Minimalist theory of fiction and the ICthinking® method as a background for new insights to autism

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Minimalis heo y o ic ion and he IC hinking® me hod as a backg ound o new insigh s o au ism © 2021 he Au ho s Published e sion Nybe g, C is e ; P olomey, Amanda Nybe g, C., & P olomey, A. (2021). Minimalis heo y o ic ion and he IC hinking® me hod as a backg ound o new insigh s o au ism. Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch, 7(1), 70-80. h ps://doi.o g/10.46827/ejse. 7i1.3598 2021 Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch ISSN: 2501 - 2428 ISSN-L: 2501 - 2428 A ailable on-line a : www.oapub.o g/edu Copy igh © The Au ho (s). All Righ s Rese ed. 70 DOI: 10.46827/ejse. 7i1.3598 Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM C is e Nybe g1 i , Amanda P olomey2 1Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Depa men o Social Sciences and Philosophy, Finland 2Uni e si y o Glasgow, S a hclyde Cen e o Disabili y Resea ch, School o Social and Poli ical Sciences, Uni ed Kingdom Abs ac : The s anda d app oach o concep ual unde s anding in he case o au ism uses he dis inc ion o abs ac e sus conc e e hinking. This app oach has i s bene i s bu ails o explain all ea u es o language use. Fo example, some concep s change hei meaning in di e en con ex s in con as o concep s ha a e mo e igid in hei uses, such as ma hema ical concep s. This idea has i s backg ound in Minimalis heo y o ic ion (MTF), a heo y ha conside s ‘skills o use wo ds’ essen ial o unde s anding ic ion, con as ing wi h heo ies ha equi e p e ending o make belie e o unde s and ic ion. F om his backg ound, he heo y o In eg a i e Complexi y (IC), and he me hod anima ing o p ac ice, IC hinking®, can be o pa icula use o au is ic people. The in e en ions de elop me a-cogni i e skills and a e suppo i e o au is ic people. F om hese s a ing poin s, we in oduce new esea ch hypo heses o de eloping educa ional me hods especially o au is ic people. Keywo ds: au ism, in eg a i e complexi y, me acogni ion, ic ion 1. Changing con ex s Fic ional cha ac e s aise philosophical p oblems because o hei on ological s a us. I we ollow he adi ional heo ies o meaning and e e ence, names like ‘She lock Holmes’ a e p oblema ic: is She lock Holmes eal o imagina y o bo h? Simila ly, s o ies in ol ing ou he oes like Luke Skywalke o La a C o a e a challenge o philosophe s who insis on he e being some e e en in eal li e in o de o make s a emen s wi h u h alue, ha is, e alua ed as ‘ ue’ o ‘ alse’. Wha makes he si ua ion e en mo e i Co espondence: email c is e .nybe g@haaga-helia. i C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 71 complica ed is ha hese s o ies include s a emen s ha a e ac ually ue in eal li e (a pa icula poison does kill in a pa icula way). App oaches o hese p oblems ange om mo e s aigh o wa d adi ional answe s o e ed in classic ex s by Go lob F ege (1892) and Be and Russell (1905) o complica ed sys ems o exis ence like Alexius Meinong’s (1905) accoun and i s u he de elopmen s in Edwa d Zal a’s (1983) and Te ence Pa son’s (1980, 2000) heo y on abs ac objec s. The e is an ob ious need o making a di e ence be ween ic ional and eal-li e objec s. The answe s ollowing Meinong y o sa e he idea o e e en by conside ing di e en le els o exis ence. Ano he ecen and widely accep ed way o deal wi h ic ion is o apply he concep o make belie e o p e ense ii (e.g. Wal on 1990, Cu ie 1990 and E ans 1982). In he case o ic ional o abs ac objec s, we a e in i ed o make belie e (o p e end) hei exis ence. All hese app oaches ha e hei p os and cons bu a new al e na i e wi h use ul applica ions o di e en ields is o e ed by he Minimalis Theo y o Fic ion (MTF) (Nybe g 2015, 2016, 2018). MTF akes i s poin o iew