ha p i a e en e p ises a e in eg al o e o s ei he o a ac new businesses o a egion o o p o ec agains job loss. Business associa ions o a ious o ms, such as chambe s o comme ce, a e also a condui Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis 173 REGIONAL STUDIES o ep esen ing he egion and ha e he po en ial o lead change in hei own igh (Bee , Haugh on, & Maude, 2003). In examining place leade ship ac oss na ional bounda ies, one he e o e needs o unde s and he na u e and le el o p i a e sec o engagemen . In many accoun s o place leade ship, one o a small numbe o indi iduals a e acco ded conside able signifi- cance in eshaping local communi ies (Kenyon, 2004; So - enson & Epps, 1996). The e o e, he capaci y o leade s o eme ge om wi hin he communi y is one key dimension o place leade ship (Collinge e al., 2010a; Pa kinson, 1990). In compa ing place leade ship ac oss coun ies, one seeks o unde s and how communi y membe s ise o posi ions o influence, and he ole o he communi y oles play in assis ing hei eme gence. Wi hin hese a eas o enqui y esea che s ha e also conside ed di e - ences be ween coun ies, including he ways in which he exp ession o leade ship is specific o indi idual cul u es due o alignmen wi h b oade social and cul u al alues (Ha og e al., 1999). C i ically, Ha og e al. (1999, p. 219) ound ‘specific aspec s o cha isma ic/ ans o ma- ional leade ship a e s ongly and uni e sally endo sed ac oss cul u es’. In ha espec , he p esen s udy con ib- u es o he wide li e a u e in es iga ing he ela ionship be ween cul u e and leade ship (e.g., Ho s ede, 2001; House, Hanges, Ja idan, Do man, & Gup a, 2004), and employing he igne es me hod in ocus g oups ecognizes he dynamic and in e ac i e na u e o leade ship as a social cons uc as posi ed by Jepson (2009). Many accoun s o place-based ac ion conside one-o e en s ha ha e eli- ci ed an immedia e eac ion om leade s who pool capaci ies o gi e shape o an e ec i e esponse (K oehn e al., 2010). Howe e , such a esponsi eness is jus one dimension o place leade ship. Mo e undamen ally, lea- de s ac s a egically o se a long- e m ision o he ci y o egion (S imson e al., 2009; McNeil & S eine , 2010), which highligh s he impo ance o ocusing on local o egional pa icula i ies o e na ional s e eo ypes. S ough, DeSan is, S imson, and Robe s (2001), o example, obse ed he impo ance o key indi iduals and ins i u ions in shaping s a egic plans, while So a au a (2009,2010) documen ed he ways p o essional s a exe significan leade ship in b inging s a egic plans in o e ec and/o use hem as ehicles o enhanced com- munica ion be ween s akeholde s. A key ea u e o he li e a u e on place leade ship is he way key indi iduals and agencies sha e esponsibili y o enac change and span adminis a i e, poli ical and o he s uc u es (Collinge, Gibney, & Mabey, 2010b). Bounda y spanning is cen al o place leade ship, wi h he p ocess o eaching ou o o he s c i ical in d awing in suppo – e e - en powe ; making use o he legi imacy o a key indi iduals and agencies; mobilizing expe ise wi hin he communi y; and accessing he necessa y in o ma ion o gene a e in o med decisions. In looking o unde s and place leade - ship ac oss na ions we mus examine he deg ee o which i is common o all loca ions and how i finds exp ession unde a ying ci cums ances. Finally, i is easonable o assume ha place leade ship will no be equally well de el- oped unde all ci cums ances. Some sys ems o go e n- men , na ional and egional cul u es, economic s uc u es and pa e ns o u ban se lemen a e mo e likely o esul in obus place leade ship when compa ed wi h o he s. The limi ed olume o wo k o compa e loca ions o e en na ions lends suppo o his hypo hesis (Budd & Sancino, 2016; So a au a & Bee , 2017). The e o e, we need o shed a