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S a egic planning o ca ee se ices
© Au ho s 2023
Published e sion
Hayden, Se h C. W.; Pe e son, Ga y W.; Rea don, Robe C.; Lenz, Jane G.;
Sampson, James P. J .; Vuo inen, Raimo; Ke unen, Jaana; S allings, E ica; Dozie ,
V. Casey
Hayden, S. C. W., Pe e son, G. W., Rea don, R. C., Lenz, J. G., Sampson, J. P. J., Vuo inen, R.,
Ke unen, J., S allings, E., & Dozie , V. C. (2023). S a egic planning o ca ee se ices. In J. P. J.
Sampson, J. G. Lenz, E. Bullock-Yowell, D. S. Osbo n, & S. C. W. Hayden (Eds.), Cogni i e
In o ma ion P ocessing : Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice (pp. 567-594). Flo ida S a e
Open Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.33009/ sop_sampson1123.ch20
2023
567
CHAPTER 20
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR CAREER SERVICES
Se h C. W. Hayden
Ga y W. Pe e son
Robe C. Rea don
Jane G. Lenz
James P. Sampson, J .
Raimo Vuo inen
Jaana Ke unen
E ica S allings
V. Casey Dozie
APA S yle (7 h ed.) e e ence ci a ion o his chap e :
Hayden, S. C. W., Pe e son, G. W., Rea don, R. C., Lenz, J. G., Sampson, J. P., J ., Vuo inen, R.,
Ke unen, J., S allings, E., & Dozie , V. C. (2023). S a egic planning o ca ee se ices.
In J. P. Sampson, J ., J. G. Lenz, E. Bullock-Yowell, D. S. Osbo n, & S. C. W. Hayden
(Eds.). Cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing: Ca ee heo y, esea ch, and p ac ice. Flo ida
S a e Open Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.33009/ sop_sampson1123.ch20
Co espondence conce ning his chap e should be add essed o S. C. W. Hayden a
[email p o ec ed].
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indi idual au ho s. © 2023
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This chap e explo es s a egic hinking, ope a ions planning, and s a egic planning as
ways o help us an icipa e impo an social and o ganiza ional changes so ha we may con inue
o o e imely and esponsi e ca ee se ices. In addi ion, i p o ides p econdi ions o ca ee
se ices and he manne in which hey con ibu e o wide employmen o socie al goals. A e
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 568
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
e iewing his chap e , he eade should be able o (a) de ine s a egic hinking and s a egic
planning, (b) con as s a egic planning wi h ope a ions planning, (c) desc ibe he six s eps in
s a egic planning, (d) ela e s a egic planning o cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing heo y (CIP)
and o accoun abili y, and (e) desc ibe he ou p incipal oles o he mode n ca ee p ac i ione .
This chap e begins wi h a discussion o s a egic planning and he aims o ca ee se ices and
con inues wi h an examina ion o social ends in luencing s a egic planning, s a egic hinking
and s a egic planning, why s a egic planning is necessa y, guidelines o s a egic planning
based on CIP heo y, o ganiza ional con ex and he implemen a ion o a s a egic plan, oles o
he ca ee p ac i ione s in a CIP heo y-based en i onmen , ole o public policy in s a egic
planning, and di e en ia ed se ice deli e y and public policy. The chap e concludes wi h a
summa y and ecommenda ions o ge ing he mos bene i om eading he chap e .
S a egic Planning and he Aims o Ca ee Se ices
A he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, F ank Pa sons and o he leade s o he p og essi e
mo emen in he Uni ed S a es engaged in "s a egic planning," which led o he de elopmen o
he oca ional guidance mo emen and he beginnings o he counseling p o ession. Al hough
he e is no documen a ion o hei wo k ha is ac ually labeled s a egic planning, he e idence
sugges s ha is exac ly wha hey did. P o ide s o ca ee in e en ions, indeed he na ion, a e
s ill called on o engage in s a egic planning ega ding social policies and ins i u ions ha will
enable ci izens o wo k e ec i ely, bo h a he indi idual le el and he socie al le el. Camille
DeBell (2001) p o ided a hough ul analysis o he social condi ions in he Uni ed S a es 100
yea s ago ha led o he de elopmen o ca ee guidance and counseling. She poin ed ou ha …
al hough he wo ld o wo k is s ill esponding o some ends ini ia ed a cen u y ago (such
as globaliza ion, immig a ion, equi y conce ns, echnological ad ance), he e a e also
exponen ial changes, and he wo ld o wo k is no he same as i was e en a decade ago.
I is essen ial ha ca ee p ac i ione s in all hei a ied wo k en i onmen s help clien s
unde s and his and p epa e o he unp edic able— he wen y- i s cen u y o wo k (p.
87).
This chap e ela es he p inciples o accoun abili y in oduced in Chap e 19 o he
p inciples o s a egic planning and demons a es how s a egic planning can be used o o e
ele an and e ec i e ca ee se ices in a apidly changing wo ld. F om a s a egic planning
pe spec i e, he wo p incipal aims o mode n ca ee se ices a e o (a) p o ide lea ning
oppo uni ies o help indi iduals acqui e new knowledge and capabili ies ha will enable hem o
become be e ca ee p oblem sol e s and decision make s and (b) be esponsi e o he needs o
he clien s, o ganiza ions, o communi ies ha ecei e hese se ices. These aims equi e a
con inual assessmen o bo h he in e nal and he ex e nal en i onmen o he ca ee se ices
p og am. Th ough s a egic planning, ca ee se ice p og ams will be be e p epa ed o compe e
o esou ces, as well as o a ain hei goals, objec i es, and mission.
