Strategic planning for career services

This is a sel -a chi ed e sion o an o iginal a icle. This e sion may di e om he o iginal in pagina ion and ypog aphic de ails. Au ho (s): Ti le: Yea : Ve sion: Copy igh : Righ s: Righ s u l: Please ci e he o iginal e sion: CC BY-ND 4.0 h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nd/4.0/ S a egic planning o ca ee se ices © Au ho s 2023 Published e sion Hayden, Se h C. W.; Pe e son, Ga y W.; Rea don, Robe C.; Lenz, Jane G.; Sampson, James P. J .; Vuo inen, Raimo; Ke unen, Jaana; S allings, E ica; Dozie , V. Casey Hayden, S. C. W., Pe e son, G. W., Rea don, R. C., Lenz, J. G., Sampson, J. P. J., Vuo inen, R., Ke unen, J., S allings, E., & Dozie , V. C. (2023). S a egic planning o ca ee se ices. In J. P. J. Sampson, J. G. Lenz, E. Bullock-Yowell, D. S. Osbo n, & S. C. W. Hayden (Eds.), Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing : Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice (pp. 567-594). Flo ida S a e Open Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.33009/ sop_sampson1123.ch20 2023 567 CHAPTER 20 STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR CAREER SERVICES Se h C. W. Hayden Ga y W. Pe e son Robe C. Rea don Jane G. Lenz James P. Sampson, J . Raimo Vuo inen Jaana Ke unen E ica S allings V. Casey Dozie APA S yle (7 h ed.) e e ence ci a ion o his chap e : Hayden, S. C. W., Pe e son, G. W., Rea don, R. C., Lenz, J. G., Sampson, J. P., J ., Vuo inen, R., Ke unen, J., S allings, E., & Dozie , V. C. (2023). S a egic planning o ca ee se ices. In J. P. Sampson, J ., J. G. Lenz, E. Bullock-Yowell, D. S. Osbo n, & S. C. W. Hayden (Eds.). Cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing: Ca ee heo y, esea ch, and p ac ice. Flo ida S a e Open Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.33009/ sop_sampson1123.ch20 Co espondence conce ning his chap e should be add essed o S. C. W. Hayden a [email p o ec ed]. This chap e is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion- NoDe i a i es 4.0 In e na ional (CC BY-ND 4.0) License. (h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nd/4.0/) You a e ee o: Sha e – copy and edis ibu e he ma e ial in any medium o o ma o any pu pose, e en comme cially. Unde he ollowing e ms: A ibu ion – You mus gi e app op ia e c edi , p o ide a link o he license, and indica e i changes we e made. You may do so in any easonable manne , bu no in any way ha sugges s he licenso endo ses you o you use. NoDe i a i es – I you emix, ans o m, o build upon he ma e ial, you may no dis ibu e he modi ied ma e ial. Copy igh o he Fo wa d, P e ace, indi idual chap e s and ela ed appendices a e held by he indi idual au ho s. © 2023 ---------------------------------------- This chap e explo es s a egic hinking, ope a ions planning, and s a egic planning as ways o help us an icipa e impo an social and o ganiza ional changes so ha we may con inue o o e imely and esponsi e ca ee se ices. In addi ion, i p o ides p econdi ions o ca ee se ices and he manne in which hey con ibu e o wide employmen o socie al goals. A e Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 568 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice e iewing his chap e , he eade should be able o (a) de ine s a egic hinking and s a egic planning, (b) con as s a egic planning wi h ope a ions planning, (c) desc ibe he six s eps in s a egic planning, (d) ela e s a egic planning o cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing heo y (CIP) and o accoun abili y, and (e) desc ibe he ou p incipal oles o he mode n ca ee p ac i ione . This chap e begins wi h a discussion o s a egic planning and he aims o ca ee se ices and con inues wi h an examina ion o social ends in luencing s a egic planning, s a egic hinking and s a egic planning, why s a egic planning is necessa y, guidelines o s a egic planning based on CIP heo y, o ganiza ional con ex and he implemen a ion o a s a egic plan, oles o he ca ee p ac i ione s in a CIP heo y-based en i onmen , ole o public policy in s a egic planning, and di e en ia ed se ice deli e y and public policy. The chap e concludes wi h a summa y and ecommenda ions o ge ing he mos bene i om eading he chap e . S a egic Planning and he Aims o Ca ee Se ices A he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, F ank Pa sons and o he leade s o he p og essi e mo emen in he Uni ed S a es engaged in "s a egic planning," which led o he de elopmen o he oca ional guidance mo emen and he beginnings o he counseling p o ession. Al hough he e is no documen a ion o hei wo k ha is ac ually labeled s a egic planning, he e idence sugges s ha is exac ly wha hey did. P o ide s o ca ee in e en ions, indeed he na ion, a e s ill called on o engage in s a egic planning ega ding social policies and ins i u ions ha will enable ci izens o wo k e ec i ely, bo h a he indi idual le el and he socie al le el. Camille DeBell (2001) p o ided a hough ul analysis o he social condi ions in he Uni ed S a es 100 yea s ago ha led o he de elopmen o ca ee guidance and counseling. She poin ed ou ha … al hough he wo ld o wo k is s ill esponding o some ends ini ia ed a cen u y ago (such as globaliza ion, immig a ion, equi y conce ns, echnological ad ance), he e a e also exponen ial changes, and he wo ld o wo k is no he same as i was e en a decade ago. I is essen ial ha ca ee p ac i ione s in all hei a ied wo k en i onmen s help clien s unde s and his and p epa e o he unp edic able— he wen y- i s cen u y o wo k (p. 87). This chap e ela es he p inciples o accoun abili y in oduced in Chap e 19 o he p inciples o s a egic planning and demons a es how s a egic planning can be used o o e ele an and e ec i e ca ee se ices in a apidly changing wo ld. F om a s a