Ecological restoration, ecosystem services, and land use: a European perspective

Copy igh © 2016 by he au ho (s). Published he e unde license by he Resilience Alliance. Tol anen, A. and J. A onson 2016. Ecological es o a ion, ecosys em se ices, and land use: a Eu opean pe spec i e. Ecology and Socie y 21(4):47. h ps://doi.o g/10.5751/ES-09048-210447 Gues Edi o ial, pa o a Special Fea u e on Ecological Res o a ion, Ecosys em Se ices, and Land Use Ecological es o a ion, ecosys em se ices, and land use: a Eu opean pe spec i e Anne Tol anen 1,2 and James A onson 3,4 ABSTRACT. This special ea u e p o ides an o e iew on how he ecosys em se ice concep has been and can be inco po a ed in o he science, p ac ice, and policies o ecological es o a ion (ER) and e idence-based land-use. I includes an edi ed selec ion o ele en in i ed and pee - e iewed pape s based on p esen a ions gi en du ing he 9 h Eu opean Con e ence on Ecological Res o a ion in 2014. The ocus is on Eu ope, bu many con ibu o s also make app aisals and ecommenda ions a he global scale. Based on he con ibu o s' pape s, and ou own o e iew o he p omise o ecological es o a ion in he exis ing in e na ional ea ies, coali ions, and con en ions, we p opose ha he ollowing ac ions could con ibu e o he posi i e impac s o ER on biodi e si y main enance, ecosys em unc ioning, p og essi e mains eaming he concep s o bo h ER and ecosys em se ices, signi ican mi iga ion and o se ing o an h opogenic clima e change, and las ing enhancemen o bo h ecosys em and human heal h: ! ER should be inco po a ed in o land use planning, whe e e needed, and he syne gies and ade-o s o di e en land use scena ios should be assessed in e ms o hei impac s on ecosys em se ices. ! The discou se o ER should be enla ged, whe e e i is needed, o include mul i unc ional land use ha simul aneously suppo s sus ainable p oduc ion sys ems, buil en i onmen s, and he quali y and quan i y o di e se ecosys em se ices. This app oach will gene a e ecological, social, and economic bene i s in he long un. ! Moni o ing and e alua ion o ER p ojec s should be a con inuous p ocess in ol ing ca e ul selec ion o indica o s chosen wi h he ull ange o s akeholde s in mind, and a su icien ly long- e m pe spec i e o ca ch he p og ess o long- e m o highly dynamic ecosys em p ocesses. ! Scien is s should ac i ely pa icipa e in policy and land managemen discussions in o de o gi e hei iews on he po en ial ou comes o decisions. ! G ea e coope a ion and exchanges a e needed wi hin he EU and globally in o de o accele a e he upscaling, imp o emen , and mains eaming o bo h la ge-scale ER and he science and applica ion o he ecosys em se ices concep . Key Wo ds: Biodi e si y; clima e change; ecological ehabili a ion; ecological es o a ion; ecosys em se ices; Eu opean Union; EU2020 s a egy; land use; policy; SER; Socie y o Ecological Res o a ion INTRODUCTION Knowledge o he po en ial o ecological es o a ion (ER) and demand o scaling i up a e on he ise wo ldwide. The concep and eme ging science o ecosys em se ices will help, because ER helps add ess biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices objec i es simul aneously (Bullock e al. 2011). As is well known, heal hy ecosys ems - ha is sys ems ha a e well-o ganized, sel - o ganizing, and unc ioning in a cohe en landscape ma ix - con ibu e o and imp o e he heal h and well-being o people (Millennium Ecosys em Assessmen 2003). Wha is new oday is he awa eness ha we can - i we wo k oge he , ac oss disciplina y, economic, and ideological di ides - ac ually augmen enewable and cul i a ed na u al capi al h ough ER, he eby main aining biodi e si y, and enhancing he quali y and ange o ecosys em goods and se ices on which ou own heal h and wellbeing depend (B auman e al. 2007, A onson e al. 2016, and e e ences he ein). The ecosys em se ice concep and he e o s o alue ecosys em se ices a e a emp s o c ea e explici and binding alues ela ed o non-mone a y as well as mone a y bene i s de i ed om hose se ices. Despi e he conce n ha he inhe en alue o "Na u e" may be o e looked i economic alua ion alone d i es decision- making (Meine e al. 2006, Sch ö e e al. 2014), he ecosys em se ices concep p o ides a common g ound o discuss and ake policy decisions ega ding