S a egic Planning, CIP Theo y, and a Ca ee Se ice Mission
A ca ee se ice’s mission s a emen is a single comp ehensi e s a emen ha desc ibes
he e y business o he se ice which dis inguishes i om o he se ices in an o ganiza ion o
om like se ices in o he o ganiza ions. I also se es as an o ganizing p inciple o a se ice
ha keeps i “cen e ed” in main aining consis ency o i s se ices o e ime. O en, se ices a e
called on o inco po a e addi ional se ices o pu poses ex e nally o o add se ices om
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 569
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
specula ion, expe imen a ion, o ambi ion in e nally. In ei he case, he mission s a emen
p o ides a ocus in asking he s a egic ques ion, “How does his p oposal align wi h ou
business?” S a egic planning is a me hod o p ocess h ough which decisions o expand,
con ac , o al e se ices a e made.
An example o a hypo he ical mission s a emen adap ed om he Flo ida S a e
Uni e si y Ca ee Cen e (2023), s a es he ollowing:
The Mission o he Ca ee Cen e a High Quali y Uni e si y (HQU) is o o e s a e-o -
he-science ca ee se ices o s uden s, alumni and he communi y e lec ing he co e
eaching, esea ch, and se ice unc ions o he uni e si y. This mission is ca ied ou
h ough he ollowing pu poses:
• P o ide comp ehensi e ca ee in e en ions,
• T ain ca ee se ice p ac i ione s,
• Conduc li e/ca ee de elopmen esea ch, and
• Dissemina e in o ma ion abou li e/ca ee se ices and issues o he uni e si y
communi y, he na ion, and he wo ld.
This comp ehensi e s a emen , wi h ou p ima y pu poses, was de eloped h ough
s a egic planning ha in ol ed con ibu ions o s akeholde s who ep esen ed p ac i ione s om
wi hin he se ice, clien s o he se ice, uni e si y adminis a o s, he s a e Depa men o
Educa ion pe sonnel, and na ionally p ominen ca ee p ac i ione s and esea che s. The kind and
manne in which hese pu poses a e ca ied ou makes he HQU Ca ee Cen e dis inc ly
di e en om all o he college and uni e si y ca ee cen e s in he wo ld.
The s a egic planning p ocess, ypically ca ied ou app oxima ely e e y 5 yea s, begins
by asking, “A e we doing he igh hings in his educa ional ins i u ion o co po a ion?” This
ques ion di e s om ope a ions planning which asks he ques ion, “A e we doing hings igh ?”
The app oach o answe ing bo h ques ions is dis inc ly di e en in e ms o pu pose, me hod, and
ou come. Finally, h ough an e ec i e s a egic planning p ocess, a ca ee se ice is be e
p epa ed o main ain i s goals and objec i es in he mids o dis ac ions and h ea s and o
compe e o esou ces o a ain hem.
The ques ion now asked is, wha is he ela ionship be ween s a egic planning and
cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing (CIP) heo y? In esponse o his ques ion, he e a e wo
p inciple aims o CIP heo y which cu ac oss and a e embedded wi hin he ou pu poses o he
HQU Ca ee Cen e mission: (a) o p o ide lea ning oppo uni ies o assis indi iduals in
acqui ing new knowledge and capabili ies ha will enable hem o become be e ca ee p oblem
sol e s and decision make s, and (b) o be esponsi e o he needs o clien s, o ganiza ions, and
communi ies ha ecei e he p oduc s (o ou pu s) o hese se ices. Thus, a aining hese aims
include (1) he deli e y o ca ee se ices, (2) aining in how o deli e e ec i e ca ee
ad ising, counseling and ins uc ion, (3) he ad ancemen o esea ch o b ing abou he desi ed
ou pu s and ou comes (Pe e son & Bu ck, 1982) o ca ee se ices, and (4) dissemina ion o
knowledge ega ding how hese aims a e a ained. In some espec s, he HQU Ca ee Cen e
se es as labo a o y o ad ancing he “s a e-o - he-science” in helping indi iduals acqui e
ca ee p oblem-sol ing and decision-making skills.
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 570
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
Social T ends A ec ing S a egic Planning
A key aspec o hinking abou s a egic planning o ca ee se ices is o conside a
b oad ange o social ends ha a ec wo k in his a ea. This sec ion highligh s a selec ed
numbe o hose ends, including he global economy, echnology, al e na i e ways o wo k, and
changing amily and wo k oles. Chap e 21 discusses addi ional ends ha may impac he
design and deli e y o ca ee se ices and he e olu ion o CIP heo y.
The Global Economy
The g ow h o he global economy is illus a ed by he eme gence o a wide a ie y o
op ions o pe sons o wo k globally. This has mul iple implica ions o s a egic ca ee planning.
B oadband connec i i y, cloud compu ing and o he inno a ions ha e g ea ly expanded g ow h
in he global and digi al economy (In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, 2021). People ha e he
op ion o sell hei labo h ough a wide a ie y o digi al pla o ms, some o which enable hem
o wo k in hei local communi y, while o he s in ol e web-based pla o ms ha allow o
emo e wo k ac oss he globe. While some o hese pla o ms p o ide a ac i e, lexible op ions
o eelance o home-based wo ke s wi h high le el skills, o he s may in ol e low wages,
unp edic able wo k schedules, limi ed bene i s, and a lack o wo kplace p o ec ions (Blus ein,
2019; ILO, 2021). The global economy will con inue o ely on so-called “knowledge wo ke s,”
who know how o alloca e knowledge and in o ma ion o p oduc i e use. Ca ee s will con inue
o un old in a global con ex wi h g ea e alue being placed on alue added skills such as
lexibili y, adap abili y, and esilience. These ypes o skills will be essen ial as indi iduals
na iga e hei ca ee jou ney wi hin a global labo ma ke .