egic planning pe spec i e, he wo p incipal aims o mode n ca ee se ices a e o (a) p o ide lea ning oppo uni ies o help indi iduals acqui e new knowledge and capabili ies ha will enable hem o become be e ca ee p oblem sol e s and decision make s and (b) be esponsi e o he needs o he clien s, o ganiza ions, o communi ies ha ecei e hese se ices. These aims equi e a con inual assessmen o bo h he in e nal and he ex e nal en i onmen o he ca ee se ices p og am. Th ough s a egic planning, ca ee se ice p og ams will be be e p epa ed o compe e o esou ces, as well as o a ain hei goals, objec i es, and mission. S a egic Planning, CIP Theo y, and a Ca ee Se ice Mission A ca ee se ice’s mission s a emen is a single comp ehensi e s a emen ha desc ibes he e y business o he se ice which dis inguishes i om o he se ices in an o ganiza ion o om like se ices in o he o ganiza ions. I also se es as an o ganizing p inciple o a se ice ha keeps i “cen e ed” in main aining consis ency o i s se ices o e ime. O en, se ices a e called on o inco po a e addi ional se ices o pu poses ex e nally o o add se ices om Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 569 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice specula ion, expe imen a ion, o ambi ion in e nally. In ei he case, he mission s a emen p o ides a ocus in asking he s a egic ques ion, “How does his p oposal align wi h ou business?” S a egic planning is a me hod o p ocess h ough which decisions o expand, con ac , o al e se ices a e made. An example o a hypo he ical mission s a emen adap ed om he Flo ida S a e Uni e si y Ca ee Cen e (2023), s a es he ollowing: The Mission o he Ca ee Cen e a High Quali y Uni e si y (HQU) is o o e s a e-o - he-science ca ee se ices o s uden s, alumni and he communi y e lec ing he co e eaching, esea ch, and se ice unc ions o he uni e si y. This mission is ca ied ou h ough he ollowing pu poses: • P o ide comp ehensi e ca ee in e en ions, • T ain ca ee se ice p ac i ione s, • Conduc li e/ca ee de elopmen esea ch, and • Dissemina e in o ma ion abou li e/ca ee se ices and issues o he uni e si y communi y, he na ion, and he wo ld. This comp ehensi e s a emen , wi h ou p ima y pu poses, was de eloped h ough s a egic planning ha in ol ed con ibu ions o s akeholde s who ep esen ed p ac i ione s om wi hin he se ice, clien s o he se ice, uni e si y adminis a o s, he s a e Depa men o Educa ion pe sonnel, and na ionally p ominen ca ee p ac i ione s and esea che s. The kind and manne in which hese pu poses a e ca ied ou makes he HQU Ca ee Cen e dis inc ly di e en om all o he college and uni e si y ca ee cen e s in he wo ld. The s a egic planning p ocess, ypically ca ied ou app oxima ely e e y 5 yea s, begins by asking, “A e we doing he igh hings in his educa ional ins i u ion o co po a ion?” This ques ion di e s om ope a ions planning which asks he ques ion, “A e we doing hings igh ?” The app oach o answe ing bo h ques ions is dis inc ly di e en in e ms o pu pose, me hod, and ou come. Finally, h ough an e ec i e s a egic planning p ocess, a ca ee se ice is be e p epa ed o main ain i s goals and objec i es in he mids o dis ac ions and h ea s and o compe e o esou ces o a ain hem. The ques ion now asked is, wha is he ela ionship be ween s a egic planning and cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing (CIP) heo y? In esponse o his ques ion, he e a e wo p inciple aims o CIP heo y which cu ac oss and a e embedded wi hin he ou pu poses o he HQU Ca ee Cen e mission: (a) o p o ide lea ning oppo uni ies o assis indi iduals in acqui ing new knowledge and capabili ies ha will enable hem o become be e ca ee p oblem sol e s and decision make s, and (b) o be esponsi e o he needs o clien s, o ganiza ions, and communi ies ha ecei e he p oduc s (o ou pu s) o hese se ices. Thus, a aining hese aims include (1) he deli e y o ca ee se ices, (2) aining in how o deli e e ec i e ca ee ad ising, counseling and ins uc ion, (3) he ad ancemen o esea ch o b ing abou he desi ed ou pu s and ou comes (Pe e son & Bu ck, 1982) o ca ee se ices, and (4) dissemina ion o knowledge ega ding how hese aims a e a ained. In some espec s, he HQU Ca ee Cen e se es as labo a o y o ad ancing he “s a e-o - he-science” in helping indi iduals acqui e ca ee p oblem-sol ing and decision-making skills. Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 570 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice Social T ends A ec ing S a egic Planning A key aspec o hinking abou s a egic planning o ca ee se ices is o conside a b oad ange o social ends ha a ec wo k in his a ea. This sec ion highligh s a selec ed numbe o hose ends, including he global economy, echnology, al e na i e ways o wo k, and changing amily and wo k oles. Chap e 21 discusses addi ional ends ha may impac he design and deli e y o ca ee se ices and he e olu ion o CIP heo y. The Global Economy The g ow h o he global economy is illus a ed by he eme gence o a wide a ie y o op ions o pe sons o wo k globally. This has mul iple implica ions o s a egic ca ee planning. B oadband connec i i y, cloud compu ing and o he inno a ions ha e g ea ly expanded g ow h in he global and digi al economy (In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, 2021). People ha e he op ion o sell hei labo h ough a wide a ie y o digi al pla o ms, some o which enable hem o wo k in hei local communi y, while o he s in ol e web-based pla o ms ha allow o emo e wo k ac oss he globe. While some o hese pla o ms p o ide a ac i e, lexible op ions o eelance o home-based wo ke s wi h high le el skills, o he s may in ol e low wages, unp edic able wo k schedules, limi ed bene i s, and a lack o wo kplace p o ec ions (Blus ein, 2019; ILO, 2021). The global economy will con inue