om use heo y o meaning and minimal heo y o u h iii . I s esses he ecogni ion o di e en uses o wo ds i.e. language games. Fic ion, all abs ac objec s, scien i ic use o language, e e yday uses o language a e all he same in ha each con ex has i s own ules o he igh uses o wo ds. I we change he ocus om on ological ma e s (is his ue o alse) o a con ex - app op ia e use o wo ds we can concen a e on de eloping skills like eading social and con ex ual cues and me acogni ion. A en ion can hen be paid o me a ep esen a ion and me acogni i e skills: o de elop me acogni i e skills i is essen ial o use educa ional p ac ices ha equi e me a ep esen a ion, he second-o de p esen a ion o i s o de cogni i e con en s i (a d awing is a ep esen a ion o some hing and someone looking a he d awing ep esen s i in hei mind). P e ence is appa en ly in ol ed when we a e pa icipa ing in, o example, a play whe e we a e exagge a ing ou eelings in o de o con incingly pe o m he cha ac e s. Howe e , o ou pe o mance o be con incing we mus unde s and wha is going on in ha pa icula con ex , he play. Thus, unde s anding p ecedes p e ending. On he o he hand, he e a e games o language games whe e we adjus ou beha io o he con ex wi hou necessa ily knowingly doing so (wi hou unde s anding). In gene al, p e ense is de ined as ac ing in a way ha is con a y o how he wo ld is. P e ending by i s de ini ion (e.g. Ga ey 1990) equi es ac ing symbolically, o non-li e ally, in a way ha is con a y o eali y. In de elopmen al psychology, a challenging ques ion is when exac ly do child en ac ually s a p e ending? P e ense seems o eme ge du ing he second yea o li e and i is conside ed puzzling ha i eme ges so ea ly, a he same ime as child en a e cons uc ing hei own concep s o he wo ld and eali y (Randell & Nielsen 2007). ii P e ence heo ies abou ic ion claim we a e me ely p e ending he u h o he sen ences o he exis ence o he objec s in ol ed in ic ion. Kendall Wal on’s heo y is allegedly he mos in luen ial one o he p e ense heo ies. In his heo y ep esen a ional wo ks unc ion as p ops in games o make belie e jus like dolls and oy ucks se e as p ops in child en’s games. (Wal on 1990). iii See Ho wich 1998a, 1998b and Wi gens ein 1999. i E.g. P ous 2007. C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 72 Acco dingly, p e ense is unde s ood o play a signi ican ole in child en’s social cogni i e de elopmen . In p ac ice, his means, o example, playing games whe e objec s can s and in o o he un ela ed objec s hus equi ing a lo o imagina ion (a b oom becomes a ho se, o a ca dboa d box a ship o ou e space) Randell and Nielsen (2007, 128) Leslie (1987). The e is no eason o ques ion hese impo an s ages o psychological de elopmen bu wha is dispu able is he na u e o p e end play. P e end play is seen as a de elopmen al landma k in he child’s acquisi ion o a ‘Theo y o Mind ’ (Leslie, 1987). The e is a wide discussion ques ioning Leslie’s (1987) iew on p e end play and in gene al he esul o his discussion is ha he e a e di e en ypes and le els o p e end play, and ha all p e ense is no me a ep esen a ional (e.g. Go don 1986, 1992, Goldman 1989, Nybe g 2015, 2016). Looking a hese p ocesses om he pe spec i e o he language use , we do no ake a s ance on ques ions conce ning heo y o mind bu ask ins ead wha kind o skills a e equi ed when p e ense is going on. Fo he pu poses o his discussion, i is impo an o no e ha au is ic child en usually show low le els o p e end play i . In he emaining sec ions, we will begin o explo e using he heo y In eg a i e Complexi y (IC) and i s u he de elopmen by IC Thinking esea che s o disco e new me hods o imp o ing he language skills o au is ic child en. 2. In eg a i e complexi y In eg a i e complexi y is simul aneously a concep and a measu e based on o e o y