ligh on whe he economic and social challenges a he egional o u ban scale ecei e adequa e esponses. METHODOLOGY Me hodological inno a ion in he analysis o he leade ship o places calls o he explo a ion o new echniques wi h he po en ial o p oduce obus , ep oducible and gene al- izable ou comes. In his pape we conside he igne e app oach as an addi ion o he epe oi e o ools used by esea che s ocused on place leade ship, while also es ing he capaci y o compa e place leade ship p ac ices ac oss na ions. Impo an ly, igne es enable he gene a ion o new insigh s in o place leade ship, and along he way es ab- lish he condi ions ha allow o compa isons ac oss egions and na ions (Figu e 1). Colle and Childs (2011, p. 513) desc ibed igne es as ‘de ailed scena ios p esen ed o subjec s, whe e hey a e an ac o o obse e ’, while Ke linge (1996, p. 23) defined hem as ‘b ie conc e e desc ip ions o ealis ic si ua ions so cons uc ed ha esponses o hem –will yield measu es o a iables’. Vigne es a e widely used by social science esea che s, especially in disciplines such as o ganiza ional beha iou and ma ke ing (Wason, Polonsky, & Hyman, Figu e 1. T ansla ing place leade ship as a concep in o a wo kable me hod. 174 And ew Bee e al. REGIONAL STUDIES 2002), influenced by he adi ions o social psychology. The igne e me hod has been subjec o ongoing deba e and in es iga ion (Colle & Childs, 2011), bu con inues o be used o e alua e alues and belie s (Finch, 1987) and he a ia ion in he p ac ices o medical p ac i ione s (Veloski, Tai, E ans, & Nash, 2005) and social wel a e sys ems (Fi zpa ick & S ephens, 2014). Vigne es a e commonly used in leade ship s udies wi h, o example, Kelloway, Ba ling, Kelley, Com ois, and Ga ien (2003) applying his echnique o es he capaci y o g oups o dis inguish be ween s yles o leade - ship. Impo an ly, igne es ha e been employed in a num- be o c oss-na ional s udies o social and economic issues. Gup a, K is ensen, and Pozzoli (2010), o example, dis- cussed he use o igne es in c oss-na ional heal h s udies and inco po a ed hose findings in o logi models p edic - ing heal h ou comes. Mo e subs an i ely, Fi zpa ick and S ephens (2014) applied igne es o unde s anding how app oaches o homelessness a ied ac oss six Eu opean na ions. Thei analysis led hem o conclude alues embedded in na ional poli ical cul u es de e mined how homelessness in e en ions we e implemen ed, and shaped hei e ec i eness. They concluded igne es we e a alid echnique o explo ing complex social, economic and poli ical issues and we e an impo an fi s s ep owa ds la ge-scale da a collec ions ac oss na ions. We conduc ed ocus g oup discussions in Aus alia, Finland, Ge many, I aly, he UK and he Uni ed S a es in o de o explo e how pa icipan in e p e leade ship, and whe e, and om whom, his migh emana e. (The chosen cases a e de eloped economies, bu encompass significan di e ences in hei sys ems o go e nmen , economies and social and cul u al no ms; Polli & Bouck- e , 2004.) Aus alia, Ge many and he Uni ed S a es a e ede a ions, while he UK, Finland and I aly ha e uni a y sys ems o go e nmen , wi h powe s delega ed o he local le el. The deg ee o which decision-making au ho i y is sha ed a ies e en wi hin hese ca ego ies: Aus alia’s ede a ion is mo e highly cen alized han ha o he Uni ed S a es (B own & Bellamy, 2006), while Finland’s uni a y sys em o go e nmen has a a g ea e deg ee o powe sha ing (S ough e al., 2001) han e iden in he UK (Ay es, 2017). The igne es In each ocus g oup he pa icipan s we e p esen ed wi h wo igne es as con as ing scena ios: .Scena io 1: A la ge mul ina ional co po a ion announces i is in es iga ing he possibili y o loca ing a new p o- duc ion acili y in he egion wi h he po en ial o c ea - ing 2000 jobs. This new in es