G ow h o Technology
Technology con inues o change he way many o ganiza ions conduc business and
p o ide se ices, and his can ha e implica ions o an indi idual’s s a egic ca ee planning
(Manyika, 2017; Tang, 2019). Fo example, in he inancial indus y, compu e s a e se o
au oma ically mo e money o and om accoun s when ce ain p ese condi ions exis . The
In e ne and o he echnological ad ances make i possible o indi iduals and o ganiza ions o
ha e ins an con ac wi h one ano he , a li le cos . In addi ion, i ’s ha d o p edic how he
ad ances in a i icial in elligence (AI) will impac wo k and li e in he u u e (Bankins &
Fo mosa, 2023; Kochha , 2023; Mon hly Labo Re iew, 2022; S ahl, 2021; Zahidi, 2023). In
ecen yea s he COVID pandemic u he highligh ed how echnology can be employed o
enable indi iduals o wo k emo ely (Pa ke e al., 2022), in some cases expanding choices and
in o he s eplacing human wo ke s wi h machines and obo s (See Chap e 21 o mo e on
COVID and wo k). I is i ually impossible o o e es ima e he impac o echnology on ca ee s
and he p o ision o ca ee se ices. Indeed, he expansion o In e ne applica ions has adically
changed he ways in which ca ee in e en ions a e p o ided o a ious cons i uencies. This was
u he highligh ed by he way ca ee se ices pi o ed o emo e deli e y o counseling, cou se
ins uc ion, wo kshops, and b ie s a assis ance (Osbo n e al., 2022). The pandemic illus a ed
how a CIP- heo y based app oach could be adap ed in a i ual o ma , including he use o CIP
heo y handou s (Py amid, CASVE cycle, Indi idual Lea ning Plan), assessmen s (e.g., CTI,
CSI, DSW), wo kshee s (Guide o Good Decision-Making Exe cise), and ela ed ma e ials.
Access o ideo con e encing echnology (e.g., Skype, Zoom) and cou se lea ning managemen
sys ems (e.g., Blackboa d, Can as) ha e allowed ca ee p ac i ione s o p o ide se ices o

Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 571
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
clien s and s uden s wi hou he equi emen o ace- o- ace mee ings. This has impo an
implica ions o ca ee p ac i ione s a ound he globe who may need o each a di e se a ay o
clien s who canno a el o in-pe son se ices.
Al e na i e Ways o Wo k
In yea s pas , people o en g ew up wi h he idea o wo king a 40-hou week in hei
jobs— ha jus seemed o be he na u al o de o hings. O cou se, people in ce ain jobs (e.g.,
physicians, nu ses, plumbe s, police o ice s) con inued o wo k odd schedules, bu many people
assumed hey would ha e “ egula ” weekday jobs. Pe haps no hing else in he ca ee wo ld has
changed as much as he way we wo k, e.g., he “gig economy” (Kessle , 2018; Semuels, 2018),
and his has implica ions o s a egic ca ee planning se ices. Wo k pa e ns include op ions
such as lex ime, pa - ime, job sha ing, empo a y, and home-based wo k/ elecommu ing
pa e ns (Rea don e al., 2022). One example o his phenomenon is he p oli e a ion o
p eca ious wo k. This is de ined as wo k ha is unce ain, uns able, and insecu e whe e
employees assume he isks o employmen and ecei e limi ed social bene i s o p o ec ions
om employe s o he go e nmen (Blus ein, 2019; Kallebe g, 2012). In p eca ious wo k,
wo ke s a e inc easingly de ined as independen con ac o s who handle all he isks associa ed
wi h hei employmen . The de elopmen o such wo king a angemen s has been in luenced by
echnology and globaliza ion. The e a e abundan implica ions o ca ee se ices inhe en in his
a ea o social change.
Changing Family and Wo k Roles
Gende oles wi hin he amily ha e shi ed o e ime in ela ion o wo k (Schul heiss,
2020; Tang, 2019). Women ha e shi ed om ocusing speci ically on he needs o he home and
en e ed he wo kplace. O e he pas 60 yea s, women ha e inc easingly aken jobs ou side he
home (Bu eau o Labo S a is ics, 2022; Yellen, 2020). In some cases, men ha e op ed o s ay a
home and de o e mo e ime o childca e (Kelly, 2022). The dual-ca ee amily, o in some cases
he dual-ea ne amily, whe e bo h indi iduals in a ela ionship a e wo king ou side he home,
has had a huge impac on he way mos o us wo k oday and will wo k in he u u e (Rea don e
al., 2022). All o he ends no ed abo e poin o he need o mo e complex hinking abou how
indi iduals will na iga e a ious li e oles and how ca ee p ac i ione s will help hem do ha .
Adjus ing o changes in socie y will equi e an abili y o adap and be lexible and ha e a
ole ance o a ious le els o ambigui y. The e idence is clea ha CIP heo y, 30 yea s om i s
“bi h,” can con inue o play a ole in helping indi iduals o de elop new schema a o sol ing
ca ee p oblems and making ca ee decisions as hey na iga e ca ee and amily oles.
Implica ions
Social ends such as hese ou will con inue o ha e an impac on he na u e o ca ee
se ices. While ea ly li e a u e desc ibed how ca ee se ices could be bo h high ech and high
ouch (Pyle, 1985), ecen e en s ha e illus a ed how much can be accomplished wi hou ace-
o- ace in e ac ion. While pe sons seeking ca ee assis ance ha e a weal h o esou ces easily
accessible 24/7 (e.g., websi es, compu e -based guidance sys ems, in e ac i e wo kbooks, job
da abases, e c.), he e is s ill a need o ca ee p ac i ione s who can p o ide assis ance in helping
indi iduals na iga e he a ay o in o ma ion and in e en ions, as well as se e as a “sa e y ne ”
o low eadiness indi iduals and hose who may be expe iencing bo h ca ee and men al heal h
conce ns. See mo e abou his opic in Chap e 10 o his book.
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 572
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
In a comp ehensi e ca ee cen e , which ypically p o ides se ices in a physical loca ion
and in a i ual se ing ia he Web, ca ee p ac i ione s can expec o inc easingly encoun e
clien s who may ha e a s ong p e e ence o a pa icula ype o se ice deli e y. The e may
also be p essu e om s akeholde s (e.g., go e nmen o icials, unde s) and ex e nal g oups (e.g.,
alumni, pa en s) o mo e eadily accessible se ices. Ca ee cen e s may ha e mo e s a who
wo k emo ely o p o ide assis ance o indi iduals. This means ha all o he ca ee ools used in
se ice deli e y need o be adap ed o i ual use. We now u n o ways in which ca ee se ice
p o ide s can p epa e o espond o hese ends and issues.