o ely on so-called “knowledge wo ke s,” who know how o alloca e knowledge and in o ma ion o p oduc i e use. Ca ee s will con inue o un old in a global con ex wi h g ea e alue being placed on alue added skills such as lexibili y, adap abili y, and esilience. These ypes o skills will be essen ial as indi iduals na iga e hei ca ee jou ney wi hin a global labo ma ke . G ow h o Technology Technology con inues o change he way many o ganiza ions conduc business and p o ide se ices, and his can ha e implica ions o an indi idual’s s a egic ca ee planning (Manyika, 2017; Tang, 2019). Fo example, in he inancial indus y, compu e s a e se o au oma ically mo e money o and om accoun s when ce ain p ese condi ions exis . The In e ne and o he echnological ad ances make i possible o indi iduals and o ganiza ions o ha e ins an con ac wi h one ano he , a li le cos . In addi ion, i ’s ha d o p edic how he ad ances in a i icial in elligence (AI) will impac wo k and li e in he u u e (Bankins & Fo mosa, 2023; Kochha , 2023; Mon hly Labo Re iew, 2022; S ahl, 2021; Zahidi, 2023). In ecen yea s he COVID pandemic u he highligh ed how echnology can be employed o enable indi iduals o wo k emo ely (Pa ke e al., 2022), in some cases expanding choices and in o he s eplacing human wo ke s wi h machines and obo s (See Chap e 21 o mo e on COVID and wo k). I is i ually impossible o o e es ima e he impac o echnology on ca ee s and he p o ision o ca ee se ices. Indeed, he expansion o In e ne applica ions has adically changed he ways in which ca ee in e en ions a e p o ided o a ious cons i uencies. This was u he highligh ed by he way ca ee se ices pi o ed o emo e deli e y o counseling, cou se ins uc ion, wo kshops, and b ie s a assis ance (Osbo n e al., 2022). The pandemic illus a ed how a CIP- heo y based app oach could be adap ed in a i ual o ma , including he use o CIP heo y handou s (Py amid, CASVE cycle, Indi idual Lea ning Plan), assessmen s (e.g., CTI, CSI, DSW), wo kshee s (Guide o Good Decision-Making Exe cise), and ela ed ma e ials. Access o ideo con e encing echnology (e.g., Skype, Zoom) and cou se lea ning managemen sys ems (e.g., Blackboa d, Can as) ha e allowed ca ee p ac i ione s o p o ide se ices o Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 571 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice clien s and s uden s wi hou he equi emen o ace- o- ace mee ings. This has impo an implica ions o ca ee p ac i ione s a ound he globe who may need o each a di e se a ay o clien s who canno a el o in-pe son se ices. Al e na i e Ways o Wo k In yea s pas , people o en g ew up wi h he idea o wo king a 40-hou week in hei jobs— ha jus seemed o be he na u al o de o hings. O cou se, people in ce ain jobs (e.g., physicians, nu ses, plumbe s, police o ice s) con inued o wo k odd schedules, bu many people assumed hey would ha e “ egula ” weekday jobs. Pe haps no hing else in he ca ee wo ld has changed as much as he way we wo k, e.g., he “gig economy” (Kessle , 2018; Semuels, 2018), and his has implica ions o s a egic ca ee planning se ices. Wo k pa e ns include op ions such as lex ime, pa - ime, job sha ing, empo a y, and home-based wo k/ elecommu ing pa e ns (Rea don e al., 2022). One example o his phenomenon is he p oli e a ion o p eca ious wo k. This is de ined as wo k ha is unce ain, uns able, and insecu e whe e employees assume he isks o employmen and ecei e limi ed social bene i s o p o ec ions om employe s o he go e nmen (Blus ein, 2019; Kallebe g, 2012). In p eca ious wo k, wo ke s a e inc easingly de ined as independen con ac o s who handle all he isks associa ed wi h hei employmen . The de elopmen o such wo king a angemen s has been in luenced by echnology and globaliza ion. The e a e abundan implica ions o ca ee se ices inhe en in his a ea o social change. Changing Family and Wo k Roles Gende oles wi hin he amily ha e shi ed o e ime in ela ion o wo k (Schul heiss, 2020; Tang, 2019). Women ha e shi ed om ocusing speci ically on he needs o he home and en e ed he wo kplace. O e he pas 60 yea s, women ha e inc easingly aken jobs ou side he home (Bu eau o Labo S a is ics, 2022; Yellen, 2020). In some cases, men ha e op ed o s ay a home and de o e mo e ime o childca e (Kelly, 2022). The dual-ca ee amily, o in some cases he dual-ea ne amily, whe e bo h indi iduals in a ela ionship a e wo king ou side he home, has had a huge impac on he way mos o us wo k oday and will wo k in he u u e (Rea don e al., 2022). All o he ends no ed abo e poin o he need o mo e complex hinking abou how indi iduals will na iga e a ious li e oles and how ca ee p ac i ione s will help hem do ha . Adjus ing o changes in socie y will equi e an abili y o adap and be lexible and ha e a ole ance o a ious le els o ambigui y. The e idence is clea ha CIP heo y, 30 yea s om i s “bi h,” can con inue o play a ole in helping indi iduals o de elop new schema a o sol ing ca ee p oblems and making ca ee decisions as hey na iga e ca ee and amily oles. Implica ions Social ends such as hese ou will con inue o ha e an impac on he na u e o ca ee se ices. While ea ly li e a u e desc ibed how ca ee se ices could be bo h high ech and high ouch (Pyle, 1985), ecen e en s ha e illus a ed how much can be accomplished wi hou ace- o- ace in e ac ion. While pe sons seeking ca ee assis ance ha e a weal h o esou ces easily accessible 24/7 (e.g., websi es, compu e -based guidance sys ems, in e ac i e wo kbooks, job da abases, e c.), he e is s ill a need o ca ee p ac i ione s who can p o ide assis ance in helping indi iduals na iga e he a ay o in o ma ion and in e en ions, as well as se e as a “sa e y ne ” o low eadiness indi iduals and hose who may be expe iencing bo h ca ee and men al heal h conce ns. See mo e abou his opic in Chap e 10 o his book. Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 572 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice In a comp ehensi e ca ee cen e , which ypically p o ides se ices in a physical loca ion and in a i ual se ing ia he Web, ca ee p ac i ione s can expec o inc easingly encoun e clien s who may ha e a s ong p e e ence o a pa icula ype o se ice deli e y. The e may also be p essu e om s akeholde s (e.g., go e nmen o icials, unde s) and ex e nal g oups (e.g., alumni, pa en s) o mo e eadily accessible se ices. Ca ee cen e s may ha e mo e s a who wo k emo ely o p o ide assis ance o indi iduals. This means ha all o he ca ee ools used in se ice deli e y need o be adap ed o i ual use. We now u n o ways in which ca ee se ice p o ide s can p epa e o espond o hese ends and issues. We belie e he ou social ends desc ibed abo e will ha e an impac on he ca ee de elopmen o indi iduals and he o e ing o ca ee se ices o assis hem (See Chap e 21 o a discussion o addi ional ac o s ha will likely impac CIP heo y-in o med se ices). These ends will compel ca ee se ice p o ide s o be mind ul o s a egic ques ions such as he ollowing: • Wha is ou business? • Who a e ou p ima y clien s? • Wha a e hei needs? • How can we as ca ee p ac i ione s os e decision-making skills in clien s ha will enable hem o make in o med choices as hey na iga e an e e -changing ca ee landscape and seek o imp o e he quali y o hei li es? • How do we a icula e he alue o ou se ices o ele an s akeholde s? We now u n o ways in which ca ee se ice p o ide s can p epa e o espond o hese ends and issues. S a egic Thinking and S a egic Planning S a egic hinking and planning a e capabili ies ca ee p ac i ione s should possess ha enable hem o an icipa e social and o ganiza ional changes ha bea on he mission and pu poses o a ca ee se ice. In he conduc o day- o-day p ac ice, hese capabili ies help main ain ocus on impo an b oade issues ha may impac he deli e y o ca ee se ices in he immedia e and dis an u u e. S a egic Thinking S a egic hinking in ol es he in eg a ion o planning, leade ship, and managemen (Cope, 1987; Haycock, Cheadle, & Blues one, 2012; Omahe, 1982). S a egic hinking aises a - eaching issues such as he ollowing: A e we p o iding he ange and a ie y o ca ee se ices ha mee he needs o ou a ge ed clien ele? Does he ca ee se ices cen e mission complemen and enhance he mission o he o ganiza ion as well as he mission o o he se ice p o ide s wi hin i ? And ela ed o CIP heo y, a e ou clien s acqui ing he knowledge, skills, and a i udes (SKAs) ha will enable hem o be e ec i e ca ee p oblem sol e s and decision make s when aced wi h ine i able ca ee p oblems in he u u e? S a egic hinking may be u he illumina ed by con as ing i wi h he concep o ope a ions planning. S a egic hinking (Ballen ine & Wa s, 1989) may be hough o as doing Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 573 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice he igh hings (e ec i eness), whe eas ope a ions planning may be hough o as doing hings igh (e iciency). O he con as s be ween he wo concep s (Cope, 1987, p. 8) a e: S a egic Thinking Ope a ions Planning 1. Fo mula ion Implemen a ion 2. Wha How 3. Whe e How 4. Ends Means 5. Vision Plans 6. E ec i eness E iciency 7. S a egizing Planning 8. Risk Con ol Speci ically, s a egic hinking en ails a sys ems pe spec i e, being in en - ocused, hinking in ime (i.e., gap be ween cu en eali y and in en o he u u e), is hypo hesis d i en, and cha ac e ized by in elligen oppo unism (i.e., being open o new expe iences) (Haycock e al., 2012). Finally, s a egic hinking in ol es in eg a ing h ee componen s: (a) o mula ing a ision o he igh hings o do acco ding o he mission (s a egic planning), (b) achie ing consensus among s akeholde s and acqui ing esou ces o do he igh hings (leade ship), and (c) implemen ing a plan o do hings igh (managemen ). Thus, main aining app op ia e ca ee se ices o e ed by a p og am demands ha ca ee p ac i ione s, in addi ion o skill ully p o iding acili a i e condi ions and in e en ions o ad ance ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills, mus also possess he capaci y o hinking s a egically abou he p esen and u u e se ices hey will p o ide. S a egic Planning S a egic planning has been desc ibed as an ongoing p ocess used by o ganiza ions o cha hei u u e di ec ion (Co e, 2020). Opinions a y abou he use ulness o s a egic planning in u bulen imes, bu some conside i mo e impo an han e e o oday’s en i onmen (B yson, 2018). The ul ima e pu pose o s a egic planning is o main ain and enhance he iabili y o a p og am in a b oade o ganiza ional and en i onmen al con ex ; ha is, o main ain and e en g ow i s mission and pu poses wi hin he o ganiza ion. F om an open-sys ems pe spec i e (Be alan y, 1968; Kabeyi, 2019), s a egic planning en ails de e mining a di ec ion o g ow h and de elopmen in e nal o he p og am in ela ion o he o ces and di ec ion o change in he nea and dis al ex e nal en i onmen , so as o enhance he posi ion o he p og am in he inexo able compe i ion o esou ces in he ecosys em. Fu he , s a egic planning equi es a ision o he u u e, while being mind ul o he e ol ing ela ionship be ween he in e nal p og am en i onmen and he e e -changing ex e nal en i onmen . O en, he o mula ion o a Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 574 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice ision in ol es apping in o in ui ion, opinions, and quali a i e in o ma ion mo e han in o ma ion om empi ical da a used in ope a ions planning. In o he wo ds, a ision is c ea ed mo e han de i ed. Thus, s a egic planning equi es a o wa d- hinking and p oac i e app oach o e alua ing he exis ing