Sus ainabili y 2012, 4, 3387-3403; doi:10.3390/su4123387
sus ainabili y
ISSN 2071-1050
www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
A icle
The Sus ainabili y o Ag icul u e in a No he n Indus ialized
Coun y—F om Con olling Na u e o Ru al De elopmen
Mikael Hildén 1, Pekka Jokinen 2,* and Jy ki Aakkula 3
1 Finnish En i onmen Ins i u e, P.O. Box 140, Helsinki FIN-00251, Finland;
E-Mail: mikael.hilden@ympa is o. i
2 Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, P.O. Box 111, Joensuu FIN-80101, Finland
3 MTT Ag i ood Resea ch Finland, Jokioinen FIN-31600, Finland; E-Mail: [email p o ec ed]
* Au ho o whom co espondence should be add essed; E-Mail: [email p o ec ed];
Tel.: +358-50-593-0272.
Recei ed: 15 Oc obe 2012; in e ised o m: 8 Decembe 2012 / Accep ed: 14 Decembe 2012 /
Published: 18 Decembe 2012
Abs ac : The concep o sus ainabili y has been a pa o heo y and p ac ice in
ag icul u e o a long ime, bu he di e se oo s o he concep ha e led o a numbe o
di e en de ini ions o sus ainable ag icul u e. This pape p o ides an o e iew o he
policy de elopmen o sus ainable ag icul u e in Finland by examining in e nal and
ex e nal discou ses o sus ainabili y and he e olu ion in di e en dimensions o
sus ainabili y. We show ha he deba e on sus ainabili y wi hin Eu opean Union’s
Common Ag icul u al Policy and Finnish ag i-en i onmen al policy a e e lec ed in
a emp s o implemen and moni o sus ainabili y in ag icul u e in Finland. Howe e ,
indica o s sugges a la gely non-sus ainable condi ion. This has con ibu ed o a shi in
policy objec i es om sus ainable ag icul u e o sus ainable u al de elopmen , especially
in he EU con ex . As he e a e commonly ade-o s be ween he economic, ecological and
social dimensions o sus ainable de elopmen , u u e de elopmen s in sus ainable
ag icul u e will ine i ably be cha ac e ized by con inuous ede ini ions o p oblems,
pa adigm e isions and eassessmen s o ac ions al eady aken.
Keywo ds: sus ainable ag icul u e; u al de elopmen ; ag i-en i onmen al policy; Finnish
ag icul u e; EU ag icul u al policy
OPEN ACCESS
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3388
1. In oduc ion
The concep o sus ainabili y is no new o a ming p ac ice, ag icul u al science, o e en o
ag icul u al policy [1]. Many ag icul u al p ac ices can be seen as ways o sus aining he p oduc i i y
o a able land. The scien i ic deba e conce ning ag icul u al sus ainabili y has adi ionally been
ag o-ecologically o ien ed, al hough since he publica ion o he “B und land Repo ”, economic and
social aspec s o ag icul u al sus ainabili y ha e gained inc easing a en ion [2–4]. As he concep o
sus ainabili y mo e ecen ly pene a ed in o policy-making a enas a all le els, he dominance o
ecological sus ainabili y issues has somewha diminished [5].
The di e se oo s o he concep s o sus ainabili y ha e led o a numbe o di e en de ini ions o
sus ainable ag icul u e. One o he mos comp ehensi e and widely accep ed de ini ions has been
gi en by he US Depa men o Ag icul u e. The 1990 Fa m Bill de ined sus ainable ag icul u e as an
in eg a ed sys em o plan and animal p oduc ion p ac ices ha ing a si e-speci ic applica ion ha will,
o e he long- e m, (1) sa is y human ood and ibe needs, (2) enhance en i onmen al quali y and he
na u al esou ce base upon which he ag icul u e economy depends, (3) make he mos e icien use o
non- enewable esou ces and on- a m esou ces and in eg a e, whe e app op ia e, na u al biological
cycles and con ols, (4) sus ain he economic iabili y o a m ope a ions, and (5) enhance he quali y
o li e o a me s and socie y as a whole [6].