yea s o esea ch. Pionee ed by Sued eld and Te lock ii he in eg a i e complexi y (IC) measu emen ame analyses he le el o cogni i e complexi y in a spoken o w i en s a emen , emphasizing s uc u e o e con en . As a concep , IC e e s o he cogni i e lens h ough which human beings iew he social wo ld du ing eal o pe cei ed con lic . When aced wi h disag eemen o di e ence ela ing o issues co e o ou alues and iden i y, he social wo ld can be pe cei ed h ough a na ow, es ic ed lens esul ing in black and whi e hinking (Low IC). In con as , i is possible o engage wi h he social wo ld – e en when aced wi h h ea o disag eemen - wi h a mo e delibe a e, lexible hinking s yle while emaining connec ed o ou mos impo an alues and iden i y. This expansi e hinking s yle suppo s peace ul solu ions (High IC). The IC Thinking Resea ch G oup ope a ionalized he concep o IC by designing a ange o in e en ions ha inc ease IC lexibili y. By ‘Theo y o Mind’ is e e ed o he “abili y o eason and make in e ences abou ano he ’s men al s a es, and p esupposes he abili y o hold belie s abou ano he ’s belie s, o o men ally ep esen ano he ’s men al ep esen a ion”. i E.g. Ch is Ja old & al. 1994. ii See e.g. (Sued eld & Rank 1976, Sued eld & Te lock 1977, Sued eld, Te lock & Rami ez 1977, Sued eld, Te lock & S eu e 1992). C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 73 3. Finding ules and playing games Adap ing an app oach ha ocuses on he language use , we will iew p e ense as a me a ep esen a ional posi ion iii . Howe e , we can dispense wi h he concep s o p e ense o make belie e because hey a e mainly abou ac ing agains ou belie s. Ra he han in e p e ing ea ly signs o p e ense in child en’s de elopmen as knowingly ac ing in a way con a y o eali y, we will ocus on hei abili y o play he language game in ques ion, o pu ano he way, hei skills o use language. Fo ou a gumen , wha is essen ial in p e ense is he abili y o use wo ds di e en ly in di e en con ex s. We can unde s and a ic ional s o y wi hou knowingly iewing i s s a emen s as con a y o eali y, al hough we ha e a be e unde s anding o he s o y i we do ecognize i s ela ionship o o he language games, o example, o hose abou eali y. The be e unde s anding o he di e en uses o he wo ds he mo e in e p e a ions a e a ailable (Nybe g 2015, 2016, 2018). In ou iew, his is undoub edly linked o me a ep esen a ional abili ies and me acogni ion. Recognizing and compa ing di e en language games o in e p e a ions o a s o y equi es me a ep esen a ion and me acogni i e abili ies. I is a amilia claim ha au is ic child en lack a " heo y o mind" because o an inabili y o me a ep esen . In his claim, he skills o use language a e de e mina i e and he ailu e o ecognize di e en uses o he same wo d in he same e en is in e p e ed as an inabili y o me a ep esen o imagine. While me a ep esen a ion and imagina ion may be in ol ed, ocusing ins ead on he use o language ( a he han heo y o mind) may yield new insigh s o educa ional p ac ices ha will imp o e language skills and me acogni i e abili ies. T adi ional app oaches o in es iga ing he hinking o au is ic child en do no ake in o accoun a language use ’s posi ion. In es si ua ions pa icipan s a e asked o in e p e he meanings o wo ds used in an expe imen al scena io. Taking in o accoun an au is ic pa icipan ’s poin o iew will o e new insigh s. Fo example, he well-known Sally–Anne es ep esen s an expe imen al scena io ha be looked a as a collec ion o mul iple language games in which ecognizing igh uses o wo ds is essen ial. As a adi ional es o in es iga e " heo y o mind" in au is ic child en, he Sally- Anne Tes is used in de elopmen al psychology o measu e a pe son's social cogni i e abili y o a ibu e alse belie s o o he s. I has been used o iden i y how some au is ic iii This