he en i onmen al oo p in , and long- e m desi abili y and sus ainabili y, o di e se land and wa e uses (Naeem 2002, A onson e al. 2007, TEEB 2010, Neßhö e e al. 2011, Alexande e al. 2016). In his con ex , i is c i ical o cla i y he possible oles, limi a ions, and oppo uni ies p o ided by he science and applica ion o bo h ER and ecosys em se ices in he sa egua ding o biodi e si y, and he main enance o well- unc ioning, well-in eg a ed ecosys ems in ou ini e, bounded wo ld (CBD 2012, A onson and Alexande 2013). The 9 h Eu opean Con e ence on Ecological Res o a ion, o ganized by he Socie y o Ecological Res o a ion Eu ope Chap e (SERE), was held in Oulu, Finland in Augus 2014. This was he ime when he planning o he ul ilmen o 15% es o a ion a ge had jus begun in mos EU coun ies. Almos 400 pa icipan s om 36 coun ies a ended, b inging expe ience and pe spec i es om na u al and social sciences, EU policy sphe es, land managemen , p i a e companies, consul ancy i ms, and NGOs conce ned wi h es o a ion and conse a ion. These delega es ga he ed oge he o discuss he in eg a ion o he eme ging science o ecosys em se ices, he science and p ac ice o ER, and my iad imely land use ques ions. By collec ing an edi ed selec ion o ele en pape s p esen ed du ing he Con e ence his special ea u e p o ides an o e iew and app aisal o how he ecosys em se ice concep has been and can be inco po a ed in o he science, p ac ice, and policies o ER and land-use. Ano he special issue a ising om he same SERE2014 con e ence add esses he concep o biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices a mining and indus ial si es in pa icula (see P ach and Tol anen 2016). 1Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland, Oulu, 2Depa men o Ecology and Gene ics, Uni e si y o Oulu, 3Missou i Bo anical Ga den, S . Louis, M0, USA, 4Cen e d'Ecologie Fonc ionnelle e E olu i e (UMR 5175-Campus du CNRS), Mon pellie , F ance Ecology and Socie y 21(4): 47 h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/ ol21/iss4/a 47/ LEGISLATION AND POLICY RELATED TO ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION Du ing he las decade, ER has become inc easingly p ominen in global, na ional and egional ea ies, coali ions, and UN con en ions. The Eu opean Commission was a pionee in hese e o s (Eu opean Commission 2011), h ough i s Biodi e si y S a egy 2020 p og am which includes a a ge o ' es o e' o mo e accu a ely - o begin es o ing 15% o all deg aded ecosys ems in he EU by 2020. The nex yea (CBD 2012), he UN Con en ion on Biological Di e si y ook his same goal o a global scale. Then, in 2015, s ong suppo and 'so laws' calling o la ge-scale ecological es o a ion we e p o ided by he UNCCD (2015), UNFCCC (2015), and he UN Gene al Assembly (UN 2015). These con en ions emphasize he eedback be ween land deg ada ion and an h opogenic clima e change, and asse ha ER and sus ainable land managemen a e e ec i e and essen ial means o educe g eenhouse gas emissions. S ill, a g ea deal emains o be done o imp o e he ecologically heal hy ela ionship "be ween na u e and cul u e", o bo ow om he Mission s a emen o he Socie y o Ecological Res o a ion (SER). The Con en ion on Comba ing Dese i ica ion (UNCCD) has launched a p og am o achie e Land Deg ada ion Neu ali y (Reed and S inge 2016), in which ER is one o he key componen s. We also no e he g owing numbe o go e nmen s c ea ing new policies and laws wi h espec o ER and ecosys em se ices (Colombia, B azil, Sou h A ica, New Zealand, he US, Canada, among o he s, and also he EU). So a , he p og ess o he implemen a ion o he 15% es o a ion a ge in he EU has been modes . All membe s a es ailed o hono hei commi men o deli e a sound na ional es o a ion p io i iza ion amewo k by he end o 2014 (Co ina-Sega a e al. 2016), and ew membe s a es ha e e en s a ed o wo k ou hei es o a ion p io i iza ion amewo k o conside al e na i e s a egies o coun e balance ecosys em deg ada ion. The e may be many easons o he poo implemen a ion o EU biodi e si y s a egy hus a , such as cos s and bu dens placed on au ho i ies and s akeholde s, he abili y o simul aneously achie e he goals o o he EU policies (Milieu, IEEP and ICF 2016) and, in some cases, imp ac ical ini ial es o a ion a ge s in ela ion o he le el o deg