men would be dependen on suppo om go e nmen o build i s new acili y, ex end elec ici y and wa e in as uc u e o i s p e- e ed si e, and up-skill local wo ke s. I also asks o elie om local axes o se en yea s. .Scena io 2: The majo employe in you communi y an icipa es closing in wo yea s because o alling demand o i s p oduc , ela i ely high p oduc ion cos s and a desi e o build new p oduc ion acili ies else- whe e. The e is li le p ospec o he decision being e e sed and he closu e ep esen s a majo challenge because o he impac on bo h di ec employmen and fi ms in he supply chain. Go e nmen agencies make a commi men o find al e na i e indus ies o he egion, while local business leade s seek in es men oppo uni ies o suppo hei egion. These igne es we e discussed wi h in o med pa icipan s a wo ocus g oups pe coun y. Da a collec ion ook place in he fi s six mon hs o 2016, ollowing pilo ing o he igne es in each na ion. The esea che s consul ed wi h place leade s known o hem, bu li ing ou side he selec ed case s udies, abou he scena ios p esen ed, he ques ions o be asked and he mos app op ia e app oaches o gene a - ing a de ailed esponse. The cul u al and poli ical di e si y embedded in his esea ch p esen ed concep ual and p ac ical challenges, as he esea che s acknowledged no all dimensions o place leade ship we e likely o be p esen in e e y ins ance, and ha s uc u es o go e nmen and go e nance may ende some dimensions o place leade ship o c i ical impo ance in one locali y bu i ele- an elsewhe e. We he e o e accep ed no all opics would be ge mane in all ci cums ances, wi h he ‘absen ’ esponses o some ques ions as impo an as de ailed esponses om o he s. Second, he esea ch eam was ca e- ul o de elop igne es ha we e meaning ul in each coun y. O iginally, ou igne es we e de eloped and examined, wi h wo selec ed based on he likely capaci y o esponden s o make in o med commen , he opicali y o he issues and hei ele ance o place leade s in each na ion. Following e hics app o al he ocus g oups we e unde - aken wi h wo esea che s p esen , wi h he fi s leading he discussion and he second aking no es. In some places he discussions we e eco ded, and his was dependen on he deg ee o which his p ac ice was accep able o he pa - icipan s. Focus g oup membe s we e ec ui ed om he egion and in i ed o pa icipa e based on hei in ol emen in he de elopmen o hei egions o communi ies, hei capaci y o influence o shape decisions, and hei p o- essional oles. A significan p opo ion o in o man s we e in ol ed in economic de elopmen . Ac oss he 12 ocus g oups pa icipan s we e d awn om a wide a ie y o occupa ions and sec o s, wi h bo h public- and p i- a e-sec o ep esen a i es s ongly ep esen ed. The 90 pa icipan s included local go e nmen o ficials, public and p i a e sec o chie execu i e o fice s, egional de elopmen s a , indus y associa ions, local go e nmen councillo s, consul an s, local business bodies, olun a y sec o ep esen a i es, u ili y p o ide s, ade unions, and jou nalis s. Responses we e eco ded o each ocus g oup on a sp eadshee popula ed wi h p ede e mined ques ions o maximize he ans e abili y o he in o ma ion ga he ed. In addi ion, a na a i e was p oduced o each ocus g oup. Focus g oups we e unde aken in disc e e loca ions in each na ion included in he s udy (Figu e 2). In I aly, Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis 175 REGIONAL STUDIES Be gamo a p o incial ci y in Lomba dy, no h-eas o Milan, was one subjec o he esea ch. I has a popula ion o 120,000 pe sons and a b oade egional popula ion o 1.1 million. The second ocus g oup in I aly was conduc ed in Rie i, a p o incial ci y in he Lazio egion no h-eas o Rome. Rie i has 48,000 inhabi an s, while i s p o incial a ea has a u he 160,000 esiden s. The Aus alian case