mission, pu poses, and se ice o e ings o a ca ee se ice p og am wi h an eye owa d u he de elopmen in he di ec ion o he ision. S a egic planning is also an o ganiza ional p oblem sol ing and decision-making p ocess, and he e o e amenable o analysis wi hin he amewo k o CIP heo y. The s a egic planning p ocess, as ou lined by B yson (2018), as well as Cope (1987), can be embedded wi hin he CASVE cycle, while he membe s o a s a egic planning ask o ce o commi ee possess he knowledge and capabili ies con ained in he espec i e domains o he Py amid o In o ma ion P ocessing. Thus, he membe s possess sel -knowledge and o ganiza ional knowledge a he base, p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills (p esen ed below) a he mid-sec ion, and he chai o he commi ee p o ides he execu i e unc ion a he apex by o ganizing and leading he g oup h ough he p ocess. Why S a egic Planning is Necessa y Ul ima ely, as a p ocess, s a egic planning se es as a mechanism o means o building consensus (o buy-in) among he s akeholde s o a ca ee se ice p og am ega ding he di ec ion o i s u u e g ow h and de elopmen . Fu he mo e, he ou pu o he s a egic planning p ocess is a documen con aining he mission s a emen , goals and objec i es o each o he pu poses wi hin he s a emen , and implemen a ion s a egies and pe o mance indica o s o each objec i e. This documen se es as a ounda ional esou ce, guide, and e e ence o he making o impo an and e en c i ical decisions ega ding he main enance and g ow h o a ca ee se ice. Th ee examples o uses o a s a egic planning p ocess a e as ollows. P epa ing an Annual Budge o a Ca ee Se ice Each yea , a ca ee se ices di ec o p epa es an ope a ing budge o be submi ed o an adminis a o in cha ge o an o ganiza ional uni con aining he se ice. The eques o unds is based on he need o esou ces o accomplish he objec i es o he coming yea as de ailed in he s a egic planning documen . Included, along wi h he p oposed budge , is an e alua ion o he a ainmen o he cu en yea ’s objec i es along wi h exce p s o he s a egic planning documen o place he p oposal in he con ex o an o e a ching s a egic plan. O en, he adminis a i e supe iso , ypically a dean o ice p esiden in cha ge o he se ice has pa icipa ed as a s akeholde in he de elopmen o he s a egic plan. Tu no e in Leade ship An una oidable eali y is ha ca ee cen e di ec o s lea e hei employmen o a a ie y o easons (Sampson, 2006), including p o essional ad ancemen , e i emen , and bu nou . The hi ing o a successo can be augh wi h challenge and unce ain y. I he e is an exis ing s a egic plan, he ou going di ec o , as a leade , has played a key ole in he o mula ion and execu ion o i . A new di ec o may ha e a unique pe spec i e on he assessmen o he o ganiza ion, ha e a di e en ision, and iew he exis ing mission and pu poses di e en ly han he p edecesso , in which case a new s a egic planning p ocess should begin immedia ely upon assuming he o ice. Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 581 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice E ec i eness o Implemen ing he S a egic Plan S a egic planning is linked o he e alua ion and accoun abili y o a ca ee se ice p og am h ough CIP heo y’s pa adigm. As s a ed many imes in his book, a key aim o CIP heo y is o no only p o ide a amewo k o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making in he p esen , bu o c ea e lea ning expe iences ha enable clien s o acqui e ans e able ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills ha can be applied o u u e ca ee decisions. A comple e p og amma ic e alua ion and accoun abili y sys em, based on CIP heo y, was p esen ed in he p eceding chap e , Chap e 19. Ne e heless, he Execu ion phase o he s a egic planning p ocess calls o he iden i ica ion o pe o mance indica o s ha can se e as benchma ks o success in implemen ing a plan o o ganiza ional de elopmen . Fo example, he Na ional Associa ion o Colleges and Employe s (NACE) p o ides a wo kbook (NACE, 2019) ha can be used by ca ee se ices o ices o e alua e hei p og ams agains NACE s anda ds. The ollowing a e examples o key ques ions o be add essed in e alua ing he e ec i eness o he implemen a ion o a plan. 1. To wha ex en we e he in ended goals and objec i es o he plan achie ed? 2. We e clien s success ul in add essing hei p esen ing issue o hei sa is ac ion? 3. To wha ex en did clien s acqui e mas e y o he CASVE cycle skills? 4. To wha ex en we e he e su icien esou ces o achie e he plan’s goals and objec i es? 5. A e he e su icien esou ces o ins i u ionalize he new p og amma ic o e ings beyond he design, de elopmen , and implemen a ion phases? 6. A e he e unin ended e ec s o implemen ing he plan? I so, which a e posi i e o nega i e? To add ess each ques ion abo e, a me hodology, ques ionnai es and su eys, da a ga he ing p ocedu es, and he designa ion o a esponsible indi idual o conduc ing he e alua ion mus be c ea ed be o e implemen a ion o he plan (See Chap e 19 o his book). Addi ional in o ma ion on he e alua ion o ca ee in e en ions and ca ee guidance p og ams is p o ided by Sampson and Lenz (2023) and Whis on, e al. (2019). Roles o Ca ee P ac i ione s in a CIP Theo y En i onmen A CIP heo y-based lea ning en i onmen , wi h he ul ima e aim o acili a ing he de elopmen o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills, equi es a a ie y o p o essional oles, each wi h hei own knowledge base and skills. Such an en i onmen ex ends beyond he mo e adi ional one-on-one counseling ela ionship be ween a ca ee counselo and a clien in ima ely and p i a ely explo ing a p esen ing ca ee p oblem (Ca khu & Be enson, 1967; Roge s, 1962). As discussed abo e, helping a clien sol e a ca ee p oblem and making a sa is ac o y and app op ia e ca ee decision o en akes place wi hin a ca ee cen e ha is based in an o ganiza ional o communi y con ex . Thus, we en ision a se o p o essional oles concep ualized in he o m o hie a chy o concen ic o e lapping oles. Figu e 20.1 p esen s i e oles wi h he p ac i ione ole in he cen e , wi hin a eache -educa o ole, wi hin a de elope - designe -e alua o ole, and wi hin an ul ima e s a egic planne ole. Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 582 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice Figu e 20.1 P o essional Roles in Facili a ion Ca ee P oblem Sol ing and Decision-Making Skills CIP P ac i ione The CIP p ac i ione is i s knowledgeable ega ding he CIP heo e ical pa adigm and how o (a) os e he de elopmen each o he ou domains he Py amid o In o ma ion P ocessing, (b) manage p og ession h ough he CASVE cycle, and (c) p o ide he acili a i e condi ions ha enable he explo a ion o all o he dimensions o a p esen ing ca ee p oblem (Roge s, 1957). The CIP p ac i ione is also well e sed in ca ee assessmen s ha iden i y he le el o eadiness o ca ee in e en ions such as he Ca ee S a e In en o y (CSI; Leie e e al., 2022), he Ca ee Though s In en o y (CTI; Sampson e al., 1996), and he Decision Space Wo kshee (DSW; Pe e son e al., 2010; Pe e son e al., 2016). In addi ion, a CIP p ac i ione should be amilia wi h de eloping, wi h a clien , an indi idualized lea ning plan (ILP; Sampson e al., 2020) ha enables he clien o se o h lea ning objec i es in a sequence ha leads o making a ca ee decision and o mula ing a plan o ac ion o ca y i ou . Fu he , a p ac i ione should be knowledgeable in he use o sel -explo a ion in en o ies such as he Sel -Di ec ed Sea ch (SDS; Holland & Messe , 2017), and a a ie y o ways o access occupa ional, educa ional, and employmen in o ma ion. Finally, a CIP heo y-in o med p ac i ione , who also has o mal aining as a counselo should be knowledgeable ega ding he possible impac o Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 583 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice men al heal h issues (See Chap e 10 o his book) such as dep ession, anxie y, ela ionship p oblems, and mo e se e e ch onic men al heal h dis u bances and how hese in luence he capaci y o ca ee decision-making (Lenz e al., 2010; Ma ks e al., 2021; Walke & Pe e son, 2012). Teache -Educa o In CIP heo y, he de elopmen o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills can ake place in a a ie y o lea ning en i onmen s in addi ion o one-on-one ca ee counseling. Indi idual ca ee in e en ions may include sel -di ec ed lea ning, b ie s a -assis ed, and in ensi e ca ee counseling (Sampson e al., 2020). Mo eo e , in e en ions may occu in la ge open spaces wi h wo k ables, in p i a e counseling o ices, con e ence ooms, in o mal class ooms, and in i ual o ma s. Some imes, ca ee decision-making occu s wi hin g oup se ings in which clien s wo k collec i ely in p og essing h ough he CASVE cycle. Wi h g oup ins uc ion, he wo ks o Robe Gagne (1985) p o ide guidance in es ablishing he condi ions o lea ning wi h objec i es and p esc ibed o planned lea ning expe iences. Chap e 7 o his ex p esen s a ho ough explana ion o how o p epa e and deli e ins uc ion ega ding he de elopmen o ca ee p oblem sol ing and decision-making skills in o mal class oom se ings. The Flo ida S a e Uni e si y Ca ee Cen e o e s up o 5 sec ions o a cou se, In oduc ion o Ca ee De elopmen , o academic c edi each semes e . Ca ee p ac i ione s se e as lead ins uc o s o each sec ion wi h ypically 20-25 s uden s. Designe -De elope -E alua o In addi ion o p o iding condi ions o indi idual g ow h and lea ning, CIP heo y- in o med p ac i ione s mus also hink in e ms o o e ing se ices and p og ams o a di e se popula ion o po en ial clien s. A p oduc o he s a egic planning exe cise is o en he o mula ion o goals and objec i es o a new p og amma ic o e ing, such as es ablishing an online ca ee counseling se ice o s uden s and alumni o e he nex h ee yea s o inc easing ou each o s uden s who p esen wi h neu odi e se cha ac e is ics (Hamil on & Pe y, 2023). A his le el, ca ee p ac i ione s mus be p epa ed o design, de elop, and deli e e ec i e and e icien in e en ions using a a ie y o means o help indi iduals enhance hei ca ee decision- making skills. Ca ee p ac i ione s mus be able o design and de elop an ins uc ional sys em in which o os e ce ain lea ning objec i es. In addi ion, p ac i ione s mus also o mula e an e alua ion s a egy (See Chap e 19) o de e mine whe he clien s ha e mas e ed he in ended lea ning objec i es ollowing a p esc ibed in e en ion. The design and de elopmen unc ions equi e knowledge o educa ional and cogni i e psychology, and ins uc ional media, while he e alua ion unc ion equi es knowledge o esea ch design and measu emen . S a egic Planne The CIP heo y-in o med p ac i ione , as a s a egic planne , ocuses on he con ibu ion o ca ee se ices o he good o he o ganiza ion and he communi y. The capabili ies o s a egic hinking and s a egic planning a e pa icula ly ele an o unc ioning e ec i ely in leade ship posi ions wi hin a ca ee cen e . S a egic planning d aws on he isions and ideals o bo h he o ganiza ion as well as he p o ession o ca ee de elopmen and counseling. As a s a egic planne , a ca ee p ac i ione becomes p oac i e in p omo ing he ca ee se ice by cons an ly en e aining he possibili y o ex ending he kinds and quali y o se ices made a ailable o he o ganiza ion, as compa ed o being eac i e as has been ypically he case in he Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 584 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice p ac i ione ole in se ing d op-in indi iduals seeking immedia e assis ance wi h a p essing ca ee p