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Minimalis heo y o ic ion and he IC hinking® me hod as a backg ound o new
insigh s o au ism
© 2021 he Au ho s
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Nybe g, C is e ; P olomey, Amanda
Nybe g, C., & P olomey, A. (2021). Minimalis heo y o ic ion and he IC hinking® me hod as a
backg ound o new insigh s o au ism. Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch, 7(1),
70-80. h ps://doi.o g/10.46827/ejse. 7i1.3598
2021
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch
ISSN: 2501 - 2428
ISSN-L: 2501 - 2428
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Copy igh © The Au ho (s). All Righ s Rese ed. 70
DOI: 10.46827/ejse. 7i1.3598
Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
C is e Nybe g1
i
,
Amanda P olomey2
1Uni e si y o Jy äskylä,
Depa men o Social Sciences and Philosophy,
Finland
2Uni e si y o Glasgow,
S a hclyde Cen e o Disabili y Resea ch,
School o Social and Poli ical Sciences,
Uni ed Kingdom
Abs ac :
The s anda d app oach o concep ual unde s anding in he case o au ism uses he
dis inc ion o abs ac e sus conc e e hinking. This app oach has i s bene i s bu ails o
explain all ea u es o language use. Fo example, some concep s change hei meaning
in di e en con ex s in con as o concep s ha a e mo e igid in hei uses, such as
ma hema ical concep s. This idea has i s backg ound in Minimalis heo y o ic ion
(MTF), a heo y ha conside s ‘skills o use wo ds’ essen ial o unde s anding ic ion,
con as ing wi h heo ies ha equi e p e ending o make belie e o unde s and ic ion.
F om his backg ound, he heo y o In eg a i e Complexi y (IC), and he me hod
anima ing o p ac ice, IC hinking®, can be o pa icula use o au is ic people. The
in e en ions de elop me a-cogni i e skills and a e suppo i e o au is ic people. F om
hese s a ing poin s, we in oduce new esea ch hypo heses o de eloping educa ional
me hods especially o au is ic people.
Keywo ds: au ism, in eg a i e complexi y, me acogni ion, ic ion
1. Changing con ex s
Fic ional cha ac e s aise philosophical p oblems because o hei on ological s a us. I we
ollow he adi ional heo ies o meaning and e e ence, names like ‘She lock Holmes’
a e p oblema ic: is She lock Holmes eal o imagina y o bo h? Simila ly, s o ies
in ol ing ou he oes like Luke Skywalke o La a C o a e a challenge o philosophe s
who insis on he e being some e e en in eal li e in o de o make s a emen s wi h u h
alue, ha is, e alua ed as ‘ ue’ o ‘ alse’. Wha makes he si ua ion e en mo e
i
Co espondence: email c is e .nybe g@haaga-helia. i
C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 71
complica ed is ha hese s o ies include s a emen s ha a e ac ually ue in eal li e (a
pa icula poison does kill in a pa icula way). App oaches o hese p oblems ange om
mo e s aigh o wa d adi ional answe s o e ed in classic ex s by Go lob F ege (1892)
and Be and Russell (1905) o complica ed sys ems o exis ence like Alexius Meinong’s
(1905) accoun and i s u he de elopmen s in Edwa d Zal a’s (1983) and Te ence
Pa son’s (1980, 2000) heo y on abs ac objec s. The e is an ob ious need o making a
di e ence be ween ic ional and eal-li e objec s. The answe s ollowing Meinong y o
sa e he idea o e e en by conside ing di e en le els o exis ence. Ano he ecen and
widely accep ed way o deal wi h ic ion is o apply he concep o make belie e o
p e ense
ii
(e.g. Wal on 1990, Cu ie 1990 and E ans 1982). In he case o ic ional o
abs ac objec s, we a e in i ed o make belie e (o p e end) hei exis ence.