s udies we e unde aken in and a ound Adelaide, he capi- al o Sou h Aus alia, a ci y o 1.1 million people. One ocus g oup was unde aken in no he n Adelaide, a man- u ac u ing and anspo egion, wi h he second conduc ed o i s immedia e no h in he Ba ossa Valley, a wine and ood p oduc ion hub. The US case s udies we e loca ed nea Washing on, DC in no he n Vi ginia and Ma yland. In Ge many, Lübeck and Kiel in he no he n pa o he coun y hos ed he ocus g oups, wi h Lübeck a ci y o 220,000 pe sons ha se es as a majo po on he Bal ic Sea. Kiel has 240,000 esiden s, is capi al o he s a e o Schleswig-Hols ein, and is also a ma i ime hub, as well as a cen e o mos ly mili a y shipbuilding. The Ci y o Tampe e and he wide Tampe e egion we e he ocus o he Finnish ocus g oups, wi h he o me popula ion s anding a 380,000 and he la e a 510,000 pe sons. O e ecen decades i has been impo an o echnological indus ies including Nokia and Mic oso , wi h significan es uc u ing aking place o e he pas decade. Finally, he UK da a collec ion was unde aken in B is ol, a majo ci y o 440,000 esiden s in he wes o England. I was one o he fi s UK ci ies o mo e o an elec ed mayo (Hamble on & Swee ing, 2015) wi h consequen impac s on public li e and go e nance. Each egion in he s udy has expe ienced subs an ial change o e he pas decade, and he leade ship o hese places has de eloped echniques and s a egies o accom- moda ing economic shocks. The s a egies used, howe e , ha e a ied wi h expe ience, go e nmen al a angemen s, indus y s uc u e and poli ical alues. FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS The adequacy o place leade ship In o de o assess he o e all s eng h o place-based leade - ship in each case s udy, he pa icipan s we e p esen ed wi h he wo igne es and hen asked i hey belie ed an adequa e esponse would be de eloped o each challenge. Fo his and all o he ocus g oup ques ions, he iews o he esponden s we e eco ded and a he conclusion he esea che s assigned a sco e be ween 0 and 10, whe e 0 eflec ed an absen o poo esponse and 10 indica ed a e y s ong esponse. This summa i e assessmen ecog- nized ha while o he pa s o he ocus g oup delibe a ions examined specific ea u es o place leade ship, hey may no p o ide insigh in o o e all e ficacy. I is no able ha ac oss he na ions esponden s belie ed app op ia e esponses would be de eloped o bo h scena ios, al hough scena io 1 was mo e likely o ecei e a s ong esponse and had a g ea e chance o being add essed well. Also, esponden s in di e en loca ions wi hin coun ies ga e simila answe s. The Aus alian ocus g oup esponden s p o ided mixed pe spec i es when asked i hei egion o commu- ni y would be able o espond adequa ely o he wo challenges. Responden s in no he n Adelaide el an Figu e 2. Selec ion c i e ia o , and cha ac e is ics o , case s udies. 176 And ew Bee e al. REGIONAL STUDIES adequa e esponse o scena io 1 was p obable, bu in hei assessmen a bes possible esponse was unlikely, while comple e ailu e was possible. The same g oup epo ed ha any esponse o a majo closu e would be a ec ed by unde de eloped ad ocacy o he egion. In he Ba ossa Valley, he p esence o a long-es ablished egional de elop- men au ho i y mean esponden s we e confiden ha a s ong esponse would be de eloped o scena io 1, and an adequa e esponse o scena io 2. This a ia ion be ween he wo locali ies –only 30 km apa –unde sco es he locali y specific na u e o place leade ship. The US in o - man s epo ed a s ong esponse would be deli e ed in hei egion o bo h scena ios, wi h he economic de elop- men co po a ions leading. They obse ed he e was capable leade ship in he egion able o manage hese chal- lenges. The I alian ocus g oups epo ed a s ong esponse would be de eloped o scena io 1 and a e y s ong esponse o scena io 