ada ion and land use (Ko iaho 2015). Jø gensen (2015) also poin s ou in his special ea u e ha he e is a isk ha he ocus o policy-make s may shi om biodi e si y i sel o he incen i e o maximize " es o ed" a eas in o de o mee na ional commi men s o he EU goals. The eason o conce n on his subjec is ha ER has h ee di e en oles in bo h CBD and EU biodi e si y policy documen s, namely as an objec i e, as a a ge , and as a ool. As ecological es o a ion i sel has been lis ed as an objec i e o he EU policy, mee ing ha objec i e h ough he use o a ool deployed o each a nume ical a ge becomes an accoun ing exe cise ins ead o some hing mo e holis ic and a - seeing (Jø gensen 2015). Fu he mo e, in he EU, biodi e si y o se ing is a ecen policy app oach employed o e oked in a emp s o be e align economic de elopmen wi h na u e p o ec ion (Shoukens and Clique 2016). The EU Na u e di ec i es a e acing opposi ion no only om some businesses and indus ial sec o s, bu also om some Membe S a es ha s uggle wi h conse a ion objec i es. In his special ea u e, Shoukens and Clique (2016) p o ide an o e iew o compensa ion app oaches and hei po en ial implica ions on he e ec i eness o EU Na u e Di ec i es. They show ha ha ER canno be used as mi iga ion in he con ex o he EU Na u e Di ec i es, unless i can be demons a ed ha hey di ec ly mi iga e o educe he e ec s linked o eal es a e de elopmen on he a ge ed a eas o pa ches o habi a s. Coo dina ed and p oac i e applica ion o es o a ion, and inco po a ion o adap i e managemen a pe mi o planning le el, could cons i u e a p omising pa hway owa ds mo e sus ainable p ojec de elopmen (Shoukens and Clique 2016). EVALUATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICE DELIVERY IN ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION Ca e ul e alua ion o ER is impo an in assessing he success and cos -e iciency o es o a ion p ojec s, no only o communica ing he in o ma ion gene a ed bu also o secu ing u u e unding and land a eas o es o a ion p ojec s. Ne e heless, o mal e alua ion o en lacks al oge he in es o a ion p ojec s, o is es ic ed o a single o jus a ew pos - es o a ion e en s (Suding 2011). Poo , sho - e m, and poo ly documen ed e alua ion c ea es a isk ha ine icien o ine ec i e me hods and ools will con inue o be needlessly used (Nilsson e al. 2016). In o de o holis ically assess he impac s o he a ying es o a ion p ocesses se in mo ion in a p ojec , e alua ion should be a con inuous ac i i y (Allen e al. 2002) p omo ing adap i e managemen . In his special ea u e Nilsson e al. (2016) de elop a concep ual amewo k o e alua ing he p ocess o ER. They iden i y h ee majo phases; planning, implemen a ion, and moni o ing, and show ha e alua ion can occu bo h wi hin and be ween each o hese phases. To imp o e he es o a ion p ocess, and o ans e he knowledge and knowhow gene a ed o u u e p ojec s and p og ams, mo e o mal, and mo e sus ained e alua ion p ocedu es a e called o . They should also in ol e all ele an s akeholde s, and gene a e ac i e documen a ion and dissemina ion o he esul s, expe iences, successes, and ailu es (Nilsson e al 2016). A su icien ly long- e m ime ame is also needed o allow scien i ic e alua ion o he impac o es o a ion p ojec s on biophysical pa ame e s. Especially in egions wi h sho ege a i e g owing seasons, ecological p ocesses may be slow o p oceed, wi h he esul ha some o he desi ed es o a ion ou comes may ake decades o e en cen u ies o achie e. Bu , he p ocesses pe se a e also impo an , especially in highly dynamic ecosys ems. In hei con ibu ion in his special issue, Boe ema e al. (2016) show ha in highly dynamic ecosys ems a 'snapsho ' e alua ion o a es o a ion p ojec can gi e a alse es ima e o indica ion o success. The di e si y o es o a ion aims has aised a numbe o concep ual and p ac ical implica ions o he way ha es o a ion p ojec s a e moni o ed and e alua ed (Clewell and A onson 2006, Hughes e al. 2016). Biodi e si y a ge s, which a e o en seen as he p incipal a ge o es o a ion, may be only pa ially co ela ed wi h ecosys em se ice a ge s and ou comes. As a esul , me ics o moni o ing biodi e si y do no necessa ily coincide wi h hose o moni o ing ecosys em se ices. Hughes e al. (2016) discuss he choice o me ics o moni o ing ecosys em se