Copy igh © 2016 by he au ho (s). Published he e unde license by he Resilience Alliance.
Tol anen, A. and J. A onson 2016. Ecological es o a ion, ecosys em se ices, and land use: a Eu opean pe spec i e. Ecology and
Socie y 21(4):47. h ps://doi.o g/10.5751/ES-09048-210447
Gues Edi o ial, pa o a Special Fea u e on Ecological Res o a ion, Ecosys em Se ices, and Land Use
Ecological es o a ion, ecosys em se ices, and land use: a Eu opean
pe spec i e
Anne Tol anen 1,2 and James A onson 3,4
ABSTRACT. This special ea u e p o ides an o e iew on how he ecosys em se ice concep has been and can be inco po a ed in o
he science, p ac ice, and policies o ecological es o a ion (ER) and e idence-based land-use. I includes an edi ed selec ion o ele en
in i ed and pee - e iewed pape s based on p esen a ions gi en du ing he 9 h Eu opean Con e ence on Ecological Res o a ion in 2014.
The ocus is on Eu ope, bu many con ibu o s also make app aisals and ecommenda ions a he global scale. Based on he con ibu o s'
pape s, and ou own o e iew o he p omise o ecological es o a ion in he exis ing in e na ional ea ies, coali ions, and con en ions,
we p opose ha he ollowing ac ions could con ibu e o he posi i e impac s o ER on biodi e si y main enance, ecosys em unc ioning,
p og essi e mains eaming he concep s o bo h ER and ecosys em se ices, signi ican mi iga ion and o se ing o an h opogenic
clima e change, and las ing enhancemen o bo h ecosys em and human heal h: ! ER should be inco po a ed in o land use planning,
whe e e needed, and he syne gies and ade-o s o di e en land use scena ios should be assessed in e ms o hei impac s on
ecosys em se ices. ! The discou se o ER should be enla ged, whe e e i is needed, o include mul i unc ional land use ha
simul aneously suppo s sus ainable p oduc ion sys ems, buil en i onmen s, and he quali y and quan i y o di e se ecosys em se ices.
This app oach will gene a e ecological, social, and economic bene i s in he long un. ! Moni o ing and e alua ion o ER p ojec s
should be a con inuous p ocess in ol ing ca e ul selec ion o indica o s chosen wi h he ull ange o s akeholde s in mind, and a
su icien ly long- e m pe spec i e o ca ch he p og ess o long- e m o highly dynamic ecosys em p ocesses. ! Scien is s should ac i ely
pa icipa e in policy and land managemen discussions in o de o gi e hei iews on he po en ial ou comes o decisions. ! G ea e
coope a ion and exchanges a e needed wi hin he EU and globally in o de o accele a e he upscaling, imp o emen , and mains eaming
o bo h la ge-scale ER and he science and applica ion o he ecosys em se ices concep .
Key Wo ds: Biodi e si y; clima e change; ecological ehabili a ion; ecological es o a ion; ecosys em se ices; Eu opean Union; EU2020
s a egy; land use; policy; SER; Socie y o Ecological Res o a ion
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge o he po en ial o ecological es o a ion (ER) and
demand o scaling i up a e on he ise wo ldwide. The concep
and eme ging science o ecosys em se ices will help, because ER
helps add ess biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices objec i es
simul aneously (Bullock e al. 2011). As is well known, heal hy
ecosys ems - ha is sys ems ha a e well-o ganized, sel -
o ganizing, and unc ioning in a cohe en landscape ma ix -
con ibu e o and imp o e he heal h and well-being o people
(Millennium Ecosys em Assessmen 2003).
Wha is new oday is he awa eness ha we can - i we wo k
oge he , ac oss disciplina y, economic, and ideological di ides -
ac ually augmen enewable and cul i a ed na u al capi al
h ough ER, he eby main aining biodi e si y, and enhancing he
quali y and ange o ecosys em goods and se ices on which ou
own heal h and wellbeing depend (B auman e al. 2007, A onson
e al. 2016, and e e ences he ein).
The ecosys em se ice concep and he e o s o alue ecosys em
se ices a e a emp s o c ea e explici and binding alues ela ed
o non-mone a y as well as mone a y bene i s de i ed om hose
se ices. Despi e he conce n ha he inhe en alue o "Na u e"
may be o e looked i economic alua ion alone d i es decision-
making (Meine e al. 2006, Sch ö e e al. 2014), he ecosys em
se ices concep p o ides a common g ound o discuss and ake
policy decisions ega ding he en i onmen al oo p in , and long-
e m desi abili y and sus ainabili y, o di e se land and wa e uses
(Naeem 2002, A onson e al. 2007, TEEB 2010, Neßhö e e al.