2. The in o man s commen ed ha a ious place leade s –including mayo s –would wo k oge he o find solu ions o he impending a i al o a la ge employe , while he loss o a majo en e p ise would igge a ange o communi y ac o s wo king oge he . The B is ol ocus g oup esponden s belie ed a s ong esponse would be implemen ed o bo h scena ios, hough hey no ed he lack o coo dina ion a he subna ional le el. One local councillo no ed he complexi y b ough abou by he ci y-mayo model: ‘In he pas a company migh ha e con ac ed he Chie Execu i e o he Ci y Council bu now i migh be he Mayo .’Impo an ly, local s ake- holde s belie ed a la ge numbe o g oups and o ganiz- a ions would be in ol ed in bo h ins ances. The Kiel and Lübeck esponden s also epo ed a high likelihood o an e ec i e eac ion o bo h scena ios, wi h economic de el- opmen agencies leading he esponse in collabo a ion wi h he mayo . Compa able ou comes we e likely in Tam- pe e, wi h ocus g oup pa icipan s confiden a obus se o ac ions would be es ablished. They a gued a decade o economic es uc u ing had s eng hened hei p ocesses unde bo h scena ios, wi h he po en ial eluc ance o pol- i ical leade s o ake isk hei only conce n. In I aly, he e was a ela i ely high deg ee o confidence in bo h he ocus g oups on he capaci y o he place sys em o deal wi h he wo challenges desc ibed, whe e he loss o a fi m being a case pa icula ly opical o he I alian con ex ; howe e , in e es ingly, he o e all high adequacy o place leade ship was conside ed as such by he key con ibu ions ha would come om ci ic, non- adi ional leade s (e.g., social en e- p eneu s and hi d-sec o /communi y leade s) and om dense and in o mal ela ionships p e-exis ing by all he di e en ypes o leade s, a he han by he us in he ole o o mal ins i u ions such as he Eu opean Union o local/ egional de elopmen bodies and/o in s a egic plans. Fi ms as leade s Much o he li e a u e sugges s ha p i a e sec o fi ms may ha e he capaci y o p o ide leade ship in ways no possible in he public sec o (MacNeill & S eine , 2011) and pa icipan s in he ocus g oups we e asked o conside wha ole businesses would play in esponding o he wo scena ios. Significan ly, in all ins ances, bo h fi ms and hei senio s a we e mo e likely o play a leade ship ole when a business was en e ing he egion a he han depa ing. In addi ion, fi m engagemen wi h scena io 1 was likely o be mode a ed by he ac ions o a local business associa ion, which could be aligned o a specific sec o . In he wo US ocus g oups, he leade s o majo com- panies we e seen o be occasional pa icipan s in a ac ing new fi ms o he egion and chambe s o comme ce we e in equen ly in ol ed. Responden s no ed hei engage- men was on ‘a case-by-case basis’, al hough in some coun- ies he e we e ela ionships be ween local go e nmen and banke s ha esul ed in a high le el o engagemen . The p i a e sec o and i s senio s a we e less likely o espond o a shu down, wi h hei ole es ic ed o conside ing hi - ing e enched s a . A simila se o a angemen s was e i- den in Tampe e and i s egion, wi h p i a e-sec o leade s only pa icipa ing in he de elopmen o job-a ac ion esponses occasionally, and unlikely o be engaged wi h an impending shu down. In Kiel and Lübeck, and again in Be gamo and Rie i, he e was a clea sense ha he depa u e o a fi m was a ma e o unions and labou laws, wi h indi idual fi ms only in ol ed i pa s o he ou - going en e p ise could be bough by ano he business. By con as , he p i a e sec o was likely o pa icipa e in a ac ing a new fi m o a egion in B is ol, wi h he chambe o comme ce and indus y bodies such as he Wes o England Ae ospace Fo um cen al. UK legisla ion equi ing a wo-yea no ice o closu e mean indi idual fi ms, as well as ade bodies and he Ins i u e o Di ec o s (IoD), would con