ices and he di icul ies o assessing he in e ac ions be ween ecosys em p ocesses, biodi e si y changes, and ecosys em se ices a ec ed by es o a ion p ojec s. They conclude ha epo ing he achie emen s o a p ojec in e ms o biodi e si y me ics alone Ecology and Socie y 21(4): 47 h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/ ol21/iss4/a 47/ gi es a e y di e en con ex o aluing i s achie emen s compa ed wi h epo ing impac s on ecosys em se ice ange and p o ision. Hence he choice o moni o ing me ics and he incompa ibili ies o measu emen scale and sampling design o many biodi e si y and ecosys em se ice me ics can ha e a signi ican impac on he esul s epo ed, on who alues wha in a gi en es o a ion p ojec , on pe cep ions o cos -e ec i eness and, inally, on how decisions a e made based on he moni o ing esul s (Hughes e al. 2016). ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION WITHIN MULTIPLE LAND USE SCHEMES Al eady a decade ago, de G oo (2006) poin ed ou ha mul i unc ional land use is an ope a ional concep o simul aneously plan o and gene a e ecological, social, and economic bene i s. Al hough his iew is commonly accep ed now, mo e e o s a e needed o insu e he in eg a ion - whe e needed - o ER as a land use in la ge-scale land use planning. Socioeconomic d i e s o en mo i a e he decision o s a an ER p ojec (Hagen e al. 2013). In o de o ge suppo , es o a ion p ojec s and la ge p og ams need o demons a e hei impo ance and success in ela ion o o he land uses and he ecosys em se ices hey each p o ide (Tol anen e al. 2012). They also equi e he coo dina ion o land uses and managemen o e a la ge a ea, usually wi h a ange o pa ne s, land owne s, and s akeholde s (Adams e al. 2016). Fo example, Ma ila e al. 2016 show in hei con ibu ion o his special ea u e ha expec a ions abou s eam es o a ion ou comes e eal di e en p io i ies among se s o s akeholde s in a gi en p ojec . How well hese expec a ions on landscape alue, ishe ies oppo uni ies, and egula ing se ices, e c., a e o may be me , in luences pe cep ions o success o ailu e. Adams e al. (2016) also emphasize in his special issue ha mu ual us among s akeholde s and ins i u ional s a egies a e needed o ensu e ha conse a ion and ecosys em se ices gains a e no e e sed when unding uns ou , p i a e owne s change p io i ies, o land enu e changes occu . As many bene i s o ER a e o non-ma ke and public, hey a e a ely ep esen ed o de ended in con en ional decision-making p ocesses. An essen ial s ep in he p ocess is o make he consequences o di e en land use scena ios as explici as possible (Declee e al. 2016). In hei analysis o his p oblem, Declee e al. (2016) show ha he b oade bene i s o es o a ion, e.g., hose a ising om he a oidance o educ ion o lood haza ds, and he inc ease o ou ism and ec ea ion oppo uni ies, e c., may well ou weigh he cos s o indi idual landowne s due o dec ease o ood p oduc ion. These kinds o quan i a i e analyses a e impo an in iden i ying syne gies and ade-o s among al e na i e land use planning policies and es o a ion scena ios. E idence-based land use policy elies on he a ailabili y o scien i ic in o ma ion (Declee e al. 2016, Kangas e al. 2016). Ne e heless, scien i ic in o ma ion o en equi es complica ed analyses and high le el expe e alua ion. To ha e eal e ec , scien i ic in o ma ion should be inse ed - and, whe e needed, simpli ied - o i in o decision c i e ia and/o ools, whe e biodi e si y conse a ion h ough se -asides, and ER, a e assessed oge he wi h o he land uses, and he ecosys em se ices hey each deli e . In his way, op imum managemen in e en ions and ope a ions can be a ge ed o he a eas whe e hey a e bes sui ed. Fo example, in hei con ibu ion o his special ea u e, Kangas e al (2016) de elop ecological c i e ia o loca e sui able a eas o ou ism and ec ea ional in as uc u e and o assess he success o na u e conse a ion in a s udy egion wi h concu en needs o he de elopmen o na u e conse a ion, ou ism and ec ea ion, and o es y. Thei me hod can be ans e ed and applied o o he egions and land uses such as he biodi e si y conse a ion in he ci y planning (Kangas e al. 2013) and he de elopmen o ou ism and mining a eas (Kangas, Tol anen, Juu inen, unpublished manusc ip ) p o ided ha he sco ing is adap ed o local