oblem. The s a egic planning ole, as a sou ce o oca ional meaning (Pe e son, e al., 2017), also equi es ha ca ee p ac i ione s possess a s ong belie in he wo h o hei p o ession o enhancing he quali y o li e and wo k in socie y. The s a egic planne says, “I ha e some hing o alue o o e indi iduals ha dese es an impo an place in he unc ioning o he o ganiza ion.” P o essional s a membe s, and especially he ca ee se ices di ec o , al hough some imes ocusing inwa d o assu e he e ec i eness o se ice deli e y, should also concen a e on how well he ca ee se ice, h ough i s a ay o se ices and p og ams, is se ing he o ganiza ion and he communi y, and should be inexo ably a uned o explo ing he possibili ies o ex ending he ange o ca ee se ice o e ings ha a e an in eg al pa o he co e unc ions o he o ganiza ion. Role o Public Policy in S a egic Planning Acco ding o he OECD (2004), ca ee guidance con ibu es o h ee main policy goals: (1) p omo ion o li elong lea ning and e ec i e unc ioning o he na ional educa ion sys em, (2) e ec i e unc ioning o he labou ma ke and h ough his he economy, and (3) as a long- e m ou come, social equi y. These h ee ca ego ies a e widely used as a amewo k o desc ibing he policy a ionale o ca ee guidance sys ems and policy de elopmen . Howe e , he balance be ween and wi hin he h ee ca ego ies a ies ac oss coun ies (OECD, 2004; Wa s, 2014; Wa s & F e well, 2004). In many coun ies, ca ee assis ance is acknowledged as a sha ed policy esponsibili y ac oss educa ion, aining, you h, employmen , and social a ai s policy. Key ins umen s in in o ming and go e ning ca ee assis ance policy de elopmen include egula ions, economic incen i es, and in o ma ion. Regula ion includes di ec i es, guidelines, no ms, ules and p ocedu es which suppo ca ee assis ance o ci izens. Economic incen i es e e o esou ces p o ided by na ional o in e na ional dono s o enable he applica ion o he egula ions. In o ma ion e e s o media used by go e nmen s o communica e policy messages o s akeholde s, p o ide s, and ci izens (McCa hy & Bo bely-Pécze, 2021). In acco dance wi h sha ed policy esponsibili y, ca ee se ices end o be loca ed in schools, oca ional educa ion and aining, highe educa ion, adul educa ion, employmen and you h se ices. Howe e , indi idual ca ee s in ol e cons uc ion o pa hways ac oss hese sec o s as a con inuum, on a li elong basis. The impo ance and u ili y o ca ee assis ance is acknowledged wo ldwide (A hanasou & Pe e a, 2019). Howe e , a ypical challenge in es ablishing coo dina ed ca ee assis ance is an o e all lack o sha ed unde s anding among policy make s and s akeholde s o he p ima y pu pose o hese se ices, ope a ion o he se ices, and hei desi able ou comes. Coun ies a y in hei deg ee o cen aliza ion and go e nmen sec o s can ha e di e en s uc u es and speci ic manda es based on egula ions de ining hei unding, me hods, and esponsibili ies (ILO/ETF, 2021; Ba nes e al., 2020; Cede op, 2011). Challenges can be connec ed o a lack o accu a e labo ma ke in o ma ion, agmen ed se ice deli e y and di e ences in he ope a ing cul u es be ween di e en sec o s esponsible o he se ice deli e y (e.g., educa ion, employmen , you h, social and heal h). Inconsis ency be ween sec o s o en leads o compe i ion a he han a coo dina ed, quali y se ice. Absence o join ly ag eed quali y s anda ds o ca ee assis ance may lead o gene al low quali y o p o ision, low labou ma ke and lea ning ele ance, as well as une hical ea men and/o disc imina ion (ILO/ETF, 2021). Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 585 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice The po en ial o echnology is also cons ained by agmen ed co e age, equipmen cos and he limi ed in o ma ion and compu e echnology (ICT) skills o ci izens and ca ee p ac i ione s, as well as inadequa e in eg a ion o ICT he ca ee se ice sec o (Ke unen & Sampson, 2019). Implemen a ion o a mo e consis en s a egic app oach (Ke unen e al., 2016) equi es bo h a join ly ag eed c oss-minis e ial s a egy o ca ee de elopmen and a common concep ual amewo k o se ice deli e y and unding, as well as a o mal commi men o he sus ainable de elopmen o ICT in ca ee se ices. E en wi h cohe en guidelines and s a egies, implemen a ion o ICT in ca ee se ices is seen as a complex and p o ac ed p ocess. A g owing numbe o coun ies a e linking ca ee assis ance wi h li elong lea ning o skills s a egies in acco dance wi h he ongoing changes in socie y. The aim is o secu e con inui y be ween di e en sec o s in policy de elopmen and se ice deli e y. This implies a shi om in e en ion a key poin s in an indi idual’s li e o a li elong pe spec i e; and om he p o ision o ex e nal expe suppo o he indi idual de eloping and u ilizing ca ee adap abili y (B own & Bim ose, 2018; Fejes & Dahls ed , 2019) and ca ee managemen skills (CMS) (Cede op, 2008; Di Fabio, 2019; ELGPN, 2010; Len , 2020; Sul ana, 2008). Whis on and Blus ein (2013) no ed he impac o ca ee in e en ions, no jus on he local le el bu as a means o p epa ing indi iduals o wo k in he 21s cen u y. The enhancemen o ca ee assis ance is aligned also wi h he Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SGDs). Indi iduals’ capaci ies and knowledge o make in o med plans and decisions on lea ning and job a e pi o al in ensu ing inclusi e and equi able quali y educa ion and in p omo ing li elong lea ning oppo uni ies o all (SDG 4). Reskilling and imp o ing skills u iliza ion in en e p ises con ibu es o inclusi e and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e employmen , and decen wo k o all (SDG 8). Fo he indi idual, imp o ing esilience h ough skills means educing dependence on ma ke condi ions and inc easing one’s po en ial o na iga e h ough li e and p