ibu e o local esponses. In he wo I a- lian case s udies, business associa ions, a he han indi id- ual businesses, would be significan in aming egional esponses o change. The e i o ial b anch o Confindus- ia would assis incoming fi ms es ablish local con ac s, bu would play a lesse ole wi h a depa ing fi m. Respon- den s om he Aus alian ocus g oups p esen ed a pic u e b oadly simila o he a angemen s e iden in o he na ions. Indi idual p i a e businesses we e mo e likely o pa icipa e in e o s o b ing a fi m o a egion han man- age he depa u e o an en e p ise, and he e was a s ong sec o al dimension o hei in ol emen . Fi ms joining an es ablished o g owing indus y –de ence o no he n Adelaide, wine o he Ba ossa Valley –we e likely o see o he fi ms acili a e hei ec ui men . Such acili a ion, howe e , included a deg ee o sel -in e es as: In some ins ances local leade s would oppose a compe i o coming in –e.g. in de ence –bu in some cases hey would help oll ou he welcome ma and help a ac hem …depends on he indus y ha he local leade is wo king in, ( hey) would ce ainly do i i hey saw an ad an age o hem. (pa icipan 1, no he n Adelaide) Leade ship wi hin he communi y The ocus g oups asked a numbe o specific ques ions abou he ole o key indi iduals and he pa hey would play in making sense o fi m a i als o depa u es. The Place leade ship and egional economic de elopmen : a amewo k o c oss- egional analysis 177 REGIONAL STUDIES Aus alian in o man s we e clea in hei opinion ha key indi iduals wi hin he communi y would no be impo an in o ming a esponse o ei he a plan closu e o he announcemen o a new majo employe . Responden s also el ha he communi y would no look o local leade s o in e p e hese e en s o hem, no would hese indi id- uals seek o do so, la gely because ‘ his is only bad publici y’ (pa icipan 3). The Finnish ocus g oups p oduced com- pa able ou comes, wi h he in o man s no ing ha confi- den iali y equi emen s o en p ecluded public deba e and ha p o essional s a would be cen al o bo h nego ia ions and he implemen a ion o plans. S a kly di e en ou - comes we e e iden in Be gamo and Rie i, whe e he mayo –as an indi idual wi h a legi imacy bes owed by elec ion –was acknowledged as cen al (Sancino & Cas el- lani, 2016) in bo h he challenges; pa icula ly, he mayo was seen as cen al o de eloping an adequa e esponse and wo king wi h o he s, including he ade unions, uni- e si ies and he chu ch, o make sense o he p ocess o change. In B is ol his iew was echoed by a olun a y-sec- o esponden who sugges ed ha ‘ he Mayo has a key ole in wo king wi h communi ies o leade s o coo dina e a esponse’. In Kiel and Lübeck, a co e ole was a ibu ed o he heads o he municipali y’s business de elopmen agency and pa icula ac o s om he chambe o com- me ce and indus y: ‘ he e a e ce ain aces ha always show up when we alk abou hese economic scena ios’ (pa icipan 1, Kiel). In Kiel, he mayo was seen as mos impo an o incoming fi ms a an ea ly s age o loca ional decision (he would e e hem o he municipali y’s business de elopmen agency); in Lübeck, he mayo was seen as c ucial o communica ing pa icula ly losses o fi ms o ci izens. The Vi ginia ocus g oups saw local econ- omic de elopmen p ac i ione s as he key indi iduals esponding o an incoming fi m, while he Ma yland ocus g oup nomina ed he p esiden o he local uni e si y o communi y college as cen al. In a simila ein, ano he ins i u ion and i s membe s – he local wo k o ce boa d – was seen as c i ical o making sense o he p ocess o change o he wide communi y. In agg ega e, leade s d awn om he b oade commu- ni y we e seen o ha e a modes ole in ini ia ing esponses o majo employmen change and in in e p e ing his se o e en s o o he s. The wo I alian and Ge man case s udies we e an excep ion, bu