We belie e he ou social ends desc ibed abo e will ha e an impac on he ca ee
de elopmen o indi iduals and he o e ing o ca ee se ices o assis hem (See Chap e 21 o
a discussion o addi ional ac o s ha will likely impac CIP heo y-in o med se ices). These
ends will compel ca ee se ice p o ide s o be mind ul o s a egic ques ions such as he
ollowing:
• Wha is ou business?
• Who a e ou p ima y clien s?
• Wha a e hei needs?
• How can we as ca ee p ac i ione s os e decision-making skills in clien s ha will
enable hem o make in o med choices as hey na iga e an e e -changing ca ee
landscape and seek o imp o e he quali y o hei li es?
• How do we a icula e he alue o ou se ices o ele an s akeholde s?
We now u n o ways in which ca ee se ice p o ide s can p epa e o espond o hese
ends and issues.
S a egic Thinking and S a egic Planning
S a egic hinking and planning a e capabili ies ca ee p ac i ione s should possess ha
enable hem o an icipa e social and o ganiza ional changes ha bea on he mission and
pu poses o a ca ee se ice. In he conduc o day- o-day p ac ice, hese capabili ies help
main ain ocus on impo an b oade issues ha may impac he deli e y o ca ee se ices in he
immedia e and dis an u u e.
S a egic Thinking
S a egic hinking in ol es he in eg a ion o planning, leade ship, and managemen
(Cope, 1987; Haycock, Cheadle, & Blues one, 2012; Omahe, 1982). S a egic hinking aises a -
eaching issues such as he ollowing: A e we p o iding he ange and a ie y o ca ee se ices
ha mee he needs o ou a ge ed clien ele? Does he ca ee se ices cen e mission
complemen and enhance he mission o he o ganiza ion as well as he mission o o he se ice
p o ide s wi hin i ? And ela ed o CIP heo y, a e ou clien s acqui ing he knowledge, skills,
and a i udes (SKAs) ha will enable hem o be e ec i e ca ee p oblem sol e s and decision
make s when aced wi h ine i able ca ee p oblems in he u u e?
S a egic hinking may be u he illumina ed by con as ing i wi h he concep o
ope a ions planning. S a egic hinking (Ballen ine & Wa s, 1989) may be hough o as doing
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 573
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
he igh hings (e ec i eness), whe eas ope a ions planning may be hough o as doing hings
igh (e iciency). O he con as s be ween he wo concep s (Cope, 1987, p. 8) a e:
S a egic Thinking
Ope a ions Planning
1. Fo mula ion
Implemen a ion
2. Wha
How
3. Whe e
How
4. Ends
Means
5. Vision
Plans
6. E ec i eness
E iciency
7. S a egizing
Planning
8. Risk
Con ol
Speci ically, s a egic hinking en ails a sys ems pe spec i e, being in en - ocused,
hinking in ime (i.e., gap be ween cu en eali y and in en o he u u e), is hypo hesis d i en,
and cha ac e ized by in elligen oppo unism (i.e., being open o new expe iences) (Haycock e
al., 2012).
Finally, s a egic hinking in ol es in eg a ing h ee componen s: (a) o mula ing a ision
o he igh hings o do acco ding o he mission (s a egic planning), (b) achie ing consensus
among s akeholde s and acqui ing esou ces o do he igh hings (leade ship), and (c)
implemen ing a plan o do hings igh (managemen ). Thus, main aining app op ia e ca ee
se ices o e ed by a p og am demands ha ca ee p ac i ione s, in addi ion o skill ully
p o iding acili a i e condi ions and in e en ions o ad ance ca ee p oblem sol ing and
decision-making skills, mus also possess he capaci y o hinking s a egically abou he p esen
and u u e se ices hey will p o ide.
S a egic Planning
S a egic planning has been desc ibed as an ongoing p ocess used by o ganiza ions o
cha hei u u e di ec ion (Co e, 2020). Opinions a y abou he use ulness o s a egic planning
in u bulen imes, bu some conside i mo e impo an han e e o oday’s en i onmen
(B yson, 2018). The ul ima e pu pose o s a egic planning is o main ain and enhance he
iabili y o a p og am in a b oade o ganiza ional and en i onmen al con ex ; ha is, o main ain
and e en g ow i s mission and pu poses wi hin he o ganiza ion. F om an open-sys ems
pe spec i e (Be alan y, 1968; Kabeyi, 2019), s a egic planning en ails de e mining a di ec ion
o g ow h and de elopmen in e nal o he p og am in ela ion o he o ces and di ec ion o
change in he nea and dis al ex e nal en i onmen , so as o enhance he posi ion o he p og am
in he inexo able compe i ion o esou ces in he ecosys em. Fu he , s a egic planning equi es
a ision o he u u e, while being mind ul o he e ol ing ela ionship be ween he in e nal
p og am en i onmen and he e e -changing ex e nal en i onmen . O en, he o mula ion o a
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 574
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
ision in ol es apping in o in ui ion, opinions, and quali a i e in o ma ion mo e han
in o ma ion om empi ical da a used in ope a ions planning. In o he wo ds, a ision is c ea ed
mo e han de i ed. Thus, s a egic planning equi es a o wa d- hinking and p oac i e app oach
o e alua ing he exis ing mission, pu poses, and se ice o e ings o a ca ee se ice p og am
wi h an eye owa d u he de elopmen in he di ec ion o he ision.