The a emp s o apply he concep o sus ainable ag icul u e in p ac ice b ing in o play di e en
ac o s esponsible o he planning and implemen a ion o ag icul u al policies. Co e challenges
comp ise sec o al in eg a ion o policies, changes in ins i u ions, he ange o policy ins umen s and
ools, and he ole o ci il socie y [7]. The in eg a ion o economy and he en i onmen in
decision-making may e en be seen as he mos impo an ea u e o he in e na ional en i onmen al
go e nance build up a ound he idea o sus ainabili y [8], (c. ., [9]).
A majo challenge is o ind wo king p ac ical in e p e a ions o he de ini ions o sus ainable
ag icul u e. Thei ex ensi e scope and he mul idimensionali y o policy p ocesses endo sing
sus ainabili y c ea e di icul ies o p ac ical decision-making [10] and sys ems and c i e ia o
moni o ing p og ess owa ds sus ainabili y. S ic in e p e a ions and c i e ia could dismiss nea ly all
o ms o ag icul u e as non-sus ainable. Weake in e p e a ions open up a a ie y o ade-o s,
poli icking and no ma i e con lic s.
The pu pose o his pape is o examine he eme gence and e olu ion o he sus ainabili y discou se
in Finnish ag icul u al policy. Finland is an in e es ing case o no he n indus ialized coun ies:
Finnish ag icul u e has adi ionally been based on amily a m p ac ices and on ca ying ou bo h
ag icul u e and o es y ac i i ies, bu ag icul u al sus ainabili y is inc easingly pola ized be ween
la ge-scale indus ial ag icul u e and mul i unc ional and small-scaled a ming [11]. Thus, some
dimensions o sus ainabili y, such as he conce n o en i onmen al ex e nali ies, ha e ad anced,
whe eas o he dimensions, such as he economic iabili y o a m ope a ions, a e clea ly weak. The
ensions be ween di e en dimensions o sus ainabili y and he gene al e olu ion o he discou se on
sus ainabili y also e lec he implemen a ion o ag i-en i onmen al policy in he Eu opean Union.
Ou analy ical ame is based on con as ing wo di e en pa adigms o ag icul u e, which we call
“al e na i e” and “con en ional” ag icul u e, and hei in e ac ion. Then we ocus on he deba e on
sus ainabili y wi hin Eu opean Union’s common ag icul u al policy and Finnish ag i-en i onmen al
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3389
policy as well as on a emp s o implemen and moni o sus ainabili y in ag icul u e in Finland. The
pape concludes by looking a policy challenges aised by he sus ainabili y discussion in ag icul u e.
The pape is based on li e a u e and on he mos ele an empi ical esea ch a ailable on he case
o Finland.
2. Al e na i e and Con en ional Ag icul u e
Basically, i can be a gued ha all o ms o ag icul u e aim a sus ainable p oduc ion, bu iews as
o wha should be he basis o his sus ainabili y and how s ic ly i should be in e p e ed, a y g ea ly.
I is he e o e use ul o examine a se o cha ac e is ics wi hin he con as ing pa adigms. The
de ini ion o con en ional ag icul u e is deba able bu he e m usually e e s o he p e ailing o m o
ag icul u e p ac iced in indus ialized coun ies. I is conside ed capi al-in ensi e, la ge-scale and
highly mechanized, and i s ypical ea u es a e monocul u e, he ex ensi e use o chemical inpu s, and
in ensi e animal husband y (e.g., [12]). The many de ini ions o sus ainable ag icul u e allow plen y o
scope o a ious al e na i e ag icul u al me hods o p oduc ion o decla e ha hey each p omo e
sus ainabili y. Mos al e na i e o ms o ag icul u e ha e hei o igins in c i icisms o con en ional
ag icul u e and i s alleged ad e se ecological and social impac s.
I is no in he scope o his pape o de elop any comp ehensi e ypology co e ing he a ious
o ms o al e na i e ag icul u e ha emphasize sus ainabili y (e.g., [1,13]). We sugges , howe e , ha
i is use ul o iden i y h ee basic b anches o al e na i e ag icul u e. The i s b anch ep esen s he
al e na i e mains eam, is based on ideas which a e p edominan ly ag o-ecological by hei na u e.
