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Ac i i y ypologies as a design model o he ubiqui ous de ec ion o daily ou ines
Leikas, Jaana; Launiainen, Helena; Kulju, Minna; Saa iluoma, Pe i; Bäckman, Ka i
Leikas, J., Launiainen, H., Kulju, M., Saa iluoma, P., & Bäckman, K. (2018). Ac i i y
ypologies as a design model o he ubiqui ous de ec ion o daily ou ines. Finnish
Jou nal o eHeal h and eWel a e, 10(1), 79-88. h ps://doi.o g/10.23996/ jhw.65165
2018
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8.3.2018 FinJeHeW 2018;10(1) 79
Ac i i y ypologies as a design model o he ubiqui ous de ec ion
o daily ou ines
Jaana Leikas, PhD1, Helena Launiainen, M.Ed, OTR2, Minna Kulju, MSc1, Pe i Saa iluoma, PhD3, Ka i Bäckman,
MSc4
1 VTT Technical Resea ch Cen e o Finland L d, Tampe e, Finland; 2 Miina Sillanpää Founda ion, Helsinki, Finland;
3 Depa men o Compu e Science and In o ma ion Sys ems, Uni e si y o Jy äskylä, Finland; 4 Bene e L d, Tu ku,
Finland
Jaana Leikas, VTT Technical Resea ch Cen e o Finland L d, Tekniikanka u 1, P.O. Box 1300, FI-33101 Tampe e,
FINLAND. Email: jaana.leikas@ . i
Abs ac
Eme ging echnologies open up new isions and business po en ial o sys ems design and de elopmen in he
a eas o wellbeing and heal h. New echnologies enable he de ec ion o human pe o mance and ea ly changes in
physical and cogni i e unc ioning, making i possible o moni o an olde pe son’s wellbeing. This kind o echnol-
ogy o se ice se s signi ican equi emen s o design, as design concep s mus be able o cap u e he complexi y
o people’s daily li es in e ms o ac i i ies and en i onmen s. Technology i sel is “blind” unless designe s can
adap i o human li e. The e is hus a dis inc need o comp ehensi e design and de elopmen models ha gen-
e a e adequa e human equi emen s o such design. Ac i i y ypologies desc ibed in his pape a e an example o
such li e-based design ele an knowledge. They allow he de ec ion o signals in daily ou ines ha would p edic
a decline in he a ge pe son’s unc ioning, and eed his da a in o design p ocesses. They can be used o c ea e a
model o human equi emen s speci ica ion o such ubiqui ous se ices ha a e g ounded on he idea o de ec -
ing changes in human ac i i y. The model p esen ed in his pape is c ea ed in BeWell p ojec and based on he
heo e ical amewo ks o Li e-Based Design and In e na ional Classi ica ion o Func ioning, Disabili y and Heal h.
Keywo ds: aging, echnology, home ca e, memo y, ac i i ies o daily li ing
In oduc ion
Massi ely mul i unc ional echnologies such as ubiqui-
ous and au onomous echnology a e de eloping as ;
inno a ions a e di ec ed owa ds all a eas o li e. Thei
de elopmen has opened new pe spec i es, and has
huge business po en ial in he a ea o heal h echnolo-
gies and ge on echnology [1]. Wi eless ne wo k and
senso echnologies, anging om sma homes o en i-
onmen moni o ing, make i possible o moni o peo-
ple’s homes and ac i i ies and o de ec human pe o -
mance 24/7 [2,3]. Mode n senso s a e inc easingly
small and ene gy e icien , and hus sui able o long-
e m use. They can be used in a ious e e yday con-
ex s o de ec sub le changes in daily pe o mance ha
migh indica e a pa icula p oblem. When pai ed wi h
a sophis ica ed algo i hm, senso s can be used o moni-
o a pe son’s wellbeing and p o ide eedback o he
use s.
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Inc easingly a o dable mode n big da a echnologies
c ea e new po en ial o wellbeing moni o ing. Techno-
logical enhancemen s in au oma ed analysis and new
so wa e in e aces allow new ways o access and use
he da a. As he amoun o in o ma ion inc eases, he
algo i hms and so wa e enable sophis ica ed combina-
ions and eal- ime analysis o da a.