S a egic planning is also an o ganiza ional p oblem sol ing and decision-making
p ocess, and he e o e amenable o analysis wi hin he amewo k o CIP heo y. The s a egic
planning p ocess, as ou lined by B yson (2018), as well as Cope (1987), can be embedded wi hin
he CASVE cycle, while he membe s o a s a egic planning ask o ce o commi ee possess he
knowledge and capabili ies con ained in he espec i e domains o he Py amid o In o ma ion
P ocessing. Thus, he membe s possess sel -knowledge and o ganiza ional knowledge a he
base, p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills (p esen ed below) a he mid-sec ion, and he
chai o he commi ee p o ides he execu i e unc ion a he apex by o ganizing and leading he
g oup h ough he p ocess.
Why S a egic Planning is Necessa y
Ul ima ely, as a p ocess, s a egic planning se es as a mechanism o means o building
consensus (o buy-in) among he s akeholde s o a ca ee se ice p og am ega ding he di ec ion
o i s u u e g ow h and de elopmen . Fu he mo e, he ou pu o he s a egic planning p ocess is
a documen con aining he mission s a emen , goals and objec i es o each o he pu poses
wi hin he s a emen , and implemen a ion s a egies and pe o mance indica o s o each
objec i e. This documen se es as a ounda ional esou ce, guide, and e e ence o he making
o impo an and e en c i ical decisions ega ding he main enance and g ow h o a ca ee
se ice. Th ee examples o uses o a s a egic planning p ocess a e as ollows.
P epa ing an Annual Budge o a Ca ee Se ice
Each yea , a ca ee se ices di ec o p epa es an ope a ing budge o be submi ed o an
adminis a o in cha ge o an o ganiza ional uni con aining he se ice. The eques o unds is
based on he need o esou ces o accomplish he objec i es o he coming yea as de ailed in
he s a egic planning documen . Included, along wi h he p oposed budge , is an e alua ion o
he a ainmen o he cu en yea ’s objec i es along wi h exce p s o he s a egic planning
documen o place he p oposal in he con ex o an o e a ching s a egic plan. O en, he
adminis a i e supe iso , ypically a dean o ice p esiden in cha ge o he se ice has
pa icipa ed as a s akeholde in he de elopmen o he s a egic plan.
Tu no e in Leade ship
An una oidable eali y is ha ca ee cen e di ec o s lea e hei employmen o a a ie y
o easons (Sampson, 2006), including p o essional ad ancemen , e i emen , and bu nou . The
hi ing o a successo can be augh wi h challenge and unce ain y. I he e is an exis ing
s a egic plan, he ou going di ec o , as a leade , has played a key ole in he o mula ion and
execu ion o i . A new di ec o may ha e a unique pe spec i e on he assessmen o he
o ganiza ion, ha e a di e en ision, and iew he exis ing mission and pu poses di e en ly han
he p edecesso , in which case a new s a egic planning p ocess should begin immedia ely upon
assuming he o ice.
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 581
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
E ec i eness o Implemen ing he S a egic Plan
S a egic planning is linked o he e alua ion and accoun abili y o a ca ee se ice
p og am h ough CIP heo y’s pa adigm. As s a ed many imes in his book, a key aim o CIP
heo y is o no only p o ide a amewo k o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making in he
p esen , bu o c ea e lea ning expe iences ha enable clien s o acqui e ans e able ca ee
p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills ha can be applied o u u e ca ee decisions. A
comple e p og amma ic e alua ion and accoun abili y sys em, based on CIP heo y, was
p esen ed in he p eceding chap e , Chap e 19. Ne e heless, he Execu ion phase o he
s a egic planning p ocess calls o he iden i ica ion o pe o mance indica o s ha can se e as
benchma ks o success in implemen ing a plan o o ganiza ional de elopmen . Fo example, he
Na ional Associa ion o Colleges and Employe s (NACE) p o ides a wo kbook (NACE, 2019)
ha can be used by ca ee se ices o ices o e alua e hei p og ams agains NACE s anda ds.
The ollowing a e examples o key ques ions o be add essed in e alua ing he e ec i eness o
he implemen a ion o a plan.
1. To wha ex en we e he in ended goals and objec i es o he plan achie ed?
2. We e clien s success ul in add essing hei p esen ing issue o hei sa is ac ion?
3. To wha ex en did clien s acqui e mas e y o he CASVE cycle skills?
4. To wha ex en we e he e su icien esou ces o achie e he plan’s goals and objec i es?
5. A e he e su icien esou ces o ins i u ionalize he new p og amma ic o e ings beyond
he design, de elopmen , and implemen a ion phases?
6. A e he e unin ended e ec s o implemen ing he plan? I so, which a e posi i e o
nega i e?
To add ess each ques ion abo e, a me hodology, ques ionnai es and su eys, da a
ga he ing p ocedu es, and he designa ion o a esponsible indi idual o conduc ing he
e alua ion mus be c ea ed be o e implemen a ion o he plan (See Chap e 19 o his book).
Addi ional in o ma ion on he e alua ion o ca ee in e en ions and ca ee guidance p og ams is
p o ided by Sampson and Lenz (2023) and Whis on, e al. (2019).
Roles o Ca ee P ac i ione s in a CIP Theo y En i onmen
A CIP heo y-based lea ning en i onmen , wi h he ul ima e aim o acili a ing he
de elopmen o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills, equi es a a ie y o
p o essional oles, each wi h hei own knowledge base and skills. Such an en i onmen ex ends
beyond he mo e adi ional one-on-one counseling ela ionship be ween a ca ee counselo and a
clien in ima ely and p i a ely explo ing a p esen ing ca ee p oblem (Ca khu & Be enson,
1967; Roge s, 1962). As discussed abo e, helping a clien sol e a ca ee p oblem and making a
sa is ac o y and app op ia e ca ee decision o en akes place wi hin a ca ee cen e ha is based
in an o ganiza ional o communi y con ex . Thus, we en ision a se o p o essional oles
concep ualized in he o m o hie a chy o concen ic o e lapping oles. Figu e 20.1 p esen s i e
oles wi h he p ac i ione ole in he cen e , wi hin a eache -educa o ole, wi hin a de elope -
designe -e alua o ole, and wi hin an ul ima e s a egic planne ole.

Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 582
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
Figu e 20.1
P o essional Roles in Facili a ion Ca ee P oblem Sol ing and Decision-Making Skills
CIP P ac i ione
The CIP p ac i ione is i s knowledgeable ega ding he CIP heo e ical pa adigm and
how o (a) os e he de elopmen each o he ou domains he Py amid o In o ma ion
P ocessing, (b) manage p og ession h ough he CASVE cycle, and (c) p o ide he acili a i e
condi ions ha enable he explo a ion o all o he dimensions o a p esen ing ca ee p oblem
(Roge s, 1957). The CIP p ac i ione is also well e sed in ca ee assessmen s ha iden i y he
le el o eadiness o ca ee in e en ions such as he Ca ee S a e In en o y (CSI; Leie e e al.,
2022), he Ca ee Though s In en o y (CTI; Sampson e al., 1996), and he Decision Space
Wo kshee (DSW; Pe e son e al., 2010; Pe e son e al., 2016). In addi ion, a CIP p ac i ione
should be amilia wi h de eloping, wi h a clien , an indi idualized lea ning plan (ILP; Sampson
e al., 2020) ha enables he clien o se o h lea ning objec i es in a sequence ha leads o
making a ca ee decision and o mula ing a plan o ac ion o ca y i ou . Fu he , a p ac i ione
should be knowledgeable in he use o sel -explo a ion in en o ies such as he Sel -Di ec ed
Sea ch (SDS; Holland & Messe , 2017), and a a ie y o ways o access occupa ional,
educa ional, and employmen in o ma ion. Finally, a CIP heo y-in o med p ac i ione , who also
has o mal aining as a counselo should be knowledgeable ega ding he possible impac o
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 583
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
men al heal h issues (See Chap e 10 o his book) such as dep ession, anxie y, ela ionship
p oblems, and mo e se e e ch onic men al heal h dis u bances and how hese in luence he
capaci y o ca ee decision-making (Lenz e al., 2010; Ma ks e al., 2021; Walke & Pe e son,
2012).
Teache -Educa o
In CIP heo y, he de elopmen o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills can
ake place in a a ie y o lea ning en i onmen s in addi ion o one-on-one ca ee counseling.
Indi idual ca ee in e en ions may include sel -di ec ed lea ning, b ie s a -assis ed, and
in ensi e ca ee counseling (Sampson e al., 2020). Mo eo e , in e en ions may occu in la ge
open spaces wi h wo k ables, in p i a e counseling o ices, con e ence ooms, in o mal
class ooms, and in i ual o ma s. Some imes, ca ee decision-making occu s wi hin g oup
se ings in which clien s wo k collec i ely in p og essing h ough he CASVE cycle. Wi h g oup
ins uc ion, he wo ks o Robe Gagne (1985) p o ide guidance in es ablishing he condi ions o
lea ning wi h objec i es and p esc ibed o planned lea ning expe iences. Chap e 7 o his ex
p esen s a ho ough explana ion o how o p epa e and deli e ins uc ion ega ding he
de elopmen o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills in o mal class oom se ings.
The Flo ida S a e Uni e si y Ca ee Cen e o e s up o 5 sec ions o a cou se, In oduc ion o
Ca ee De elopmen , o academic c edi each semes e . Ca ee p ac i ione s se e as lead
ins uc o s o each sec ion wi h ypically 20-25 s uden s.
Designe -De elope -E alua o
In addi ion o p o iding condi ions o indi idual g ow h and lea ning, CIP heo y-
in o med p ac i ione s mus also hink in e ms o o e ing se ices and p og ams o a di e se
popula ion o po en ial clien s. A p oduc o he s a egic planning exe cise is o en he
o mula ion o goals and objec i es o a new p og amma ic o e ing, such as es ablishing an
online ca ee counseling se ice o s uden s and alumni o e he nex h ee yea s o inc easing
ou each o s uden s who p esen wi h neu odi e se cha ac e is ics (Hamil on & Pe y, 2023). A
his le el, ca ee p ac i ione s mus be p epa ed o design, de elop, and deli e e ec i e and
e icien in e en ions using a a ie y o means o help indi iduals enhance hei ca ee decision-
making skills. Ca ee p ac i ione s mus be able o design and de elop an ins uc ional sys em in
which o os e ce ain lea ning objec i es. In addi ion, p ac i ione s mus also o mula e an
e alua ion s a egy (See Chap e 19) o de e mine whe he clien s ha e mas e ed he in ended
lea ning objec i es ollowing a p esc ibed in e en ion. The design and de elopmen unc ions
equi e knowledge o educa ional and cogni i e psychology, and ins uc ional media, while he
e alua ion unc ion equi es knowledge o esea ch design and measu emen .
S a egic Planne
The CIP heo y-in o med p ac i ione , as a s a egic planne , ocuses on he con ibu ion
o ca ee se ices o he good o he o ganiza ion and he communi y. The capabili ies o
s a egic hinking and s a egic planning a e pa icula ly ele an o unc ioning e ec i ely in
leade ship posi ions wi hin a ca ee cen e . S a egic planning d aws on he isions and ideals o
bo h he o ganiza ion as well as he p o ession o ca ee de elopmen and counseling. As a
s a egic planne , a ca ee p ac i ione becomes p oac i e in p omo ing he ca ee se ice by
cons an ly en e aining he possibili y o ex ending he kinds and quali y o se ices made
a ailable o he o ganiza ion, as compa ed o being eac i e as has been ypically he case in he
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 584
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
p ac i ione ole in se ing d op-in indi iduals seeking immedia e assis ance wi h a p essing
ca ee p oblem. The s a egic planning ole, as a sou ce o oca ional meaning (Pe e son, e al.,
2017), also equi es ha ca ee p ac i ione s possess a s ong belie in he wo h o hei
p o ession o enhancing he quali y o li e and wo k in socie y. The s a egic planne says, “I
ha e some hing o alue o o e indi iduals ha dese es an impo an place in he unc ioning
o he o ganiza ion.” P o essional s a membe s, and especially he ca ee se ices di ec o ,
al hough some imes ocusing inwa d o assu e he e ec i eness o se ice deli e y, should also
concen a e on how well he ca ee se ice, h ough i s a ay o se ices and p og ams, is se ing
he o ganiza ion and he communi y, and should be inexo ably a uned o explo ing he
possibili ies o ex ending he ange o ca ee se ice o e ings ha a e an in eg al pa o he
co e unc ions o he o ganiza ion.