is a p oblema ic posi ion since i is dispu able whe he ea ly signs o p e ense play is me a ep esen a ional. In Nybe g 2016 i is a gued ha i is possible o ul il he cha ac e is ics o p e ense play wi hou being awa e o i . This is possible in he ligh o MTF. Thus, he claim ha p e ense play is me a ep esen a ional means he e ha one s a es knowingly alse claims and in addi ion adjus s eelings o his con ex . C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 74 child en ix ha e di icul y unde s anding o he people's pe spec i es and was amously implemen ed by Simon Ba on-Cohen, Alan M. Leslie, and U a F i h (1985) x . In he Sally-Anne expe imen as desc ibed by Ba on-Cohen e al. (1985) wo dolls we e p esen ed o child en Sally and Anne: “Fi s , we checked ha he child en knew which doll was which (Naming Ques ion). Sally i s placed a ma ble in o he baske . Then she le he scene, and he ma ble was ans e ed by Anne and hidden in he box. Then, when Sally e u ned, he expe imen e asked he c i ical Belie Ques ion: “Whe e will Sally look o he ma ble?”. I he child en poin o he p e ious loca ion o he ma ble, hen hey pass he Belie Ques ion by app ecia ing he doll’s now alse belie . I howe e , hey poin o he ma ble’s cu en loca ion, hen hey ail he ques ion by no aking in o accoun he doll’s belie . These conclusions a e wa an ed i wo con ol ques ions a e answe ed co ec ly: “Whe e is he ma ble eally?” (Reali y Ques ion); “Whe e was he ma ble in he beginning? (Memo y Ques ion).” I we compa e his si ua ion ( he scene wi h Sally hiding he ma ble e c.) o a pa icula IC hinking® session whe e pa icipan s ake di e en posi ions in w i en s a emen s and subsequen ly IC code s e alua e wha has been w i en in o de o assign an IC sco e, hen we can see c ucial esemblances. Looking a hings om di e en pe spec i es ep esen s an unde s anding ha wo ds can be used di e en ly, ha is, wo ds change hei meanings depending on he con ex and all ha e less han ull unde s andings o he possible a ia ions in how wo ds may be used. Conside o example he heme o emo ions and human ela ions. A componen o IC hinking in e en ions in ol es acili a ing pa icipan s o ake on he oles o subjec s who hold di e en pe spec i es on a make- belie e si ua ion, oo ed in eal-wo ld social issues. This expe ience equi es ha pa icipan s na iga e mul iple laye s o meaning xi . Pa icipan s mus unde s and a) he o e all s o y o he imagina y scena io, b) ha hey ha e o play a ole, no hemsel es, c) he cha ac e o he ole ha hey a e inhabi ing in he scena io, d) ha o he s a e playing oles also, and e) ha he e a e implici o explici connec ions be ween he imagina y scena io and ‘ eal wo ld’ con lic s. This explici connec ion – be ween he ole play and he ‘ eal wo ld’ social con lic – is no necessa y in o de o success ully pa icipa e in he game and demons a es ha al hough ole plays ely on he capaci y o pa icipan s o unde s and and engage in he use o language games such unde s anding exis s ac oss a spec um (Nybe g 2018). C ucially, ole play also suppo s embodied cogni ion – beyond language. In IC Thinking in e en ions, pa icipan s a e acili a ed o make explici language-based connec ions be ween ix “The Belie Ques ion o bo h ials was answe ed consis en ly by each child wi h he sole excep ion o one Down’s Synd ome child who ailed ial 1 and passed ial 2. The esul s o Down’s Synd ome and no mal subjec s we e s ikingly simila . 