All hese app oaches ha e hei p os and cons bu a new al e na i e wi h use ul
applica ions o di e en ields is o e ed by he Minimalis Theo y o Fic ion (MTF)
(Nybe g 2015, 2016, 2018). MTF akes i s poin o iew om use heo y o meaning and
minimal heo y o u h
iii
. I s esses he ecogni ion o di e en uses o wo ds i.e.
language games. Fic ion, all abs ac objec s, scien i ic use o language, e e yday uses o
language a e all he same in ha each con ex has i s own ules o he igh uses o wo ds.
I we change he ocus om on ological ma e s (is his ue o alse) o a con ex -
app op ia e use o wo ds we can concen a e on de eloping skills like eading social and
con ex ual cues and me acogni ion. A en ion can hen be paid o me a ep esen a ion and
me acogni i e skills: o de elop me acogni i e skills i is essen ial o use educa ional
p ac ices ha equi e me a ep esen a ion, he second-o de p esen a ion o i s o de
cogni i e con en s
i
(a d awing is a ep esen a ion o some hing and someone looking a
he d awing ep esen s i in hei mind).
P e ence is appa en ly in ol ed when we a e pa icipa ing in, o example, a play
whe e we a e exagge a ing ou eelings in o de o con incingly pe o m he cha ac e s.
Howe e , o ou pe o mance o be con incing we mus unde s and wha is going on in
ha pa icula con ex , he play. Thus, unde s anding p ecedes p e ending. On he o he
hand, he e a e games o language games whe e we adjus ou beha io o he con ex
wi hou necessa ily knowingly doing so (wi hou unde s anding). In gene al, p e ense is
de ined as ac ing in a way ha is con a y o how he wo ld is. P e ending by i s de ini ion
(e.g. Ga ey 1990) equi es ac ing symbolically, o non-li e ally, in a way ha is con a y
o eali y. In de elopmen al psychology, a challenging ques ion is when exac ly do
child en ac ually s a p e ending? P e ense seems o eme ge du ing he second yea o
li e and i is conside ed puzzling ha i eme ges so ea ly, a he same ime as child en a e
cons uc ing hei own concep s o he wo ld and eali y (Randell & Nielsen 2007).
ii
P e ence heo ies abou ic ion claim we a e me ely p e ending he u h o he sen ences o he exis ence
o he objec s in ol ed in ic ion. Kendall Wal on’s heo y is allegedly he mos in luen ial one o he
p e ense heo ies. In his heo y ep esen a ional wo ks unc ion as p ops in games o make belie e jus like
dolls and oy ucks se e as p ops in child en’s games. (Wal on 1990).
iii
See Ho wich 1998a, 1998b and Wi gens ein 1999.
i
E.g. P ous 2007.
C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 72
Acco dingly, p e ense is unde s ood o play a signi ican ole in child en’s social
cogni i e de elopmen . In p ac ice, his means, o example, playing games whe e objec s
can s and in o o he un ela ed objec s hus equi ing a lo o imagina ion (a b oom
becomes a ho se, o a ca dboa d box a ship o ou e space) Randell and Nielsen (2007,
128) Leslie (1987). The e is no eason o ques ion hese impo an s ages o psychological
de elopmen bu wha is dispu able is he na u e o p e end play. P e end play is seen as
a de elopmen al landma k in he child’s acquisi ion o a ‘Theo y o Mind
’ (Leslie, 1987).
The e is a wide discussion ques ioning Leslie’s (1987) iew on p e end play and in
gene al he esul o his discussion is ha he e a e di e en ypes and le els o p e end
play, and ha all p e ense is no me a ep esen a ional (e.g. Go don 1986, 1992, Goldman
1989, Nybe g 2015, 2016). Looking a hese p ocesses om he pe spec i e o he language
use , we do no ake a s ance on ques ions conce ning heo y o mind bu ask ins ead
wha kind o skills a e equi ed when p e ense is going on. Fo he pu poses o his
discussion, i is impo an o no e ha au is ic child en usually show low le els o p e end
play
i
. In he emaining sec ions, we will begin o explo e using he heo y In eg a i e
Complexi y (IC) and i s u he de elopmen by IC Thinking esea che s o disco e new
me hods o imp o ing he language skills o au is ic child en.