Role o Public Policy in S a egic Planning
Acco ding o he OECD (2004), ca ee guidance con ibu es o h ee main policy goals:
(1) p omo ion o li elong lea ning and e ec i e unc ioning o he na ional educa ion sys em, (2)
e ec i e unc ioning o he labou ma ke and h ough his he economy, and (3) as a long- e m
ou come, social equi y. These h ee ca ego ies a e widely used as a amewo k o desc ibing he
policy a ionale o ca ee guidance sys ems and policy de elopmen . Howe e , he balance
be ween and wi hin he h ee ca ego ies a ies ac oss coun ies (OECD, 2004; Wa s, 2014;
Wa s & F e well, 2004).
In many coun ies, ca ee assis ance is acknowledged as a sha ed policy esponsibili y
ac oss educa ion, aining, you h, employmen , and social a ai s policy. Key ins umen s in
in o ming and go e ning ca ee assis ance policy de elopmen include egula ions, economic
incen i es, and in o ma ion. Regula ion includes di ec i es, guidelines, no ms, ules and
p ocedu es which suppo ca ee assis ance o ci izens. Economic incen i es e e o esou ces
p o ided by na ional o in e na ional dono s o enable he applica ion o he egula ions.
In o ma ion e e s o media used by go e nmen s o communica e policy messages o
s akeholde s, p o ide s, and ci izens (McCa hy & Bo bely-Pécze, 2021). In acco dance wi h
sha ed policy esponsibili y, ca ee se ices end o be loca ed in schools, oca ional educa ion
and aining, highe educa ion, adul educa ion, employmen and you h se ices. Howe e ,
indi idual ca ee s in ol e cons uc ion o pa hways ac oss hese sec o s as a con inuum, on a
li elong basis.
The impo ance and u ili y o ca ee assis ance is acknowledged wo ldwide (A hanasou
& Pe e a, 2019). Howe e , a ypical challenge in es ablishing coo dina ed ca ee assis ance is an
o e all lack o sha ed unde s anding among policy make s and s akeholde s o he p ima y
pu pose o hese se ices, ope a ion o he se ices, and hei desi able ou comes. Coun ies a y
in hei deg ee o cen aliza ion and go e nmen sec o s can ha e di e en s uc u es and speci ic
manda es based on egula ions de ining hei unding, me hods, and esponsibili ies (ILO/ETF,
2021; Ba nes e al., 2020; Cede op, 2011). Challenges can be connec ed o a lack o accu a e
labo ma ke in o ma ion, agmen ed se ice deli e y and di e ences in he ope a ing cul u es
be ween di e en sec o s esponsible o he se ice deli e y (e.g., educa ion, employmen ,
you h, social and heal h). Inconsis ency be ween sec o s o en leads o compe i ion a he han a
coo dina ed, quali y se ice. Absence o join ly ag eed quali y s anda ds o ca ee assis ance
may lead o gene al low quali y o p o ision, low labou ma ke and lea ning ele ance, as well
as une hical ea men and/o disc imina ion (ILO/ETF, 2021).
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 585
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
The po en ial o echnology is also cons ained by agmen ed co e age, equipmen cos
and he limi ed in o ma ion and compu e echnology (ICT) skills o ci izens and ca ee
p ac i ione s, as well as inadequa e in eg a ion o ICT he ca ee se ice sec o (Ke unen &
Sampson, 2019). Implemen a ion o a mo e consis en s a egic app oach (Ke unen e al., 2016)
equi es bo h a join ly ag eed c oss-minis e ial s a egy o ca ee de elopmen and a common
concep ual amewo k o se ice deli e y and unding, as well as a o mal commi men o he
sus ainable de elopmen o ICT in ca ee se ices. E en wi h cohe en guidelines and s a egies,
implemen a ion o ICT in ca ee se ices is seen as a complex and p o ac ed p ocess.
A g owing numbe o coun ies a e linking ca ee assis ance wi h li elong lea ning o
skills s a egies in acco dance wi h he ongoing changes in socie y. The aim is o secu e
con inui y be ween di e en sec o s in policy de elopmen and se ice deli e y. This implies a
shi om in e en ion a key poin s in an indi idual’s li e o a li elong pe spec i e; and om he
p o ision o ex e nal expe suppo o he indi idual de eloping and u ilizing ca ee adap abili y
(B own & Bim ose, 2018; Fejes & Dahls ed , 2019) and ca ee managemen skills (CMS)
(Cede op, 2008; Di Fabio, 2019; ELGPN, 2010; Len , 2020; Sul ana, 2008). Whis on and
Blus ein (2013) no ed he impac o ca ee in e en ions, no jus on he local le el bu as a
means o p epa ing indi iduals o wo k in he 21s cen u y.
The enhancemen o ca ee assis ance is aligned also wi h he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SGDs). Indi iduals’ capaci ies and knowledge o make in o med plans and
decisions on lea ning and job a e pi o al in ensu ing inclusi e and equi able quali y educa ion
and in p omo ing li elong lea ning oppo uni ies o all (SDG 4). Reskilling and imp o ing skills
u iliza ion in en e p ises con ibu es o inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and
p oduc i e employmen , and decen wo k o all (SDG 8). Fo he indi idual, imp o ing
esilience h ough skills means educing dependence on ma ke condi ions and inc easing one’s
po en ial o na iga e h ough li e and p o essional ansi ions (Eu opean Commission, 2020).