This app oach ei he disclaims ag o-chemicals, o o ce ully es ic s hei use and ega ds
sus ainabili y as s ewa dship o he ag icul u al en i onmen and ecosys em. The cu en mains eam
o his ype o al e na i e ag icul u e is o ganic ag icul u e (some imes also called ecological o
biological ag icul u e). Also, na u al sys ems’ a ming and low inpu ag icul u e belong o he
i s b anch.
The second b anch emphasizes he impo ance o aking ca e o he ag icul u al en i onmen , bu i
also exp esses philosophical o e en me aphysical iewpoin s no commonly ag eed o accep ed. This
b anch is exempli ied by biodynamic a ming, na u e a ming, and pe macul u e.
The hi d b anch is no al e na i e in he adi ional sense, because i endo ses app oaches ha
u ilize sophis ica ed e sions o he same p oduc ion echniques applied in con en ional a ming. An
in eg a ed a ming sys em is a so echnology e sion de i ed om p ac ices p e ailing in
con en ional ag icul u e. “Ha d echnology” e sions in he o m o p ecision ag icul u e apply he
la es inno a ions om in o ma ion and elecommunica ion echnologies and au oma ion echnologies
o a m managemen , cul i a ion and animal husband y.
These b anches o al e na i e ag icul u e emphasize pa ly di e en dimensions o he o e all
sus ainabili y agenda. Ou compa ison be ween con en ional and al e na i e ag icul u e is ounded on
ideal ypes which e lec a sha p dis inc ion be ween an al e na i e and a con en ional mode o
p oduc ion (Table 1; based on [14–17]) by combining he di e en b anches o al e na i e ag icul u e.
This leads o in e p e a ions o he basic sus ainabili y dimensions ci ed abo e, i.e., (1) sa is ac ion o
human ood and ibe needs, (2) enhancemen o en i onmen al quali y and he na u al esou ce base
upon which he ag icul u e economy depends, (3) e icien use o non- enewable esou ces and
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3390
on- a m esou ces and in eg a ing, whe e app op ia e, na u al biological cycles and con ols, (4)
sus ained economic iabili y o a m ope a ions, and (5) enhancemen o he quali y o li e o a me s
and socie y as a whole.
The e a e ob iously many in e media e o ms and hyb id solu ions ha eme ge om he di e en
b anches o al e na i e ag icul u e. A de ailed discussion o ypologies o classi ica ion me hods o
p oduc ion modes is beyond he scope o his pape , bu i should be no ed ha hey p o ide a
con inuum o in e p e a ions o he di e en elemen s o sus ainabili y, including he dis inc ion
be ween weak and s ong in e p e a ions o sus ainabili y. Especially he “ha d echnology” b anch o
al e na i e ag icul u e ends o accep weak sus ainabili y, ega ding na u al and human-made capi al
as in e changeable o a ce ain ex en .
Table 1. The pa adigms o al e na i e and con en ional ag icul u e.
Elemen s o he
pa adigm Al e na i e ag icul u e Con en ional ag icul u e
Rela ionship o na u e Ha mony wi h na u e Con ol o e na u e
En i onmen al quali y
A holis ic pe cep ion o he en i onmen :
ag icul u al land as pa o a la ge
ecosys em
A na ow pe cep ion o he
en i onmen : ag icul u al land
managed sepa a ely om he
su ounding ecosys em
Resou ce base
An emphasis on he exis ing local
esou ce base; nu ien cycles and o ganic
ma e ial o m he basis o he
main enance o he esou ce base
The esou ce base can and should be
supplemen ed whene e necessa y and
economically a ional by ex e nal
inpu s
P o ision o ood and
ibe Majo conce n o basic human needs
Economic p o i abili y as e lec ed by
(possibly subsidized) ma ke p ices
should de e mine wha and how much
is p oduced
Economy o he a m A s eady s a e o mode a e “na u al”
g ow h
P o i -d i en g ow h a he same o
highe a e han in socie y a la ge
Li ing condi ions o
a me s
Fa ming as social and spi i ual
expe ience; he spi i ual expe ience as
impo an as he economic ewa ds o
p oduc ion
Fa me s as en ep eneu s able o
ensu e hei s anda d o li ing by
making su icien p o i om
p oduc ion
Rela ionship be ween
a me s
A communi y wi h sha ed alues and a
s ong sense o communi y and mu ual
assis ance
A communi y wi h sha ed alues,
which ne e heless compe es wi hin
ma ke s
Role o a ming in socie y
Fa ming as pa and pa cel o he socie y
based on well-being, p oducing bo h ood
and a wide a ay o public goods,
including landscape, main enance o
biodi e si y, ec ea ional
oppo uni ies, e c.