Ubiqui ous echnology can ac i ely in ol e people in
unde s anding and ac ing on hei wellbeing, hus em-
powe ing hem o ake con ol o e hei own li es. The
abili y o manage one’s heal h allows people o bene i
om new echnology in many ways. Ea ly ecogni ion o
a ious disabili ies, ch onic illnesses o memo y diso -
de , o example, can pa e he way o mo e accu a e
ea men and ha e a ema kable in luence on people’s
li es, and e en le hem emain ac i e and independen
o longe .
A p omising applica ion in his ield is he de ec ion o
dec easing unc ional and cogni i e pe o mance. Sen-
so echnology, pai ed wi h adequa e moni o ing and
assessmen sys ems, can enable he moni o ing o such
pa ame e s and ecognize and epo any c i ical
changes. I is sensi i e enough o de ec symp oms and
mino p oblems in cogni i e unc ioning ea lie han
was p e iously possible. Ins ead o in e ening only
when he signs o cogni i e decline a e ob ious, da a
gene a ed by mul iple senso s make i possible o de-
ec mino changes in a pe son’s daily ac i i ies [4,5].
Signi ican sa ings o socie y in e ms o social and
heal h ca e expenses
Possibili y o objec i ely de ec meaning ul changes in
unc ioning and pe o mance o e ime, and o espond
acco dingly, is a subs an ial inancial incen i e o o e
wellbeing se ices o he ageing popula ion globally. A
p omising use g oup o hese kinds o se ices is he
global olde consume ma ke : ac i e senio s who seek
p oduc s and se ices ha ad ance hei own wellbeing
[6] and inc ease hei quali y o li e [7]. Along wi h he
g ow h in he numbe o senio ci izens – ‘ he senio
sunami’ – a en ion is inc easingly paid o inno a ions
ha suppo ac i e ageing in place [4, 8−9] and people’s
abili y o emain a home [10]. This g ow h in sil e
ma ke s [11−13] opens up new challenges as well as
new equi emen s o he de elopmen o p oduc s and
se ices. The c i ical ques ion is how o adap designs o
sui hese ma ke s.
Gi en he po en ial o senso echnology, in pa icula
i s abili y o help ex end e e yday coping in indi iduals’
homes, i may also become an essen ial componen o
u u e in eg a ed ca e in o ma ion sys ems. Ea ly e -
o s o b ing echnology o he home en i onmen
poin o he use ulness o echnology-suppo ed se -
ices in keeping senio s ou o ins i u ional ca e. Kaye e
al. (2011) [14] a gue ha home assessmen p o ides
he oppo uni y o assess ac i i y in a pe son’s ypical
en i onmen , and is hus likely o ep esen a mo e
ele an measu e o eal-wo ld unc ion. In addi ion o
home-based ac i i ies, a en ion should also be paid o
changes in social pa icipa ion [15].
Aim o esea ch
Mode n senso echnology can p o ide da a on nume -
ous aspec s o human pe o mance. Howe e , he in-
e p e a ion o his da a equi es in-dep h unde s and-
ing o wha he nume ical senso y pa ame e s indica e
in e ms o heal h and wellbeing o he a ge pe son.
Fo example, wha does g adual dec ease in he speed
o mo emen s o in he amoun o speech ell abou ?
Thus, i makes sense o ask and o sys ema ically s udy
he meanings o changes in senso y-moni o able pe -
o mance.
The esea ch p esen ed in his pape c ea ed a design
model o planning he human dimension o such ubiq-
ui ous en i onmen s ha a e sensi i e and esponsi e
o he unc ioning and heal h o a pe son. The design
model helps o analyse daily ou ines in o de o no ice
ea ly changes in cogni i e o physical unc ioning.
The main esea ch ques ions we e:
1. How can daily li e o olde people be unde s ood o
design pu poses?
2. How can his unde s anding be used o p oduce ge-
ne ic ac i i y models?
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3. Can ac i i y models be used o de ine sense making
pa ame e s o senso da a analysis?
Theo e ical backg ound
As he ways in which echnologies can be used o im-
p o e e e yday human li e a e becoming inc easingly
sophis ica ed and complica ed, unde s anding he hu-
man dimension o echnology-suppo ed se ices and
applica ions has become a majo design challenge. In
he case o se ices ha can de ec a pe son’s pe o -
mance and ac i i y, he p econdi ions o ma ke suc-
cess a e no based on high echnology, bu a he on
knowledge o he use s and a ious con ex s o e e y-
day li e [16,17].