as an elec ed and paid o ficial wi h s a , hei leade ship can be in e p e ed as a unc ion o hei poli ical and p o essional esponsibili ies. Elsewhe e, he sense o p o essionalized leade ship was no iceable, especially in he Uni ed S a es and Finland. Economic de elopmen o ficials wo king ac oss a ange o agencies we e seen o guide esponses o bo h plan closu e and inwa d in es men , and his finding is consis en wi h con- empo a y accoun s o he ne wo king ac i i ies and ins i- u ional en ep eneu ship o economic de elopmen s a in many ad anced economies (So a au a, 2009,2010; So a au a & Mus ikkamaki, 2012). In he wo US ocus g oups, esponden s epo ed leade s o majo highe edu- ca ion ins i u ions –communi y colleges and uni e si ies – would po en ially play impo an oles in making sense o change, bu in o man s a he Ge man and Finnish ocus g oups a gued ha he de elopmen o his na a i e o economic ans o ma ion would no eside wi hin he com- muni y, bu ins ead si wi hin adminis a i e s uc u es. The UK pa icipan s in he wo ocus g oups el indi id- uals om leading fi ms would wo k wi h hei pee s o find solu ions and de elop esponses ha eflec he com- muni y o businesses wi hin he egion. In con as , pa ici- pan s in he ocus g oups unde aken in and a ound Adelaide obse ed key indi idual leade s would no lead a communi y-wide discussion o he p ocesses o egional change, no would ha challenge be aken on by go e n- men p o essionals. Bounda y spanning and he leade ship o p o essionals As no ed abo e, he capaci y o place leade s o span bounda ies o es ablish new ela ionships and find new sol- u ions o he oppo uni ies and challenges in on o a egion is well documen ed in he li e a u e (Collinge e al., 2010b). In all 12 ocus g oups in o man s we e asked o eflec upon he deg ee o which bounda y span- ning akes place, wi h he Eu opean in o man s epo ing ha i would ake place o a high deg ee o o a e y high deg ee unde bo h scena ios 1 and 2. The pa icipan s in he US ocus g oups a ached a lesse p io i y and signifi- cance o bounda y spanning, and in pa his was d i en by a s ong ocus on comme cial confiden iali y. Key in o - man s in he ocus g oups in no he n Adelaide and he Ba ossa Valley epo ed place leade s we e mo e likely o espond by looking o he esou ces wi hin hei esponsi- bili y, and we e less likely o each ac oss bounda ies – especially go e nmen al bounda ies – o achie e be e ou - comes. This highly siloed app oach o egional de elop- men is cha ac e is ic o egional de elopmen in Aus alia (Bee , 2015). Pa icipan s in he Finland ocus g oups had no doub ha bounda y spanning and ne wo king would be a cen al pa o he esponse o bo h scena ios. In hei iew, he o mal –local go e nmen -led –p ocesses es ablished o deal wi h economic de elopmen issues would p o ide he co e o any eac ion, bu hese s uc u es would be assis ed by he in o mal discussion o ideas and op ions. By con as , he Aus alian ocus g oups p esen ed a mo e equi ocal pic u e wi h espec o eaching ac oss bounda ies: he fi s ocus g oup –as wi h hei I alian pee s –sugges ed es ablished policy and p og amme ‘silos’(F oy & Gigue e, 2010) would emain in place, wi h each go e nmen agency ac ing in isola ion. The second g oup a gued limi ed bounda y spanning would ake place, la gely amongs agencies seeking o mode a e he impac o job losses. The wo B is ol ocus g oups sugges ed a p ocess o bounda y spanning ha sa be ween he Finnish and Aus alian expe ience. In bo h se s o dis- cussions, and unde bo h scena ios, he in o man s belie ed bounda y spanning would occu , bu in a somewha chao ic and ad hoc ashion. Some el ha his was ‘o en he p o- duc o mo e in o mal o social ela ionships be ween ci y leade s, a he han wo king h ough mo e o mal ci y 178 And ew Bee e al. REGIONAL STUDIES