Fa ming as a necessa y pa o he well
unc ioning socie y ensu ing he ood
supply, o e ing employmen and he
basis o a p ospe ous indus y ha
con ibu es o economic well-being
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3391
The ensions be ween he ex emes (Table 1) ha e p o ided incen i es o de elop in e media y
solu ions be ween al e na i e and con en ional ag icul u e bo h a he poli ical and he p ac ical le el.
These ha e led o he de elopmen and ecogni ion o concep s such as mul i unc ional a ming,
ecosys em se ices, u al policy, and local ood.
The new concep s do no aim o simple comp omises be ween he ex emes. The e a e also
elemen s o e aming he pe cep ion o ag icul u e and shi s in he weigh o he di e en dimension
o sus ainabili y. Thus mul i unc ional a ming ocuses on non-ma ke goods and encou ages a ming
o play se e al oles in socie y (e.g., [18,19]). This emphasizes he ole o ag icul u e as a con ibu o
o he well-being and iabili y o u al a eas by sus aining he u al landscape and gene a ing
employmen . This is in line wi h objec i es o u al policies ha seek o “ ein eg a e” ag icul u e in o
u al de elopmen (e.g., [20,21]). The li ing condi ions o a me s he e o e become a dominan
elemen in he sus ainabili y discou se. In con as he concep o ecosys em se ices is used o
p omo e he conse a ion o na u al esou ces and hei sus ainable use by connec ing he p ocesses o
ecosys ems o human wel a e (e.g., [22,23]). The basic policy idea is o sa egua d he a ie y o li e
and, he e o e, he sus ainabili y discou se ocuses in pa icula on he ela ionship o na u e. Finally,
local ood is a concep ha emphasizes p oduc ion-consump ion ood ne wo ks, bu also he ole o
a ming in a wide socie al pe spec i e [24].
The ensions be ween he con en ional pa adigm and al e na i e pa adigm main ain discussion o e
wha is sus ainable and wha is no . Also echnical and social de elopmen s challenge he
in e p e a ions and de ini ions o sus ainabili y. A opical example is he use o gene ically modi ied
o ganisms (GMOs) and o he bio echnological inno a ions in ag icul u al p oduc ion (e.g., [25]). Some
o he al e na i e pa adigms o ag icul u e, such as o ganic a ming, ha e clea exclusiona y iews
ega ding GMOs, mainly on he basis o e hical conside a ions. In con as , he con en ional pa adigm
conside s hem a key ag icul u al echnique o esol ing he global hunge p oblem.
3. The Sus ainabili y Agenda in Finnish Ag icul u al Policy
The pe cep ion o sus ainabili y is a ec ed by di e en poli ical discou ses (e.g., [26]). In his
sec ion we discuss he e olu ion o ag i-en i onmen al discou ses a sup ana ional and na ional le els
in he las decades and examine how he ideas and concep s o sus ainabili y ha e been applied in
Finland. We also pay a en ion o he ac ual implemen a ion o sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices.
Be o e ha we sho ly in oduce he s uc u al changes aken place in Finnish ag icul u e.
The mode niza ion o Finnish socie y has esul ed in he somewha la e bu hen apid ansi ion o
he indus ial s uc u e in o a se ice-domina ed socie y and also in he depopula ion o u al a eas.
Thus, he ole o a ming has g adually changed in 50 yea s, and in pu e economic e ms, ag icul u e’s
signi icance nowadays is a he mino as ag icul u e con ibu es one pe cen o he g oss domes ic
p oduc and ou pe cen o he employmen (Table 2). The numbe o a ms has dec eased d as ically
and, in he p esen con ex o he globalized ma ke and he Eu opean Union’s ag icul u al policy, i is
expec ed o dec ease u he . Meanwhile, he a e age a m size has mo e han quad upled (ibid.).