De ining sense making pa ame e s o analysing senso
da a p esupposes in-dep h unde s anding o human
unc ioning and daily li e. We ha e applied Li e-based
design (LBD) app oach o in es iga e he elemen s o
e e yday li e [18]. This app oach akes he analysis o
human li e as he basis o designing echnology-
suppo ed se ices. LBD looks a he phenomena o
human li e om a mul idisciplina y pe spec i e: how
people li e and how echnology can imp o e hei qual-
i y o li e. I s a s by analysing wha is needed o im-
p o e he quali y o li e, a he han how echnologies
should be used. The p oblem is hus s uc u ed a ound
people’s daily li ed expe iences and ou ines, and he
design ocus shi s om possible echnological solu ions
o designing a good li e: echnology is seen in he con-
ex o suppo ing and ad ancing people’s daily li es. By
using well-g ounded ools, and by exploi ing he adi-
ions o human esea ch such as psychology and sociol-
ogy, knowledge o e e yday li e is used o de i e goals
and human equi emen s o he design o echnology-
suppo ed se ices.
LBD was used o c ea e he model o he ubiqui ous
de ec ion o human unc ioning and pe o mance de-
sc ibed in his a icle. The model is based on ac i i y
ypologies, which desc ibe a pe son’s daily ac i i ies
and pe o mance o de ise an app op ia e long- e m
de ec ion me ic. The ypologies a e used as he basis
o an augmen ed adap i e se ice ha would measu e
he quali y and quan i y o ac ion pa e ns, and analyse
he da a o compa e si ua ions and p o ide eedback.
Me hodology
A o m-o -li e (FoL) analysis, a co e elemen o LBD, was
selec ed as a me hod o in es iga e people’s daily ou-
ines as a s a ing poin o de eloping he model. This
in o ma ion was supplemen ed by gene al knowledge
o unc ioning and pe o mance p o ided by he In e -
na ional Classi ica ion o Func ioning, Disabili y and
Heal h (ICF).
In he ollowing, we will desc ibe he na u e o FoL
analysis and he ICF, and hen in oduce he model o
ac i i y ypologies as gene al desc ip ions o daily ou-
ines.
Fo m-o -Li e (FoL) analysis
People’s li es, o a g ea ex en , a e cha ac e ized by
he di e en kinds o o ms o li e. FoL analysis ocuses
on iden i ying li e si ua ions, and hen looks a people
(and hei ac i i ies and ways o being) o asce ain
wha comp ises a good li e. Only hen is i possible o
decide which se ice design al e na i es will mos im-
p o e he quali y o li e. FoL analysis is mean o p o-
duce ini ial ideas o he on -end design phase, and
decisi e in o ma ion o u he phases in he de elop-
men p ocess, such as concep de elopmen . I hus
speci ies he human equi emen s o he whole de el-
opmen p ocess o echnology-suppo ed se ices.
FoL is a gene al concep used o de ine any sys em o
ac ions in human li e unde examina ion and o help
unde s and he con en s o his pa icula a ea o li e. I
has been used as a pa o sociological discou se, bu
should no only be s udied om a sociological pe spec-
i e. In addi ion o social elemen s, human FoLs a e
de e mined and shaped by many biological and psycho-
logical ac o s ha oge he gi e meaning o people’s
ac ions and aims. An FoL includes p ede e mined ac-
o s in li e as well as a complex a ie y o elemen s in
e e yday li e. Fo example, being e i ed is an FoL,
which a ec s people’s social li es and is associa ed wi h
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hei socio-cul u al backg ound. I is also ela ed o
ageing, which is bo h a social and biological phenome-
non. Fu he , being e i ed in ol es many psychological
aspec s.
People pa icipa e in FoLs by sha ing di e en ules and
egula i ies ha a e ypical o ha pa icula FoL and by
ca ying ou espec i e ac ions [18-19]. The concep
‘ o m o li e’ o igina es om Wi gens ein’s la e philos-
ophy. By his e m, Wi gens ein, one o he mos im-
po an philosophe s o he las cen u y, e e s o any
ci cle o con ex o linguis ic ac ions. In his o iginal p o-
posal, o m o li e was a heo e ical concep and con-
cep ual abs ac ion o analysing human linguis ic be-
ha io and use o language. I is possible o ex end he
use o his concep o analyse, any o he aspec s o
human li e [18].