2011, Alexande e al. 2016). In his con ex , i is c i ical o cla i y
he possible oles, limi a ions, and oppo uni ies p o ided by he
science and applica ion o bo h ER and ecosys em se ices in he
sa egua ding o biodi e si y, and he main enance o well-
unc ioning, well-in eg a ed ecosys ems in ou ini e, bounded
wo ld (CBD 2012, A onson and Alexande 2013).
The 9 h Eu opean Con e ence on Ecological Res o a ion,
o ganized by he Socie y o Ecological Res o a ion Eu ope
Chap e (SERE), was held in Oulu, Finland in Augus 2014. This
was he ime when he planning o he ul ilmen o 15%
es o a ion a ge had jus begun in mos EU coun ies. Almos
400 pa icipan s om 36 coun ies a ended, b inging expe ience
and pe spec i es om na u al and social sciences, EU policy
sphe es, land managemen , p i a e companies, consul ancy i ms,
and NGOs conce ned wi h es o a ion and conse a ion. These
delega es ga he ed oge he o discuss he in eg a ion o he
eme ging science o ecosys em se ices, he science and p ac ice
o ER, and my iad imely land use ques ions. By collec ing an
edi ed selec ion o ele en pape s p esen ed du ing he Con e ence
his special ea u e p o ides an o e iew and app aisal o how he
ecosys em se ice concep has been and can be inco po a ed in o
he science, p ac ice, and policies o ER and land-use. Ano he
special issue a ising om he same SERE2014 con e ence
add esses he concep o biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices a
mining and indus ial si es in pa icula (see P ach and Tol anen
2016).
1Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland, Oulu, 2Depa men o Ecology and Gene ics, Uni e si y o Oulu, 3Missou i Bo anical Ga den, S . Louis, M0,
USA, 4Cen e d'Ecologie Fonc ionnelle e E olu i e (UMR 5175-Campus du CNRS), Mon pellie , F ance
Ecology and Socie y 21(4): 47
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LEGISLATION AND POLICY RELATED TO
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Du ing he las decade, ER has become inc easingly p ominen
in global, na ional and egional ea ies, coali ions, and UN
con en ions. The Eu opean Commission was a pionee in hese
e o s (Eu opean Commission 2011), h ough i s Biodi e si y
S a egy 2020 p og am which includes a a ge o ' es o e' o mo e
accu a ely - o begin es o ing 15% o all deg aded ecosys ems in
he EU by 2020. The nex yea (CBD 2012), he UN Con en ion
on Biological Di e si y ook his same goal o a global scale. Then,
in 2015, s ong suppo and 'so laws' calling o la ge-scale
ecological es o a ion we e p o ided by he UNCCD (2015),
UNFCCC (2015), and he UN Gene al Assembly (UN 2015).
These con en ions emphasize he eedback be ween land
deg ada ion and an h opogenic clima e change, and asse ha
ER and sus ainable land managemen a e e ec i e and essen ial
means o educe g eenhouse gas emissions. S ill, a g ea deal
emains o be done o imp o e he ecologically heal hy
ela ionship "be ween na u e and cul u e", o bo ow om he
Mission s a emen o he Socie y o Ecological Res o a ion
(SER). The Con en ion on Comba ing Dese i ica ion
(UNCCD) has launched a p og am o achie e Land Deg ada ion
Neu ali y (Reed and S inge 2016), in which ER is one o he
key componen s. We also no e he g owing numbe o
go e nmen s c ea ing new policies and laws wi h espec o ER
and ecosys em se ices (Colombia, B azil, Sou h A ica, New
Zealand, he US, Canada, among o he s, and also he EU).
So a , he p og ess o he implemen a ion o he 15% es o a ion
a ge in he EU has been modes . All membe s a es ailed o
hono hei commi men o deli e a sound na ional es o a ion
p io i iza ion amewo k by he end o 2014 (Co ina-Sega a e
al. 2016), and ew membe s a es ha e e en s a ed o wo k ou
hei es o a ion p io i iza ion amewo k o conside al e na i e
s a egies o coun e balance ecosys em deg ada ion. The e may
be many easons o he poo implemen a ion o EU biodi e si y
s a egy hus a , such as cos s and bu dens placed on au ho i ies
and s akeholde s, he abili y o simul aneously achie e he goals
o o he EU policies (Milieu, IEEP and ICF 2016) and, in some
cases, imp ac ical ini ial es o a ion a ge s in ela ion o he le el
o deg ada ion and land use (Ko iaho 2015). Jø gensen (2015)
also poin s ou in his special ea u e ha he e is a isk ha he
ocus o policy-make s may shi om biodi e si y i sel o he
incen i e o maximize " es o ed" a eas in o de o mee na ional
commi men s o he EU goals. The eason o conce n on his
subjec is ha ER has h ee di e en oles in bo h CBD and EU
biodi e si y policy documen s, namely as an objec i e, as a a ge ,
and as a ool. As ecological es o a ion i sel has been lis ed as
an objec i e o he EU policy, mee ing ha objec i e h ough he
use o a ool deployed o each a nume ical a ge becomes an
accoun ing exe cise ins ead o some hing mo e holis ic and a -
seeing (Jø gensen 2015).