23 ou o 27 no mal child en, and 12 ou o 14 Down’s Synd ome child en passed he Belie Ques ion on bo h ials (85% and 86% espec i ely). By con as , 16 o he 20 au is ic child en (80%) ailed he Belie Ques ion on bo h ials. “ Simon Ba on-Cohen, Alan M. Leslie, and U a F i h (1985) x Leslie and F i h (1988) ound simila esul s wi h a simila expe imen wi h human ac o s ( a he han dolls). xi See Nybe g 2015 and 2018 on in e ex uali y. Gene al in oduc ion in S ill, J. & Wo on M. 1991. C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 75 in eg a i e complexi y, he ole play scena io, hei ole, and he embodied expe ience o hei hough s, eelings and emo ions (Boyd-MacMillan e al 2016, p.61). Concep ions o human ela ions a y g ea ly be ween cul u es and e en amilies. One goal in IC hinking in e en ions is o become awa e o his. Wha his means om he pe spec i e o MTF is ha in a case o misunde s anding he e is a con lic because o di e en uses o wo ds, i.e., di e en ideas abou wo ds’ meanings. The pa icipan s a e playing di e en language games. The same phenomenon is p esen when au is ic child en xii ail in he Sally-Anne es . The idea o ‘ heo y o mind’ is one way o look a wha is happening in he Sally-Anne es , bu i can also be hough o as an abili y o ecognize di e en language games. I is c ucial o ecognize di e en uses o wo ds mani es ed in he same con ex . These subgames may be called mic o language games belonging o a mac o language game xiii . The ules o he games a e cons uc ed om social si ua ions whe e cues a e collec ed om mul iple ac o s. MTF is abou igh uses o wo ds and i highligh s ha mas e ing he use o a wo d is a skill and hus a ma e o a deg ee. In MTF he concep o u h is essen ial since i indica es ecogni ion o a me a ep esen a ional posi ion. Taking me a ep esen a ional posi ions is one impo an de elopmen al miles one, bu equally impo an a e he skills o use wo ds. In he case o au ism, i is a amilia phenomenon ha child en can be a he good in ma hema ics despi e di icul ies in o he uses o language. In ma hema ics, he uses o he e ms a e mo e igid han in e e yday use o language. Thei meanings do no change when he con ex changes. In e e yday uses o language, he meanings a e o en cons uc ed in si ua ions whe e a g ea amoun o con ex ual in o ma ion is needed in o de o ollow he ules o he language game ha de e mines he igh meanings o hose wo ds in ha con ex , i.e., how he wo ds a e being used. I his line o easoning is co ec , hen i implies ha unde s anding ma hema ics does no essen ially equi e ei he p e ending o me a- ep esen a ional capaci y o ollowing con ex speci ic, meaning cons i u ing, ules. I seems ha he way au is ic child en use all kinds o concep s is simila o he way hey use ma hema ical concep s. This sugges s ha he p ocess whe e he use o a concep is lea n is pa icula ly c ucial in he case o au ism since i is connec ed o a igid use o wo ds. This causes p oblems no only because meanings a y in di e en con ex s bu also because he e can be many con ex s, ha is many language games p esen in one con e sa ion. I one way o using a wo d is de e mina i e, hen i p e en s ecognizing al e na i e, legi ima e uses, i.e., o he pe spec i es. While ‘ heo y o mind’ is one way o unde s and wha is happening, i does no explain o desc ibe he g ea di e ences ha can exis among child en in hei g asp o he meanings o wo ds, wha we ha e been e e ing o as skills o use wo ds. One may o cou se a gue whe he heo y o mind o skills o use wo ds is he de e mina i e ac o , bu ou a gumen is ha explo ing he ole xii 'au is ic people ha e been shown o p e e 'iden i y- i s ' language' see Dunn and And ews 2015; Kenney e al 2016; Bo ha e al, 2021' xiii Fo example a discussion can be abou Ch is iani y (mac o language game) wi h di e en language games going on depending on he o ien a ion (mic o language game). C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 76 o language skills and he p ocess whe eby he uses o wo ds a e lea n may lead o new educa ional p ac ices ha inc ease skills o managing in di e en si ua ions. The igh use o he wo d ma ble in Sally-Anne es is dependen on which language game is in ques ion. The desc ip ion o he es uses h ee