An FoL analysis s a s by de ining hese ules and egu-
la i ies [18]. Daily ou ines can be seen as egula i ies
ha people ollow when hey pa icipa e in a pa icula
FoL. The e o e an FoL analysis can p o ide insigh s in o
a pe son’s daily ou ines by sepa a ing he di e en
con ex s o li e and examining hei con en s. I is hus a
ool o exposing he ele an di e ences be ween
di e en li e se ings, and o u he unde s anding he
egula i ies o a speci ic li e si ua ion. By de ining and
analysing an FoL, i is possible o unde s and wha kinds
o ou ines i con ains. Wha do he a ge people do in
hei daily li es? How a e hei daily ac i i ies o gan-
ised? How do daily ou ines di e be ween people? An
FoL analysis p o ides aluable gene ic da a abou di -
e en g oups o people, a he han indi iduals.
Daily ou ines – ule- ollowing ac ions – a e go e ned
no jus by humans’ in e nal mechanisms (e.g., hei
cul u al models and human agency), bu also by he
en i onmen in which hey li e [20]. Thus, he key ele-
men s o s udying daily ou ines a e he agen , he goal
o ac ion, he con ex and he ool [21]. The agen is he
pe son pe o ming an ac i i y, who pe haps uses a
echnology o suppo he ac ion. The goal cons i u es
he e ec s o he ac ion. I is dependen on he con ex
o he ac ion, which is a p econdi ion o he pe o -
mance o ake place. The con ex can include social,
psychological, echnical, in o ma ion and ask-based
elemen s. The ool can include a possible a e ac o
echnology.
The me e disc imina ion o daily ou ines and egula i-
ies o an FoL does no p o ide su icien in o ma ion
abou people’s ac ions. I is also essen ial o unde s and
he in e nal s uc u e o hese ac ions and how hey a e
in eg a ed in o de o de ine he ela ionships be ween
hem, ex ac hei simila i ies and explica e he logic
behind hem [17,18]. The logic behind ule- ollowing
ac ions e eals why ules o ou ines make sense, wha
he goals o ac ions a e and how he ac ions a e in e-
g a ed. In he sea ch o logic, ac s and alues help
explain why people pe o m pa icula ac ions [18,21]
(Figu e 1). Fac s (such as age, gende , educa ional and
wo k his o y, heal h and medical his o y) explain (and
o en e en de e mine) he goals o ule- ollowing ac-
ions and p o ide he limi s – he possibili ies and e-
s ic ions – on wha people do in hei li es. Values can
explain he meaning behind he ac ions. They in luence
how people choose be ween di e en FoLs and be-
ween ac ions wi hin hem.

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Figu e 1. The unc ion o ule- ollowing ac ions, ac s and alues in analysing an FoL.
No e: FoL = o m o li e; RFA = ule- ollowing ac ion.
Figu e 2. ICF componen s (adap ed om WHO 2013).
Analysis o human unc ioning and pe o mance
When he design aim is o c ea e a sys em ha de ec s
ea ly changes in olde people’s ac i i y and beha iou ,
me e in o ma ion abou daily ou ines is no su icien .
When people age, hey may s a o expe ience age-
ela ed declines in physical o cogni i e unc ioning.
This change in abili ies may also change hei daily li es
and ou ines. The challenge is o c ea e a sys em ha
de ec s daily ou ines and pe cei es changes wi h de-
ailed empo al p ecision in o de o indica e he onse
o cogni i e o unc ional decline. Da a abou a pe son’s
unc ioning and pe o mance a e needed o suppo he
desc ip ion o daily ou ines.