2. In eg a i e complexi y
In eg a i e complexi y is simul aneously a concep and a measu e based on o e o y
yea s o esea ch. Pionee ed by Sued eld and Te lock
ii
he in eg a i e complexi y (IC)
measu emen ame analyses he le el o cogni i e complexi y in a spoken o w i en
s a emen , emphasizing s uc u e o e con en . As a concep , IC e e s o he cogni i e
lens h ough which human beings iew he social wo ld du ing eal o pe cei ed con lic .
When aced wi h disag eemen o di e ence ela ing o issues co e o ou alues and
iden i y, he social wo ld can be pe cei ed h ough a na ow, es ic ed lens esul ing in
black and whi e hinking (Low IC). In con as , i is possible o engage wi h he social
wo ld – e en when aced wi h h ea o disag eemen - wi h a mo e delibe a e, lexible
hinking s yle while emaining connec ed o ou mos impo an alues and iden i y. This
expansi e hinking s yle suppo s peace ul solu ions (High IC). The IC Thinking
Resea ch G oup ope a ionalized he concep o IC by designing a ange o in e en ions
ha inc ease IC lexibili y.
By ‘Theo y o Mind’ is e e ed o he “abili y o eason and make in e ences abou ano he ’s men al s a es,
and p esupposes he abili y o hold belie s abou ano he ’s belie s, o o men ally ep esen ano he ’s
men al ep esen a ion”.
i
E.g. Ch is Ja old & al. 1994.
ii
See e.g. (Sued eld & Rank 1976, Sued eld & Te lock 1977, Sued eld, Te lock & Rami ez 1977, Sued eld,
Te lock & S eu e 1992).
C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 73
3. Finding ules and playing games
Adap ing an app oach ha ocuses on he language use , we will iew p e ense as a
me a ep esen a ional posi ion
iii
. Howe e , we can dispense wi h he concep s o p e ense
o make belie e because hey a e mainly abou ac ing agains ou belie s. Ra he han
in e p e ing ea ly signs o p e ense in child en’s de elopmen as knowingly ac ing in a
way con a y o eali y, we will ocus on hei abili y o play he language game in
ques ion, o pu ano he way, hei skills o use language. Fo ou a gumen , wha is
essen ial in p e ense is he abili y o use wo ds di e en ly in di e en con ex s. We can
unde s and a ic ional s o y wi hou knowingly iewing i s s a emen s as con a y o
eali y, al hough we ha e a be e unde s anding o he s o y i we do ecognize i s
ela ionship o o he language games, o example, o hose abou eali y. The be e
unde s anding o he di e en uses o he wo ds he mo e in e p e a ions a e a ailable
(Nybe g 2015, 2016, 2018). In ou iew, his is undoub edly linked o
me a ep esen a ional abili ies and me acogni ion. Recognizing and compa ing di e en
language games o in e p e a ions o a s o y equi es me a ep esen a ion and
me acogni i e abili ies.
I is a amilia claim ha au is ic child en lack a " heo y o mind" because o an
inabili y o me a ep esen . In his claim, he skills o use language a e de e mina i e and
he ailu e o ecognize di e en uses o he same wo d in he same e en is in e p e ed
as an inabili y o me a ep esen o imagine. While me a ep esen a ion and imagina ion
may be in ol ed, ocusing ins ead on he use o language ( a he han heo y o mind)
may yield new insigh s o educa ional p ac ices ha will imp o e language skills and
me acogni i e abili ies. T adi ional app oaches o in es iga ing he hinking o au is ic
child en do no ake in o accoun a language use ’s posi ion. In es si ua ions pa icipan s
a e asked o in e p e he meanings o wo ds used in an expe imen al scena io. Taking
in o accoun an au is ic pa icipan ’s poin o iew will o e new insigh s. Fo example,
he well-known Sally–Anne es ep esen s an expe imen al scena io ha be looked a as
a collec ion o mul iple language games in which ecognizing igh uses o wo ds is
essen ial.