di e en names o he con ex s; he ‘belie ’ ques ion, he ‘ eali y’ ques ion and he ‘memo y’ ques ion. Wha his equi es om he language use is he ecogni ion ha he ules a e di e en in hose games. This lea ning is acili a ed in IC Thinking in e en ions. Recognizing ha di e en language use s a e using wo ds di e en ly is a key o di e en ia ion, he i s s ep in IC lexibili y. 4. Fu u e esea ch A eas o u u e esea ch include i s ly he de elopmen o enhancemen o in e en ions o inc ease IC lexibili y which place e en g ea e emphasis on pa icipa o y me hods. These me hods should p o ide mechanisms o lea ning ha ely less on he use o language games (in ol ed in bo h e bally and socially-cued non- e bal communica ion). This could include he de elopmen and use o pa icipa o y isual me hods which ha e been sugges ed as e icacious in suppo ing esea che s o access insigh s ‘which would be di icul o pe cei e and unde s and h ough wo ds (and numbe s) alone’ (Hickmann, 2007, p.322. See also Bagnoli, 2009, Mannay, S aples and Edwa ds, 2017). Secondly, we sugges ha adap a ions o he IC coding manual a e equi ed o be inclusi e o au is ic people. This would in ol e a) a p ocess h ough which o baseline he language capabili ies o pa icipan s be o e adminis a ion o he IC measu emen amewo k and b) in line wi h ou sugges ions abo e, adap a ions o he cu en coding egime which a e capacious enough o inco po a e pa icipa o y isual and mo emen - based demons a ions o in eg a i e complexi y which do no ely on usage o language games. Finally, we sugges ha he di e ences in language use we ha e explo ed he e may be e idenced empi ically using he exis ing, unmodi ied IC coding manual. Speci ically, we sugges u he in es iga ion may sugges ha au is ic people exhibi a pa icula IC p o ile. We hypo hesise ha au is ic people may exhibi highe le els o elabo a i e complexi y (complexly elabo a ed iewpoin on one pe spec i e) han dialec ical complexi y (p esence o a ension be ween mo e han one pe spec i e) (Conway e al, 2008). Acknowledgemen Special hanks o D . Eolene Boyd-MacMillan o aluable eedback. Con lic o In e es S a emen The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es s. C is e Nybe g, Amanda P olomey MINIMALIST THEORY OF FICTION AND THE ICTHINKING® METHOD AS A BACKGROUND FOR NEW INSIGHTS TO AUTISM Eu opean Jou nal o Special Educa ion Resea ch - Volume 7 │ Issue 1 │ 2021 77 Abou he Au ho s C is e Nybe g (PhD) is a Visi ing Resea che in Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Depa men o Social Sciences and Philosophy. P incipal Lec u e in Haaga-Helia Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, School o Voca ional Teache Educa ion. Amanda P olomey is a Doc o al Resea che o Uni e si y o Glasgow, S a hclyde Cen e o Disabili y Resea ch, School o Social and Poli ical Sciences. Re e ences Bagnoli, A. (2009). Beyond he s anda d in e iew: The use o g aphic elici a ion and a s- based me hods. Quali a i e esea ch, 9(5), pp.547-570. Bakh in, M. M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagina ion: Fou Essays. Ed. Michael Holquis . T ans. Ca yl Eme son and Michael Holquis . Aus in and London: Uni e si y o Texas P ess. Ba on-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & F i h, U. (1985). Does he au is ic child ha e a ‘ heo y o mind’? Cogni ion, 21, 37-46 Be k, L. E. (2003). Child de elopmen . Bos on, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Bo ha, M., Hanlon, J. and Williams, G.L., 2021. Does language ma e ? Iden i y- i s e sus pe son- i s language use in au ism esea ch: A esponse o Vi an i. Jou nal o Au ism and De elopmen al Diso de s, pp.1-9. Boyd-MacMillan, E. (2016). Inc easing Cogni i e Complexi y and Collabo a ion Ac oss Communi ies: Being Muslim Being Sco ish. 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