Fu he mo e, in he EU, biodi e si y o se ing is a ecen policy
app oach employed o e oked in a emp s o be e align
economic de elopmen wi h na u e p o ec ion (Shoukens and
Clique 2016). The EU Na u e di ec i es a e acing opposi ion
no only om some businesses and indus ial sec o s, bu also
om some Membe S a es ha s uggle wi h conse a ion
objec i es. In his special ea u e, Shoukens and Clique (2016)
p o ide an o e iew o compensa ion app oaches and hei
po en ial implica ions on he e ec i eness o EU Na u e
Di ec i es. They show ha ha ER canno be used as mi iga ion
in he con ex o he EU Na u e Di ec i es, unless i can be
demons a ed ha hey di ec ly mi iga e o educe he e ec s
linked o eal es a e de elopmen on he a ge ed a eas o pa ches
o habi a s. Coo dina ed and p oac i e applica ion o es o a ion,
and inco po a ion o adap i e managemen a pe mi o planning
le el, could cons i u e a p omising pa hway owa ds mo e
sus ainable p ojec de elopmen (Shoukens and Clique 2016).
EVALUATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICE DELIVERY IN
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Ca e ul e alua ion o ER is impo an in assessing he success
and cos -e iciency o es o a ion p ojec s, no only o
communica ing he in o ma ion gene a ed bu also o secu ing
u u e unding and land a eas o es o a ion p ojec s.
Ne e heless, o mal e alua ion o en lacks al oge he in
es o a ion p ojec s, o is es ic ed o a single o jus a ew pos -
es o a ion e en s (Suding 2011). Poo , sho - e m, and poo ly
documen ed e alua ion c ea es a isk ha ine icien o ine ec i e
me hods and ools will con inue o be needlessly used (Nilsson e
al. 2016). In o de o holis ically assess he impac s o he a ying
es o a ion p ocesses se in mo ion in a p ojec , e alua ion should
be a con inuous ac i i y (Allen e al. 2002) p omo ing adap i e
managemen . In his special ea u e Nilsson e al. (2016) de elop
a concep ual amewo k o e alua ing he p ocess o ER. They
iden i y h ee majo phases; planning, implemen a ion, and
moni o ing, and show ha e alua ion can occu bo h wi hin and
be ween each o hese phases. To imp o e he es o a ion p ocess,
and o ans e he knowledge and knowhow gene a ed o u u e
p ojec s and p og ams, mo e o mal, and mo e sus ained
e alua ion p ocedu es a e called o . They should also in ol e all
ele an s akeholde s, and gene a e ac i e documen a ion and
dissemina ion o he esul s, expe iences, successes, and ailu es
(Nilsson e al 2016).
A su icien ly long- e m ime ame is also needed o allow
scien i ic e alua ion o he impac o es o a ion p ojec s on
biophysical pa ame e s. Especially in egions wi h sho
ege a i e g owing seasons, ecological p ocesses may be slow o
p oceed, wi h he esul ha some o he desi ed es o a ion
ou comes may ake decades o e en cen u ies o achie e. Bu , he
p ocesses pe se a e also impo an , especially in highly dynamic
ecosys ems. In hei con ibu ion in his special issue, Boe ema e
al. (2016) show ha in highly dynamic ecosys ems a 'snapsho '
e alua ion o a es o a ion p ojec can gi e a alse es ima e o
indica ion o success.