As a adi ional es o in es iga e " heo y o mind" in au is ic child en, he Sally-
Anne Tes is used in de elopmen al psychology o measu e a pe son's social cogni i e
abili y o a ibu e alse belie s o o he s. I has been used o iden i y how some au is ic
iii
This is a p oblema ic posi ion since i is dispu able whe he ea ly signs o p e ense play is
me a ep esen a ional. In Nybe g 2016 i is a gued ha i is possible o ul il he cha ac e is ics o p e ense
play wi hou being awa e o i . This is possible in he ligh o MTF. Thus, he claim ha p e ense play is
me a ep esen a ional means he e ha one s a es knowingly alse claims and in addi ion adjus s eelings o
his con ex .

C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 74
child en
ix
ha e di icul y unde s anding o he people's pe spec i es and was amously
implemen ed by Simon Ba on-Cohen, Alan M. Leslie, and U a F i h (1985)
x
.
In he Sally-Anne expe imen as desc ibed by Ba on-Cohen e al. (1985) wo dolls
we e p esen ed o child en Sally and Anne: “Fi s , we checked ha he child en knew
which doll was which (Naming Ques ion). Sally i s placed a ma ble in o he baske .
Then she le he scene, and he ma ble was ans e ed by Anne and hidden in he box.
Then, when Sally e u ned, he expe imen e asked he c i ical Belie Ques ion: “Whe e
will Sally look o he ma ble?”. I he child en poin o he p e ious loca ion o he
ma ble, hen hey pass he Belie Ques ion by app ecia ing he doll’s now alse belie . I
howe e , hey poin o he ma ble’s cu en loca ion, hen hey ail he ques ion by no
aking in o accoun he doll’s belie . These conclusions a e wa an ed i wo con ol
ques ions a e answe ed co ec ly: “Whe e is he ma ble eally?” (Reali y Ques ion);
“Whe e was he ma ble in he beginning? (Memo y Ques ion).”
I we compa e his si ua ion ( he scene wi h Sally hiding he ma ble e c.) o a
pa icula IC hinking® session whe e pa icipan s ake di e en posi ions in w i en
s a emen s and subsequen ly IC code s e alua e wha has been w i en in o de o assign
an IC sco e, hen we can see c ucial esemblances. Looking a hings om di e en
pe spec i es ep esen s an unde s anding ha wo ds can be used di e en ly, ha is,
wo ds change hei meanings depending on he con ex and all ha e less han ull
unde s andings o he possible a ia ions in how wo ds may be used. Conside o
example he heme o emo ions and human ela ions. A componen o IC hinking
in e en ions in ol es acili a ing pa icipan s o ake on he oles o subjec s who hold
di e en pe spec i es on a make- belie e si ua ion, oo ed in eal-wo ld social issues.
This expe ience equi es ha pa icipan s na iga e mul iple laye s o meaning
xi
.