Di e en ia ed Se ice Deli e y and Public Policy
The models and in e en ions in ca ee de elopmen a e o en in luenced by he ca ee
heo y o heo ies he se ice p o ide s use. Theo ies in luence he se ices h ough he design
and use o assessmen s, ca ee de elopmen p ocesses and he a ailabili y o in o ma ion and
ins uc ional esou ces (Sampson, 2008; Sampson & Lenz, 2023). In addi ion o heo ies, a
common denomina o o he design o ca ee se ices is he ime a ailable o ca ee
in e en ions. O en he unding ha is a ailable o ca ee se ices is limi ed and he e a e
expec a ions om policy make s ha he exis ing unding should be used as cos -e ec i ely as
possible (OECD, 2004).
In mee ing he inc eased demand o ca ee assis ance, a numbe o coun ies ha e
ealized ha using di e en ia ed ca ee guidance in e en ions o imp o e access is a key issue.
The classi ica ion o use g oups can be elabo a ed in acco dance wi h na ional con ex s, and
di e en ia ed se ices seem ele an in mee ing he needs o di e en use g oups/audiences. In
p o iding se ices, in o ma ion ad ise s, lea ning ad ise s and ca ee ad ise s ha e di e en
le els o quali ica ions o se e he needs o he di e en use s (ELGPN, 2010). Fo example, in
Es onia he di e en ia ed se ice deli e y model acco ding o CIP heo y was applied in 2010 as
an unde lying heo e ical p inciple in he design o publicly unded egional “Rajaleidja” ca ee
cen e s (Sampson, 2010).
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 586
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
The e ec i e design and implemen a ion o ca ee se ices is a collabo a i e e o
among se ice p o ide s om di e en sec o s, so i is impo an o ha e a common
unde s anding among collabo a ing pa ne s and s akeholde s o he pu pose and s a egies o
e alua ion and accoun abili y o he se ices (Sampson & Lenz, 2023). Conside ing he cos -
e ec i eness o ca ee se ices is essen ial as mo e indi iduals seek assis ance wi h hei ca ee
de elopmen . CIP heo y p o ides a amewo k o how o ha e a balance on he supply and
demand o se ices as a social jus ice issue (Sampson e al., 2017). The CIP heo y-based
app oach illus a es how he choice o a pa icula ca ee heo y o guide ca ee in e en ions
(Sampson & Lenz, 2023) in luences he amoun o ime equi ed o deli e and supe ise ca ee
in e en ions and he esul ing impac on he supply o ca ee in e en ions in ela ion o he
demand (Sampson, 2008; Sampson e al., 2020).
Since he beginning o he 2000s, he models o ca ee de elopmen ha e shi ed om
singula ma ching exe cises in o ac i i ies which a e connec ed o li elong de elopmen
(Ha ung, 2020; Ke unen, 2017; Pa on & McMahon, 2014). In e na ional e iews wi h a
numbe o case s udies s ongly indica e ha he demand o ca ee assis ance a exceeds he
supply o se ices and ha ci izens’ needs canno be me by elying exclusi ely on he adi ional
o ms o ca ee assis ance (e.g., Ba nes e al., 2020; ELGPN, 2010; Zello h, 2009). In mee ing
he inc eased demand o ca ee assis ance, a numbe o coun ies ha e ealized ha using
di e en ia ed ca ee in e en ions o imp o e access is a key issue (see Chap e 15 o u he
discussion o his opic). No se ice p o ide , p o essional g oup o o ganiza ion alone can
espond o he inc easing needs o mo e di e se clien g oups.
Chap e 20 Summa y
This chap e e iewed he concep s o s a egic hinking, ope a ions planning, and
s a egic planning as ways o hinking abou he o mula ion o he in en s o ca ee se ices. A
six-s age p ocess was desc ibed ha can be used as a guideline o he s a egic planning p ocess,
in which a planning commi ee begins wi h he ques ion, A e we doing he igh hings? and
p og esses o he ques ion, A e we doing hings igh ? The ac i i y o s a egic planning was
linked o cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing heo y and o accoun abili y h ough he delinea ion
o he clien popula ion o be se ed and he ypes o decisions he se ice is designed o help he
clien s o make. P ima y clien s, hose who acqui e new knowledge and skills, we e con as ed
wi h seconda y clien s, hose who a e he bene ac o s o changes in he p ima y clien s. The
e ec i eness o a ca ee se ices p og am is ul ima ely de e mined by he deg ee o which clien s
acqui e new capabili ies and he ele ance o hese capabili ies o he co e unc ions o he
o ganiza ion in which he ca ee se ice is loca ed. The chap e closed wi h an examina ion o
di e en ia ed se ice deli e y and public policy.
Ge ing he Mos Bene i om Reading Chap e 20
To e ec i ely lea n he ma e ial in his chap e , comple e one o mo e o he ollowing
ac i i ies:
• Fo m a s a egic planning g oup o i e o six pe sons. Loca e a local ca ee se ices
p og am in he communi y and design a s a egic planning p ocess ha he se ice could
employ.

Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 587
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
• Loca e a local ca ee se ices p og am in you communi y, and conduc an in es iga ion
o how i s mission, goals, and objec i es we e de i ed. To wha deg ee we e s a egic
planning p inciples used?
• Loca e a local ca ee se ices p og am in you communi y and desc ibe he
cha ac e is ics o i s clien ele. Discuss wi h he s a how he ends owa d a global
economy, echnological inno a ion, new ways o wo king, and new wo k/ amily oles in
he labo o ce will likely in luence (a) he na u e o he ca ee se ices o e ed and (b)
he clien 's conside a ion o ca ee al e na i es.
Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 588
Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice
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