The di e si y o es o a ion aims has aised a numbe o
concep ual and p ac ical implica ions o he way ha es o a ion
p ojec s a e moni o ed and e alua ed (Clewell and A onson 2006,
Hughes e al. 2016). Biodi e si y a ge s, which a e o en seen as
he p incipal a ge o es o a ion, may be only pa ially
co ela ed wi h ecosys em se ice a ge s and ou comes. As a
esul , me ics o moni o ing biodi e si y do no necessa ily
coincide wi h hose o moni o ing ecosys em se ices. Hughes e
al. (2016) discuss he choice o me ics o moni o ing ecosys em
se ices and he di icul ies o assessing he in e ac ions be ween
ecosys em p ocesses, biodi e si y changes, and ecosys em se ices
a ec ed by es o a ion p ojec s. They conclude ha epo ing he
achie emen s o a p ojec in e ms o biodi e si y me ics alone
Ecology and Socie y 21(4): 47
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gi es a e y di e en con ex o aluing i s achie emen s
compa ed wi h epo ing impac s on ecosys em se ice ange and
p o ision. Hence he choice o moni o ing me ics and he
incompa ibili ies o measu emen scale and sampling design o
many biodi e si y and ecosys em se ice me ics can ha e a
signi ican impac on he esul s epo ed, on who alues wha in
a gi en es o a ion p ojec , on pe cep ions o cos -e ec i eness
and, inally, on how decisions a e made based on he moni o ing
esul s (Hughes e al. 2016).
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION WITHIN MULTIPLE
LAND USE SCHEMES
Al eady a decade ago, de G oo (2006) poin ed ou ha
mul i unc ional land use is an ope a ional concep o
simul aneously plan o and gene a e ecological, social, and
economic bene i s. Al hough his iew is commonly accep ed now,
mo e e o s a e needed o insu e he in eg a ion - whe e needed
- o ER as a land use in la ge-scale land use planning.
Socioeconomic d i e s o en mo i a e he decision o s a an ER
p ojec (Hagen e al. 2013). In o de o ge suppo , es o a ion
p ojec s and la ge p og ams need o demons a e hei
impo ance and success in ela ion o o he land uses and he
ecosys em se ices hey each p o ide (Tol anen e al. 2012). They
also equi e he coo dina ion o land uses and managemen o e
a la ge a ea, usually wi h a ange o pa ne s, land owne s, and
s akeholde s (Adams e al. 2016). Fo example, Ma ila e al.
2016 show in hei con ibu ion o his special ea u e ha
expec a ions abou s eam es o a ion ou comes e eal di e en
p io i ies among se s o s akeholde s in a gi en p ojec . How well
hese expec a ions on landscape alue, ishe ies oppo uni ies,
and egula ing se ices, e c., a e o may be me , in luences
pe cep ions o success o ailu e. Adams e al. (2016) also
emphasize in his special issue ha mu ual us among
s akeholde s and ins i u ional s a egies a e needed o ensu e ha
conse a ion and ecosys em se ices gains a e no e e sed when
unding uns ou , p i a e owne s change p io i ies, o land enu e
changes occu .
As many bene i s o ER a e o non-ma ke and public, hey a e
a ely ep esen ed o de ended in con en ional decision-making
p ocesses. An essen ial s ep in he p ocess is o make he
consequences o di e en land use scena ios as explici as possible
(Declee e al. 2016). In hei analysis o his p oblem, Declee e
al. (2016) show ha he b oade bene i s o es o a ion, e.g., hose
a ising om he a oidance o educ ion o lood haza ds, and he
inc ease o ou ism and ec ea ion oppo uni ies, e c., may well
ou weigh he cos s o indi idual landowne s due o dec ease o
ood p oduc ion. These kinds o quan i a i e analyses a e
impo an in iden i ying syne gies and ade-o s among
al e na i e land use planning policies and es o a ion scena ios.
E idence-based land use policy elies on he a ailabili y o
scien i ic in o ma ion (Declee e al. 2016, Kangas e al. 2016).
Ne e heless, scien i ic in o ma ion o en equi es complica ed
analyses and high le el expe e alua ion. To ha e eal e ec ,
scien i ic in o ma ion should be inse ed - and, whe e needed,
simpli ied - o i in o decision c i e ia and/o ools, whe e
biodi e si y conse a ion h ough se -asides, and ER, a e assessed
oge he wi h o he land uses, and he ecosys em se ices hey
each deli e . In his way, op imum managemen in e en ions and
ope a ions can be a ge ed o he a eas whe e hey a e bes sui ed.
Fo example, in hei con ibu ion o his special ea u e, Kangas
e al (2016) de elop ecological c i e ia o loca e sui able a eas o
ou ism and ec ea ional in as uc u e and o assess he success
o na u e conse a ion in a s udy egion wi h concu en needs
o he de elopmen o na u e conse a ion, ou ism and
ec ea ion, and o es y. Thei me hod can be ans e ed and
applied o o he egions and land uses such as he biodi e si y
conse a ion in he ci y planning (Kangas e al. 2013) and he
de elopmen o ou ism and mining a eas (Kangas, Tol anen,
Juu inen, unpublished manusc ip ) p o ided ha he sco ing is
adap ed o local condi ions and a ailable da a se s (Kangas e al.