Pa icipan s mus unde s and a) he o e all s o y o he imagina y scena io, b) ha hey
ha e o play a ole, no hemsel es, c) he cha ac e o he ole ha hey a e inhabi ing in
he scena io, d) ha o he s a e playing oles also, and e) ha he e a e implici o explici
connec ions be ween he imagina y scena io and ‘ eal wo ld’ con lic s. This explici
connec ion – be ween he ole play and he ‘ eal wo ld’ social con lic – is no necessa y
in o de o success ully pa icipa e in he game and demons a es ha al hough ole plays
ely on he capaci y o pa icipan s o unde s and and engage in he use o language
games such unde s anding exis s ac oss a spec um (Nybe g 2018). C ucially, ole play
also suppo s embodied cogni ion – beyond language. In IC Thinking in e en ions,
pa icipan s a e acili a ed o make explici language-based connec ions be ween
ix
“The Belie Ques ion o bo h ials was answe ed consis en ly by each child wi h he sole excep ion o
one Down’s Synd ome child who ailed ial 1 and passed ial 2. The esul s o Down’s Synd ome and
no mal subjec s we e s ikingly simila . 23 ou o 27 no mal child en, and 12 ou o 14 Down’s Synd ome
child en passed he Belie Ques ion on bo h ials (85% and 86% espec i ely). By con as , 16 o he 20
au is ic child en (80%) ailed he Belie Ques ion on bo h ials. “ Simon Ba on-Cohen, Alan M. Leslie, and
U a F i h (1985)
x
Leslie and F i h (1988) ound simila esul s wi h a simila expe imen wi h human ac o s ( a he han
dolls).
xi
See Nybe g 2015 and 2018 on in e ex uali y. Gene al in oduc ion in S ill, J. & Wo on M. 1991.
C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 75
in eg a i e complexi y, he ole play scena io, hei ole, and he embodied expe ience o
hei hough s, eelings and emo ions (Boyd-MacMillan e al 2016, p.61).
Concep ions o human ela ions a y g ea ly be ween cul u es and e en amilies.
One goal in IC hinking in e en ions is o become awa e o his. Wha his means om
he pe spec i e o MTF is ha in a case o misunde s anding he e is a con lic because o
di e en uses o wo ds, i.e., di e en ideas abou wo ds’ meanings. The pa icipan s a e
playing di e en language games. The same phenomenon is p esen when au is ic
child en
xii
ail in he Sally-Anne es . The idea o ‘ heo y o mind’ is one way o look a
wha is happening in he Sally-Anne es , bu i can also be hough o as an abili y o
ecognize di e en language games. I is c ucial o ecognize di e en uses o wo ds
mani es ed in he same con ex . These subgames may be called mic o language games
belonging o a mac o language game
xiii
. The ules o he games a e cons uc ed om social
si ua ions whe e cues a e collec ed om mul iple ac o s. MTF is abou igh uses o
wo ds and i highligh s ha mas e ing he use o a wo d is a skill and hus a ma e o a
deg ee. In MTF he concep o u h is essen ial since i indica es ecogni ion o a
me a ep esen a ional posi ion. Taking me a ep esen a ional posi ions is one impo an
de elopmen al miles one, bu equally impo an a e he skills o use wo ds. In he case
o au ism, i is a amilia phenomenon ha child en can be a he good in ma hema ics
despi e di icul ies in o he uses o language. In ma hema ics, he uses o he e ms a e
mo e igid han in e e yday use o language. Thei meanings do no change when he
con ex changes. In e e yday uses o language, he meanings a e o en cons uc ed in
si ua ions whe e a g ea amoun o con ex ual in o ma ion is needed in o de o ollow
he ules o he language game ha de e mines he igh meanings o hose wo ds in ha
con ex , i.e., how he wo ds a e being used. I his line o easoning is co ec , hen i
implies ha unde s anding ma hema ics does no essen ially equi e ei he p e ending
o me a- ep esen a ional capaci y o ollowing con ex speci ic, meaning cons i u ing,
ules.