Nowadays se en pe cen o he coun y’s o al land a ea is ag icul u al land, and Finnish p oduc ion is
based mainly on animal husband y, wi h dai y a ming and bee p oduc ion accoun ing o he hal o

Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3392
he o al ag icul u al p oduc . O ganic a ming has expanded om he ea ly 1990s on wi h he cu en
sha e o eigh pe cen o he o al cul i a ed a ea [27].
Table 2. The s uc u e o Finnish ag icul u e 1960–2010 (sou ces [28–30]).
Yea Pe cen o
o al GDP
Pe cen o o al
employmen
Numbe o
a ms
A able land
(1000 ha)
A e age
a able land
by a m (ha)
O ganic
a ms, % o
all a ms
1960 10.7 28.7 331,263 2,654 8 ..
1970 6.9 20.3 297,527 2,667 9 ..
1980 4.3 10.8 224,721 2,563 11 ..
1990 3.2 6.9 129,114 2,545 20 0.5
2000 1.4 4.0 77,896 2,187 28 6.5
2010 1.0 3.7 62,450 2,292 37 6.3
No e: Numbe o a ms: in 1960–1980 all a ms > 1 ha; 1990-2010 ac i e a ms only.
3.1. The E olu ion o Sus ainable Ag icul u e as a Mac o-Policy Objec i e
His o ically ag icul u e and ag icul u al policies ha e been domina ed by he sec o ’s own iew. I has
included a me s’ o ganiza ions, he ood indus y, he indus y p oducing e ilize s, machine y e c., and
he ag icul u al adminis a ion. This “in e nal discou se” o sus ainabili y has adi ionally emphasized he
economy o he a m and he p o ision o ood and ibe . O he aspec s o he sus ainabili y agenda
ha e en e ed only slowly (Table 3). This can also be seen a he EU le el in he e olu ion o he
Common Ag icul u al Policy (CAP). O e all, he in eg a ion o en i onmen al conce ns wi hin he
CAP has been a complica ed p ocess [31]. The policy, cha ac e ized in i s ea ly decades by pu ely
p oduc i is goals, had in p ac ice been di o ced om en i onmen al conside a ions un il he 1980s.
The i s phases o he EU ag i-en i onmen al policy in he la e 1980s and ea ly 1990s aimed a
encou aging a me s o adop en i onmen ally iendly p ac ices as a means o de-in ensi ying hei
p oduc ion and p o ec ing he u al en i onmen .
The “ex e nal discou se” on he sus ainabili y o ag icul u e was o iginally ini ia ed by he
en i onmen al sec o , including NGOs, en i onmen al esea che s and he en i onmen al
adminis a ion. In he 1990s i has expanded o include consume in e es s, and also b oade socie al
conce ns such as ai ade (Table 3).
The ex e nal discou se no doub con ibu ed o he g eening o he in e nal ag icul u al policy
discou se, which was con inued by he 1992 CAP e o m. In line wi h he s eng hening o he
pos -p oduc i is e hos, claims o he u he inco po a ion o en i onmen al issues in o he
ag icul u al policy eme ged [32,33]. This was illus a ed by he Agenda 2000 policy e o m, which
became he amewo k o he EU ag icul u al policy un il 2006. Agenda 2000 in oduced he
Eu opean model o ag icul u e based on “heal hy and p o-en i onmen al p oduc ion p ac ices, capable
o p oducing high-quali y p oduc s ha mee he equi emen s o socie y”. A b oade and mo e holis ic
no ion o sus ainable u al and e i o ial de elopmen was also in oduced, wi hin which a ming was
de ined as he cen al elemen [34].
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3393
Table 3. The in e nal and ex e nal discou ses and hei e olu ion o e 40 yea s.
1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
In e nal
discou se
Economy o he
a m, p oduc ion o
ood and ibe
Economy o he
a m, p oduc ion
o ood and ibe ,
weak ecogni ion
o ex e nal
discou se
Budding in e es in
o ganic a ming,
ecogni ion o he
en i onmen al agenda
and he impo ance o he
ex e nal discou se.
[32,33]
Di e si y in he discou se,
ag ibusiness s. amily
a ming.
Recogni ion and use o he
u al a gumen and he li ing
coun y-side. Dialogue wi h
he ex e nal discou se and he
eme gence o Agenda
2000 [34].