Heal h ca e and ehabili a ion p o essionals use he
concep o unc ioning and pe o mance o desc ibe
independen li ing and coping in e e yday li e. This
concep e eals how he abili y o manage e e yday
ac i i ies a ies amongs people. P inciples o his
assessmen can be ound in he ICF model, which exam-
ines people’s unc ioning and pe o mance as a dynam-
ic in e ac ion be ween he indi idual, he ac i i y and
he en i onmen . The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion
FoL
RFA RFA
RFA
ValuesFac s
•ac ion & goal
•agen
•con ex
Design-Rele an A ibu es
FoL A ibu es
Ac i i ies Pa icipa ionBody Func ions
and S uc u es
En i onmen al Fac o s Pe sonal Fac o s
Heal h Condi ion
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(WHO) in oduced he ICF, which is an in e na ionally
accep ed concep ual amewo k ha desc ibes he
dynamic in e ac ions be ween bodily unc ions, bodily
s uc u es, ac i i ies and pa icipa ion, and en i on-
men al and pe sonal ac o s [22] (Figu e 2). The ICF
model s esses he indi iduali y o heal h and unc ional
capabili y. I also o e s a means o examining en i on-
men al ac o s in a s uc u ed manne , and hus se es
as a welcome adjunc o FoL con ex analysis. I is help-
ul o iden i ying he p incipal p oblem o an indi idu-
al’s disabili y – he home en i onmen , he limi ed ca-
paci y o he indi idual o a combina ion o hese wo
ac o s. This helps iden i y he ac o s in he physical,
social and a i ude en i onmen ha suppo o inhibi
pa icipa ion in socie y and socie al ac i i ies [22].
The ICF model ocuses on impac [23]. This c ea es a
ounda ion and a common amewo k wi h which o
compa e di e en condi ions using a common me ic –
he impac on he unc ioning o he indi idual. This
allows o he impac o he en i onmen and o he
con ex ual ac o s on he unc ioning o an indi idual o
be conside ed.
Resul s: A human-cen ic model o collec ing
senso da a
The aim o ou esea ch was o c ea e a model o plan-
ning he human dimension o such ubiqui ous en i on-
men s ha a e sensi i e and esponsi e o he unc ion-
ing and heal h o a pe son. The design model would
help o analyse daily ou ines in o de o no ice ea ly
changes in cogni i e o physical unc ioning. In he
ollowing, we in oduce he elemen s o he basic s eps
o he model c ea ed in he p ojec .
S ep 1: FoL analysis and ICF a e used o desc ibe daily
ou ines
The i s phase o he model is o use FoL analysis and
ICF classi ica ion o desc ibe he common cou se and
con en o he daily ou ines o a speci ic g oup o peo-
ple (i.e., hei pa e ns o sequences o ac ions). The
ac ions can hen be u he di ided in o sub-ac ions and
classi ied acco ding o he ICF. These gene ic desc ip-
ions o he sub-ac ions classi ied using he ICF a e
called ac i i y ypologies.
S ep 2: Ac i i y ypologies as gene al desc ip ions o
daily ou ines
Ac i i y ypologies a e used as a ool o planning and
implemen ing se ices o he ea ly de ec ion o de-
c easing unc ioning and pe o mance in olde people.
Gene ic ac i i y ypologies desc ibe a pe son’s daily
pe o mance, and can be used when ailo ing an au on-
omous moni o ing sys em o an indi idual. Using da a
ga he ed om sel -assessmen o he a ge indi idual
and ele an s akeholde s (such as home ca e gi e s,
ela i es and nea es ones) a gene ic ac i i y ypology
can be ine- uned in o a su icien illus a ion o a pe -
son’s daily ou ines (Figu e 3).
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8.3.2018 FinJeHeW 2018;10(1) 85
Figu e 3. Gene ic ac i i y ypologies as a basis o illus a ing pe sonal daily ou ines.
Figu e 4. A design model o he ubiqui ous de ec ion o daily ou ines and ac i i ies.
S ep 3: Analysis o meaning ul ac ions
The nex s ep om an applica ion design poin o iew
is o ex ac he ac ions ha a e meaning ul in e ms o
moni o ing changes in he pe son’s unc ioning and
pe o mance. Speci ic ac ions in a ypology can be used
as indica o s o de e mine wha kind o human ac i i y
should be moni o ed, and wha kind o pe o mance
pa ame e s he echnology should include. These pa-
ame e s can hen be used o c ea e algo i hms o
moni o ing. The human equi emen s based on FoL and
ICF should answe ques ions such as how o de e mine
which sequences o ac ion a e meaning ul and which
can be assessed wi h he help o echnology. The se-
quences can be, o example, ‘opening a doo o he
ba h oom’, ‘ge ing d essed’ o ‘using a co ee make in
he mo ning’. A key ques ion is wha pa icula ac ion
(o chain o human ac ions) is powe ul enough o sig-
nal a possible decline in he pe son’s unc ional abili y.