I seems ha he way au is ic child en use all kinds o concep s is simila o he
way hey use ma hema ical concep s. This sugges s ha he p ocess whe e he use o a
concep is lea n is pa icula ly c ucial in he case o au ism since i is connec ed o a igid
use o wo ds. This causes p oblems no only because meanings a y in di e en con ex s
bu also because he e can be many con ex s, ha is many language games p esen in one
con e sa ion. I one way o using a wo d is de e mina i e, hen i p e en s ecognizing
al e na i e, legi ima e uses, i.e., o he pe spec i es. While ‘ heo y o mind’ is one way o
unde s and wha is happening, i does no explain o desc ibe he g ea di e ences ha
can exis among child en in hei g asp o he meanings o wo ds, wha we ha e been
e e ing o as skills o use wo ds. One may o cou se a gue whe he heo y o mind o
skills o use wo ds is he de e mina i e ac o , bu ou a gumen is ha explo ing he ole
xii
'au is ic people ha e been shown o p e e 'iden i y- i s ' language' see Dunn and And ews 2015; Kenney
e al 2016; Bo ha e al, 2021'
xiii
Fo example a discussion can be abou Ch is iani y (mac o language game) wi h di e en language
games going on depending on he o ien a ion (mic o language game).
C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 76
o language skills and he p ocess whe eby he uses o wo ds a e lea n may lead o new
educa ional p ac ices ha inc ease skills o managing in di e en si ua ions.
The igh use o he wo d ma ble in Sally-Anne es is dependen on which
language game is in ques ion. The desc ip ion o he es uses h ee di e en names o he
con ex s; he ‘belie ’ ques ion, he ‘ eali y’ ques ion and he ‘memo y’ ques ion. Wha his
equi es om he language use is he ecogni ion ha he ules a e di e en in hose
games. This lea ning is acili a ed in IC Thinking in e en ions. Recognizing ha
di e en language use s a e using wo ds di e en ly is a key o di e en ia ion, he i s
s ep in IC lexibili y.
4. Fu u e esea ch
A eas o u u e esea ch include i s ly he de elopmen o enhancemen o
in e en ions o inc ease IC lexibili y which place e en g ea e emphasis on
pa icipa o y me hods. These me hods should p o ide mechanisms o lea ning ha ely
less on he use o language games (in ol ed in bo h e bally and socially-cued non- e bal
communica ion). This could include he de elopmen and use o pa icipa o y isual
me hods which ha e been sugges ed as e icacious in suppo ing esea che s o access
insigh s ‘which would be di icul o pe cei e and unde s and h ough wo ds (and
numbe s) alone’ (Hickmann, 2007, p.322. See also Bagnoli, 2009, Mannay, S aples and
Edwa ds, 2017).
Secondly, we sugges ha adap a ions o he IC coding manual a e equi ed o be
inclusi e o au is ic people. This would in ol e a) a p ocess h ough which o baseline
he language capabili ies o pa icipan s be o e adminis a ion o he IC measu emen
amewo k and b) in line wi h ou sugges ions abo e, adap a ions o he cu en coding
egime which a e capacious enough o inco po a e pa icipa o y isual and mo emen -
based demons a ions o in eg a i e complexi y which do no ely on usage o language
games.
Finally, we sugges ha he di e ences in language use we ha e explo ed he e
may be e idenced empi ically using he exis ing, unmodi ied IC coding manual.
Speci ically, we sugges u he in es iga ion may sugges ha au is ic people exhibi a
pa icula IC p o ile. We hypo hesise ha au is ic people may exhibi highe le els o
elabo a i e complexi y (complexly elabo a ed iewpoin on one pe spec i e) han
dialec ical complexi y (p esence o a ension be ween mo e han one pe spec i e)
(Conway e al, 2008).
Acknowledgemen
Special hanks o D . Eolene Boyd-MacMillan o aluable eedback.
Con lic o In e es S a emen
The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es s.
C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey
MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING®
METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM
Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 77
Abou he Au ho s
C is e Nybe g (PhD) is a Visi ing Resea che in Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Depa men o
Social Sciences and Philosophy. P incipal Lec u e in Haaga-Helia Uni e si y o Applied
Sciences, School o Voca ional Teache Educa ion.
Amanda P olomey is a Doc o al Resea che o Uni e si y o Glasgow, S a hclyde Cen e
o Disabili y Resea ch, School o Social and Poli ical Sciences.
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