Ex e nal
discou se
In e nal discou se
gene ally accep ed,
ea ly ecogni ion o
impac s o biocides
Recogni ion o
wa e pollu ion
by nu ien s,
budding deba e
Widening en i onmen al
agenda: conce n o
biodi e si y and u al
issues, ise o he
sus ainabili y agenda in
ood p oduc ion [35].
Li e cycle analysis, global
issues, including clima e
change, sea ch o no el
solu ions: bioene gy;
biogas
An impo an p oblem o he EU and na ional policy-making has been o ind a balance be ween
he manda o y and uni e sal espec o EU-wide en i onmen al legisla ion and na ional o local
olun a y policy mechanisms ha a e capable o esponding o local conce ns and local ag icul u al
condi ions [36,37]. In e nal and ex e nal con lic s and discou ses on sus ainabili y (Table 3), and hus
policies designed o p omo e sus ainable ag icul u e, a e necessa ily also condi ioned by na ional
adi ions in ag icul u al and en i onmen al hinking, and by na ional pa icula i ies in he ela i e
s eng h o he key ag i-en i onmen al policy ac o s [38,39].
Due o Finland’s accession o he common ag icul u al ma ke in 1995, ag i-en i onmen al policy
has been linked o he adap a ion o domes ic ag icul u e o he EU policy. The dominan
ag i-en i onmen al discou se became also mo e he e ogeneous as i abso bed new issues such as
biodi e si y and clima e change. Du ing he i s yea s o membe ship, new ag i-en i onmen al
measu es we e also in oduced [38,40,41]. The mos impo an scheme, he Finnish ag i-en i onmen al
subsidy has co e ed no less han 90% o he o al a able a ea o he coun y. This policy measu e,
essen ially an income suppo , can be seen as se ing bo h en i onmen al goals and he wel a is idea o
equali y o esul s be ween di e en ag icul u al egions and di e en ypes o a ms. Howe e , i s
e ec i eness in e ms o p oducing en i onmen al bene i s has inc easingly been ques ioned. I has no , o
example, esul ed in any signi ican educ ion o nu ien loads o wa e cou ses [42].
In he 2000s, sus ainable de elopmen and i s h ee basic dimensions (economic, ecological, and
social sus ainabili y) ha e la gely been accep ed bo h in he in e nal and ex e nal discou ses. This does
no , howe e , mean ha a consensus has eme ged. As no ed abo e, he new concep s ha ha e en e ed
he scene do no pu equal weigh on all dimensions o sus ainable de elopmen . Fu he mo e, he e is
also a legacy o he pas in he o m o p oblems such as excessi e leaching o nu ien s o wa e
cou ses. In he 2000s, he dominan in e nal discou se has g adually begun o adop mo e economic
and pa icula ly social a gumen s conce ning sus ainabili y ha appea o jus i y some sac i ices in he
ecological dimension. The ex e nal discou se has also di e si ied, including a s ongly heal h d i en
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3394
demand o “ecological” ag icul u al p oduc s, a conce n o e global ai ness in ade and an agenda o
sus ain biodi e si y, o en amed in e ms o sa egua ding ecosys em se ices.
3.2. Moni o ing and Implemen ing Sus ainable Ag icul u e
The dimensions o sus ainable ag icul u e ha e o be ansla ed in o ope a ional c i e ia and
indica o s ha can be moni o ed o demons a e p og ess owa ds sus ainabili y. In he ea ly 2000’s,
The S a egy o Renewable Na u al Resou ces in Finland (un il 2010) in e es ingly delega ed his
esponsibili y o he implemen a ion o sec o al and heme-speci ic s a egies and p og ams and o he
egula adminis a i e moni o ing ha was pa o he pe o mance guidance linked o he ope a ional
and inancial planning o he Minis y o Ag icul u e and Fo es y [43]. In addi ion, a p oposal was
made o a ull se o ag i-en i onmen al and u al de elopmen indica o s [44]. The idea was ha
indica o s could be used in he moni o ing o he s a egic goals and ha hey could also p o ide a
basis o decisions conce ning ag icul u e.