o essional ansi ions (Eu opean Commission, 2020). Di e en ia ed Se ice Deli e y and Public Policy The models and in e en ions in ca ee de elopmen a e o en in luenced by he ca ee heo y o heo ies he se ice p o ide s use. Theo ies in luence he se ices h ough he design and use o assessmen s, ca ee de elopmen p ocesses and he a ailabili y o in o ma ion and ins uc ional esou ces (Sampson, 2008; Sampson & Lenz, 2023). In addi ion o heo ies, a common denomina o o he design o ca ee se ices is he ime a ailable o ca ee in e en ions. O en he unding ha is a ailable o ca ee se ices is limi ed and he e a e expec a ions om policy make s ha he exis ing unding should be used as cos -e ec i ely as possible (OECD, 2004). In mee ing he inc eased demand o ca ee assis ance, a numbe o coun ies ha e ealized ha using di e en ia ed ca ee guidance in e en ions o imp o e access is a key issue. The classi ica ion o use g oups can be elabo a ed in acco dance wi h na ional con ex s, and di e en ia ed se ices seem ele an in mee ing he needs o di e en use g oups/audiences. In p o iding se ices, in o ma ion ad ise s, lea ning ad ise s and ca ee ad ise s ha e di e en le els o quali ica ions o se e he needs o he di e en use s (ELGPN, 2010). Fo example, in Es onia he di e en ia ed se ice deli e y model acco ding o CIP heo y was applied in 2010 as an unde lying heo e ical p inciple in he design o publicly unded egional “Rajaleidja” ca ee cen e s (Sampson, 2010). Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 586 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice The e ec i e design and implemen a ion o ca ee se ices is a collabo a i e e o among se ice p o ide s om di e en sec o s, so i is impo an o ha e a common unde s anding among collabo a ing pa ne s and s akeholde s o he pu pose and s a egies o e alua ion and accoun abili y o he se ices (Sampson & Lenz, 2023). Conside ing he cos - e ec i eness o ca ee se ices is essen ial as mo e indi iduals seek assis ance wi h hei ca ee de elopmen . CIP heo y p o ides a amewo k o how o ha e a balance on he supply and demand o se ices as a social jus ice issue (Sampson e al., 2017). The CIP heo y-based app oach illus a es how he choice o a pa icula ca ee heo y o guide ca ee in e en ions (Sampson & Lenz, 2023) in luences he amoun o ime equi ed o deli e and supe ise ca ee in e en ions and he esul ing impac on he supply o ca ee in e en ions in ela ion o he demand (Sampson, 2008; Sampson e al., 2020). Since he beginning o he 2000s, he models o ca ee de elopmen ha e shi ed om singula ma ching exe cises in o ac i i ies which a e connec ed o li elong de elopmen (Ha ung, 2020; Ke unen, 2017; Pa on & McMahon, 2014). In e na ional e iews wi h a numbe o case s udies s ongly indica e ha he demand o ca ee assis ance a exceeds he supply o se ices and ha ci izens’ needs canno be me by elying exclusi ely on he adi ional o ms o ca ee assis ance (e.g., Ba nes e al., 2020; ELGPN, 2010; Zello h, 2009). In mee ing he inc eased demand o ca ee assis ance, a numbe o coun ies ha e ealized ha using di e en ia ed ca ee in e en ions o imp o e access is a key issue (see Chap e 15 o u he discussion o his opic). No se ice p o ide , p o essional g oup o o ganiza ion alone can espond o he inc easing needs o mo e di e se clien g oups. Chap e 20 Summa y This chap e e iewed he concep s o s a egic hinking, ope a ions planning, and s a egic planning as ways o hinking abou he o mula ion o he in en s o ca ee se ices. A six-s age p ocess was desc ibed ha can be used as a guideline o he s a egic planning p ocess, in which a planning commi ee begins wi h he ques ion, A e we doing he igh hings? and p og esses o he ques ion, A e we doing hings igh ? The ac i i y o s a egic planning was linked o cogni i e in o ma ion p ocessing heo y and o accoun abili y h ough he delinea ion o he clien popula ion o be se ed and he ypes o decisions he se ice is designed o help he clien s o make. P ima y clien s, hose who acqui e new knowledge and skills, we e con as ed wi h seconda y clien s, hose who a e he bene ac o s o changes in he p ima y clien s. The e ec i eness o a ca ee se ices p og am is ul ima ely de e mined by he deg ee o which clien s acqui e new capabili ies and he ele ance o hese capabili ies o he co e unc ions o he o ganiza ion in which he ca ee se ice is loca ed. The chap e closed wi h an examina ion o di e en ia ed se ice deli e y and public policy. Ge ing he Mos Bene i om Reading Chap e 20 To e ec i ely lea n he ma e ial in his chap e , comple e one o mo e o he ollowing ac i i ies: • Fo m a s a egic planning g oup o i e o six pe sons. Loca e a local ca ee se ices p og am in he communi y and design a s a egic planning p ocess ha he se ice could employ. Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 587 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice • Loca e a local ca ee se ices p og am in you communi y, and conduc an in es iga ion o how i s mission, goals, and objec i es we e de i ed. To wha deg ee we e s a egic planning p inciples used? • Loca e a local ca ee se ices p og am in you communi y and desc ibe he cha ac e is ics o i s clien ele. Discuss wi h he s a how he ends owa d a global economy, echnological inno a ion, new ways o wo king, and new wo k/ amily oles in he labo o ce will likely in luence (a) he na u e o he ca ee se ices o e ed and (b) he clien 's conside a ion o ca ee al e na i es. Chap e 20 – S a egic Planning o Ca ee Se ices 588 Cogni i e In o ma ion P ocessing: Ca ee Theo y, Resea ch, and P ac ice Re e ences Anso , I. H. (1985). Co po a e s a egy: An analy ical app oach o business policy o g ow h and expansion. McG aw-Hill. A hanasou, J. A., & Pe e a, H. N. (Eds.). (2019). 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