FoL
Analysis
Daily
Rou ines
ICF
•
Gene icAc i i y
Typologies
Sel -
assessmen
Pe sonal
Daily Rou ines
Con ex ual Fac o s Socio-Cul u al Fac o s
Biological Fac o s
Ac i i y Typologies
Rule-Following Ac ions
Psychological Fac o s
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8.3.2018 FinJeHeW 2018;10(1) 86
The ICF uses a combina ion o codes and quali ie s o
desc ibe unc ioning in a s anda dised manne (‘no
p oblem’ o ‘mild, mode a e, se e e and comple e’),
which is use ul o de eloping an ac i i y ypology. P o-
essionals, such as home heal h ca e s, should supply
hese assessmen s a he han in e iewe s [23].
Figu e 4 illus a es he design model o he ubiqui ous
de ec ion o human unc ioning and pe o mance. The
model p o ides a gene ic s uc u e o how people pe -
o m hei daily ac i i ies and ou ines. I also guides
he echnological solu ions used o ga he and u he
analyse he collec ed ac i i y da a.
Discussion
The design model illus a ed in his pape has been
discussed in se e al planning sessions wi h di e en
s akeholde s, and e alua ed by heal h ca e p o ession-
als, and hei eedback has been encou aging. Howe e ,
he model is ini ial and na u ally has o be elabo a ed
and es ed in eal echnology design p ocesses.
Wha , hen, would be he nex de elopmen le els in
o de o u n he esea ch in o echnology? The ypolo-
gies gi e a clea idea o how sophis ica ed knowledge o
human esea ch in echnology design can be compa ed
o e e yday and lay knowledge. A signi ican esea ch
challenge o u u e wo k is o u he de elop and es
he gene alizabili y o he ool, and o ind me hods o
embedding he essen ial pa ame e s o he analysis o
e e yday li e e icien ly in o echnology de elopmen
p ocesses. The impo an c ea i e s ep in applying ac-
i i y ypologies o echnology design is u ning he
explici and implici esea ch embedded in hem in o
echnology and echnical equi emen s. This s ep again
p esupposes a wo king discou se be ween human e-
sea ch pa adigms and echnology de elopmen .
By aking he aims and demands o he human dimen-
sion as he ocal s a ing poin o echnology and se -
ice design, i is possible o c ea e inno a i e alue and
a compe i i e edge in he sil e ma ke s. This pape
discusses his ul ima e design challenge: i in oduces a
model o planning he human dimension o ubiqui ous
en i onmen s ha a e sensi i e and esponsi e o he
unc ioning and heal h o a pe son. We ha e g ounded
he design on wo heo e ical app oaches: LBD and ICF.
The usage o big da a echnologies [24] c ea es new
insigh s in o he p ospec s o moni o ing he wellbeing
o ageing people. Ye i also equi es inno a ion in de-
sign p ac ices. By in oducing a model o he ubiqui-
ous de ec ion o human unc ioning and pe o mance,
we also sough o s a a discussion abou he necessi y
o well-g ounded me hods and ools o designing he
human dimension o human- echnology in e ac ion
design. Ou pape illus a es how exis ing human e-
sea ch can be used o analyse human li e and de ine
echnical design goals.
In his kind o inno a ion, in ol ing all s akeholde s –
anging om se ice p o ide s o ageing people and
hei ca egi e s – is a p e equisi e o a success ul, e-
sponsible and e hically sus ainable ou come [25-28].
Ac i i y ypologies ha e been de eloped based on he
ex ensi e and highly p o essional wo k o all such
s akeholde s. This no el, mul idisciplina y way o ap-
p oaching he se ice de elopmen p ocess is buil on a
mul i-ac o ecosys em and goes beyond s anda d hu-
man-cen ed app oaches. I includes a social co-design
cycle ha in ol es he simul aneous design o p oduc s,
se ices and ac i i ies o people [29], in which co-
c ea i e ‘lea ning by doing’ is a key app oach.
Con lic o in e es s a emen
The au ho s o his a icle do no ha e any inancial o
pe sonal ela ionship ha could inapp op ia ely bias
hei con ibu ion.
Re e ences
[1] Co ne G. Eu ope’s ‘Sil e Economy’: A po en ial
sou ce o economic g ow h? Ge on echnology
2015;13(3):319-321.
h ps://doi.o g/10.4017/g .2015.13.3.001.00
[2] Spink A, Aa N an de , Locke, B, Noldus L. T ackLab –
An Inno a i e Sys em o Loca ion Sensing, Cus ome