A compa ison o he s a egy o enewable na u al esou ces [43], he p oposed indica o s [44] and
he gene al de ini ion o sus ainable ag icul u e sugges s ha by and la ge he e has been enough
in o ma ion o allow he moni o ing o he dimensions o sus ainable ag icul u e. The e has been a
s ong emphasis on he ecological aspec s o ag icul u e, and he e ha e been a numbe o ela ed
indica o s a ailable, o which i has been possible o ob ain use ul ime-se ies [44]. The e ha e also
been se e al de ailed indica o s o he a m le el economy, income changes, he con inua ion o
a ming, and indica i e in o ma ion on human, social and cul u al capi al in u al a eas.
The esul s o he moni o ing a e ambiguous. Fo example, he a m ne income in Finland has
a ied du ing he pas 15 yea s wi hou any dis inc end, gene ally ollowing he EU a e age (Figu e 1).
Howe e , Finnish subsidies o ag icul u e a e among he highes in he whole EU and he a e age
subsidy le el has inc eased nea ly by abou 80% du ing he same pe iod [45]. This clea ly does no
sugges s ong economic sus ainabili y.
Figu e 1. Fa m ne income in Finland and EU a e age. Da a om: [45].
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3395
The de elopmen in he en i onmen al dimension sugges s ha sus ainable ag icul u e has no ye
been achie ed. Reduced use o e ilize s has been documen ed bu as illus a ed by Table 4,
ag icul u e clea ly emains he single mos impo an discha ge o nu ien s (phospho us and ni ogen)
in o wa e cou ses.
Table 4. Main sou ces o eu ophica ion in Finland in 2011 (P and N, ones pe yea and %) [46].
Sou ce Phospho us Tones/a Phospho us Sha e
(%)
Ni ogen
Tones/a
Ni ogen Sha e
(%)
Poin sou ces
(indus y,
communi ies)
329 8.2 13,989 20.1
Sca e ed se lemen s 355 8.9 2,500 3.6
Fo es y 231 5.8 3,253 4.7
Ag icul u e 2,750 68.7 39,500 56.8
O he 139 3.4 1,553 2.3
Ai bo ne pollu ion 200 5.0 8,800 12.6
To al 4,004 100 69,595 100
The social dimension is di icul o cap u e, bu he numbe o ac i e a ms has been ega ded as
one indica o . I shows a s eady decline du ing he pas decades (Table 2). Also he numbe o a me s
has declined and hei a e age age has inc eased [47]. This does no sugges ha social sus ainabili y
has been achie ed.
On he basis o he a ailable indica o s, i is ai o conclude ha ag icul u e in Finland is no
sus ainable in i s p esen o m and ha he e a e only weak signals o p og ess in some dimensions
(Table 5). I he indica o s we e o di ec decision making, one could expec an ac i e sea ch o no el
solu ions ha could adically change ag icul u al policy. A he EU le el such a sea ch is going on wi h
he Commission a guing ha “ he CAP can con ibu e mo e o de eloping in elligen , sus ainable and
inclusi e g ow h. The CAP mus also ake g ea e accoun o he weal h and di e si y o ag icul u e in
he EU’s 27 Membe S a es” [48].
I is, howe e , ob ious ha speci ic decisions canno be based on pa icula indica o s, o wo main
easons. Fi s , any ac ual decision is mo e complex han e en an ambi iously comp ehensi e se o
indica o s can co e . This means ha indica o s can a mos highligh an issue bu no p o ide
no ma i e piece o e idence in a o o a pa icula decision. Second, indica o s documen his o y, and
he de elopmen s hey desc ibe a e dependen on a b oad a ay o ci cums ances and e en s beyond
hose ha can be con olled in any indi idual decision. The e o e hey canno be used in a simple way
o indi idual decisions a ec ing u u e de elopmen s, as his would imply ex apola ion based on
incomple e co e age o he ele an cause-e ec ela ionships. Fo ins ance, as no ed abo e, ends in
he numbe o a ms and hei income s uc u e show ha he p esen a ming is no sus ainable in an
economic sense in Finland. Howe e , i appea s ha “poli ical sus ainabili y” calls o a main enance
o subsidies as hei disman ling would cause a numbe o unexpec ed side e ec s.
Sus ainabili y 2012, 4 3402
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Jokioinen, Finland, 2002.
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