condi ions and a ailable da a se s (Kangas e al. 2016). Simila o he p oposals o Declee e al. (2016), howe e , his quan i a i e assessmen was made possible h ough o la ge amoun s o high quali y da a, which may no always be possible o simila planning app oaches elsewhe e. Echoing Bullock e al. (2011) and o he s, Alexande e al. (2016) a gue ha he e is a s ong inhe en ela ionship be ween ER and he ecosys em se ices concep , wi h he la e p o iding some guidance on how ER may be planned and implemen ed a landscape and egional scales. Clea ly science and echnology alone will no allow mee ing he po en ial o he demand o la ge- scale ER. Simila ly, ju isdic ion will also no be enough o uly mains eam and assu e longe i y o es o a ion p ojec s and p og ams e en hough hey may be essen ial o in eg a ing hem wi hin la ge landscape mosaics and egions (Fo d e al. 2015). CONCLUSIONS Since 2014, discussion o he abo e-ci ed 15% a ge has been li ely in he EU; un o una ely li le has been achie ed in ela ion o he key a ge (Co ina-Sega a e al. 2016). Ongoing h ea exis s ha he EU a ge o hal he deg ada ion o biodi e si y will be 'wa e ed down'. Scien is s should ac i ely pa icipa e in he poli ical discou se in o de o keep ER in he agenda and gi e hei iews on he po en ial ou comes o land use decisions. Conce ning clima e change, i should be acknowledged ha sus ainable land managemen , ecological ehabili a ion ( ocused p ima ily on unc ionali y), ER, and in eg a ed land use planning, p o ide immedia e, cos -e ec i e, and po en ially la ge-scale mi iga ion bene i s (UNCCD 2015). Fu he mo e, land and ecosys em deg ada ion p ocesses a e known o be bo h causes and a consequence o an h opogenic clima e change; imp uden ag icul u al p ac ices, de o es a ion, and ecosys em con e sion o na u al o semi-na u al a eas o buil en i onmen s spu almos 25% o o al global g eenhouse gas emissions (IPCC 2014). The emissions can and should be educed h ough mo e sus ainable land use and managemen , combined wi h land ehabili a ion and ecosys em es o a ion ac i i ies. In closing, le us go back o ou i s sen ence in his syn hesis pape . Knowledge o he po en ial o ecological es o a ion and demand o scaling i up, a e on he ise wo ldwide. We' e on a ' oll' - hope ully - and we need o nu u e i . In Eu ope as elsewhe e, he key challenge o achie ing e ec i e, long-las ing ER in all ecosys em ypes is ha ou exponen ial use o enewable and non- enewable na u al capi al mus be weighed agains he my iad bene i s o p esen and u u e gene a ions o be gained om main aining biodi e si y and 'heal hy' en i onmen s and he es o a ion and ehabili a ion o deg aded a eas and ecosys ems. Mul idisciplina y esea ch, e alua ion s a egies, and a -sigh ed and mo e jus na ional policies mus come o be he ule a he Ecology and Socie y 21(4): 47 h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/ ol21/iss4/a 47/ han excep ions in he discussion a ound ER. In pe iods o economic and poli ical jol s and c isis, in pa icula , i is emp ing o seek quick solu ions ha b ing sho - e m ease o he economy, bu hese may well ha e de as a ing long- e m en i onmen al consequences ad e sely a ec ing he well-being o u u e gene a ions o humans and indeed all li e on Ea h. Responses o his a icle can be ead online a : h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/issues/ esponses. php/9048 Acknowledgmen s: We g a e ully acknowledge all o ganiza ions and ounda ions ha p o ided inancial suppo o he 9 h Eu opean Con e ence on Ecological Res o a ion and he p esen special ea u e: Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (and he p eceding Finnish Fo es Resea ch Ins i u e), LIFEPea LandUse p ojec (LIFE12 ENV/ FI/000150), Me sähalli us, he Minis y o he En i onmen , Minis y o Ag icul u e and Fo es y, Fede a ion o Finnish Lea ned Socie ies, Maj and To Nessling Founda ion, Council o Oulu Region, Vapo Oy, Oulun Ene gia, and he Ci y o Oulu. LITERATURE CITED Adams, W. M., I. D. Hodge, N. A. Macg ego , and L. Sandb ook. 2016. C ea ing es o a ion landscapes: pa ne ships in la ge-scale conse a ion in he UK. Ecology and Socie y 21(3):1. h p://dx. doi.o g/10.5751/es-08498-210301 Alexande , S., J. A onson, O. Whaley, and D. Lamb. 2016. 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