2016). Simila o he p oposals o Declee e al. (2016), howe e ,
his quan i a i e assessmen was made possible h ough o la ge
amoun s o high quali y da a, which may no always be possible
o simila planning app oaches elsewhe e.
Echoing Bullock e al. (2011) and o he s, Alexande e al. (2016)
a gue ha he e is a s ong inhe en ela ionship be ween ER and
he ecosys em se ices concep , wi h he la e p o iding some
guidance on how ER may be planned and implemen ed a
landscape and egional scales. Clea ly science and echnology
alone will no allow mee ing he po en ial o he demand o la ge-
scale ER. Simila ly, ju isdic ion will also no be enough o uly
mains eam and assu e longe i y o es o a ion p ojec s and
p og ams e en hough hey may be essen ial o in eg a ing hem
wi hin la ge landscape mosaics and egions (Fo d e al. 2015).
CONCLUSIONS
Since 2014, discussion o he abo e-ci ed 15% a ge has been
li ely in he EU; un o una ely li le has been achie ed in ela ion
o he key a ge (Co ina-Sega a e al. 2016). Ongoing h ea
exis s ha he EU a ge o hal he deg ada ion o biodi e si y
will be 'wa e ed down'. Scien is s should ac i ely pa icipa e in he
poli ical discou se in o de o keep ER in he agenda and gi e
hei iews on he po en ial ou comes o land use decisions.
Conce ning clima e change, i should be acknowledged ha
sus ainable land managemen , ecological ehabili a ion ( ocused
p ima ily on unc ionali y), ER, and in eg a ed land use planning,
p o ide immedia e, cos -e ec i e, and po en ially la ge-scale
mi iga ion bene i s (UNCCD 2015). Fu he mo e, land and
ecosys em deg ada ion p ocesses a e known o be bo h causes
and a consequence o an h opogenic clima e change; imp uden
ag icul u al p ac ices, de o es a ion, and ecosys em con e sion o
na u al o semi-na u al a eas o buil en i onmen s spu almos
25% o o al global g eenhouse gas emissions (IPCC 2014). The
emissions can and should be educed h ough mo e sus ainable
land use and managemen , combined wi h land ehabili a ion and
ecosys em es o a ion ac i i ies.
In closing, le us go back o ou i s sen ence in his syn hesis
pape . Knowledge o he po en ial o ecological es o a ion and
demand o scaling i up, a e on he ise wo ldwide. We' e on a
' oll' - hope ully - and we need o nu u e i . In Eu ope as elsewhe e,
he key challenge o achie ing e ec i e, long-las ing ER in all
ecosys em ypes is ha ou exponen ial use o enewable and non-
enewable na u al capi al mus be weighed agains he my iad
bene i s o p esen and u u e gene a ions o be gained om
main aining biodi e si y and 'heal hy' en i onmen s and he
es o a ion and ehabili a ion o deg aded a eas and ecosys ems.
Mul idisciplina y esea ch, e alua ion s a egies, and a -sigh ed
and mo e jus na ional policies mus come o be he ule a he
Ecology and Socie y 21(4): 47
h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/ ol21/iss4/a 47/
han excep ions in he discussion a ound ER. In pe iods o
economic and poli ical jol s and c isis, in pa icula , i is emp ing
o seek quick solu ions ha b ing sho - e m ease o he economy,
bu hese may well ha e de as a ing long- e m en i onmen al
consequences ad e sely a ec ing he well-being o u u e
gene a ions o humans and indeed all li e on Ea h.
Responses o his a icle can be ead online a :
h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/issues/ esponses.
php/9048
Acknowledgmen s:
We g a e ully acknowledge all o ganiza ions and ounda ions ha
p o ided inancial suppo o he 9 h Eu opean Con e ence on
Ecological Res o a ion and he p esen special ea u e: Na u al
Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (and he p eceding Finnish Fo es
Resea ch Ins i u e), LIFEPea LandUse p ojec (LIFE12 ENV/
FI/000150), Me sähalli us, he Minis y o he En i onmen ,
Minis y o Ag icul u e and Fo es y, Fede a ion o Finnish
Lea ned Socie ies, Maj and To Nessling Founda ion, Council o
Oulu Region, Vapo Oy, Oulun Ene gia, and he Ci y o Oulu.
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