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Heal h & Place
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Res o a i e e ec s o u ban g een en i onmen s and he ole o u ban-na u e
o ien edness and noise sensi i i y: A ield expe imen
Ann Ojala
a,⁎
, Kale i Ko pela
b
, Liisa Ty äinen
a
, Pekka Tii anen
c
, Timo Lanki
c,d
a
Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), La oka anonkaa i 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
b
Facul y o Social Sciences/Psychology, Uni e si y o Tampe e, FI-33014 Tampe e, Finland
c
Depa men o Heal h Secu i y, Na ional Ins i u e o Heal h and Wel a e, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland
d
Uni o Public Heal h and Clinical Nu i ion, Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, Kuopio, Finland
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Res o a ion
Vi ali y
U ban-na u e o ien edness
Noise sensi i i y
Blood p essu e
Field expe imen
ABSTRACT
In his expe imen we in es iga ed how indi idual di e ences in o ien a ion owa ds buil s. na u e en i on-
men as well as noise sensi i i y a ec psychological and physiological es o a ion in a cons uc ed u ban pa k,
u ban woodland and ci y cen e o Helsinki, Finland. The pa icipan s, 30–61-yea -old heal hy women (N = 83),
isi ed each s udy si e once. The expe imen consis ed o a 15-min iewing session, ollowed by a 30-min
walking session in each en i onmen . We measu ed es o a i e e ec s: pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes, i ali y,
and blood p essu e in hese h ee en i onmen s. The da a we e analysed in SAS wi h a linea mixed model. We
ound signi ican di e ences be ween en i onmen s in psychological es o a i e e ec s, bu no in blood p es-
su e. The u ban-na u e o ien edness, and o a lesse ex en noise sensi i i y, modi ied he e ec o en i onmen
on es o a ion. In conclusion, indi idual cha ac e is ics a ec psychological es o a ion p o ided by a ious
u ban en i onmen s. Va ying needs o indi iduals should be aken in o accoun in ci y planning.
1. In oduc ion
Resea ch has shown ha con ac wi h he na u al en i onmen
suppo s human heal h and wellbeing. In addi ion o he di ec e ec s
o en i onmen al quali y (e.g. ai and wa e quali y, empe a u e and
p o ision o p o ec ion agains hea ) (e.g. La o ezza e al., 2009;Maas
e al., 2009;Pugh e al., 2012;Ty äinen e al., 2005), he e is cumu-
la i e e idence o he posi i e e ec s o na u e mainly h ough s ess-
amelio a ion and es o a ion (e.g. Ha ig e al., 2014; en B ink e al.,
2016). The g een spaces ha e posi i e e ec s on mood and cogni i e
unc ioning (Bowle e al., 2010; B a man e al., 2015; Van den Be g
e al., 2003), people p e e na u e when emo ionally i ed (Ko pela
e al., 2010), and u ban g een a eas help o educe a en ional s ess
and enhance psychological eco e y (e.g. Bjö k e al., 2008;Ha ig
e al., 2003;Ty äinen e al., 2014). O he physiological heal h e ec s,
he esea ch e idence sugges s ha being in na u e has posi i e e ec s
on blood p essu e, hea a e, skin conduc i i y, muscle ension and
co isol le els (Ha ig e al., 2003; Ho iuchi e al., 2013; Laumann e al.,
2003; Pa k e al., 2010; Tsune sugu e al., 2007).
The wo main heo e ical s andpoin s behind he s udies on e-
s o a i e e ec s o di e en en i onmen s a e he a en ion es o a ion
heo y (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989) and he psychophysiological s ess
eco e y heo y (Ul ich, 1983). The i s one poses ha he es o a i e
en i onmen s allow es o a ion om di ec ed a en ion a igue and hus
imp o emen in cogni i e unc ioning. The po en ial o es o a ion
exis s i psychophysiological esou ces o coping wi h e e yday de-
mands ha e been deple ed (Ha ig, 2004; Von Linde n e al., 2017). The
second one allows eco e y om s ess h ough psycho-physiological
pa hways (e.g. imp o emen o mood and physiological ma ke s). Ac-
co ding o Kaplan (1995), a en ion and s ess a e dis inc bu in e -
ac ing componen s o es o a ion.
In addi ion o a en ion es o a ion and physiological ma ke s o
s ess, in his s udy subjec i e i ali y was conside ed as a ela ed bu
dis inc posi i e es o a i e e ec ela ed o na u e con ac s (Nix e al.,
1999; Ryan e al., 2010a, 2010b). In con as o low ene gy s a es (e.g.
elaxa ion), subjec i e i ali y e lec s high ene gy s a es (ali eness,
ene gy a ailable o sel ). The e idence shows ha na u e expe iences
ha e a unique e ec on i ali y (Ryan e al., 2010b).
The es o a ion in u ban g een spaces is sugges ed o depend on
physical cha ac e is ics, such as ype o ege a ion and size o he g een
a ea (e.g. Ty äinen e al., 2014;Van den Be g e al., 2014). The e is
e idence ha a ou i e na u al-like en i onmen s (e.g. woodlands), o
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.heal hplace.2018.11.004
Recei ed 23 Feb ua y 2018; Recei ed in e ised o m 2 No embe 2018; Accep ed 6 No embe 2018
⁎
Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (A. Ojala), [email p o ec ed] (K. Ko pela), [email p o ec ed] (L. Ty äinen), [email p o ec ed] (P. Tii anen),
[email p o ec ed] (T. Lanki).
Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
1353-8292/ © 2018 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/BY/4.0/).
Please ci e his a icle as: Ojala, A., Heal h and Place, h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.heal hplace.2018.11.004
example, a e ound o be mo e es o a i e han u ban pa ks (Ko pela
e al., 2010); he mo e edge ege a ion wi hin a o es ed pa k sc eens
he iew o he buil en i onmen , he highe he pe cei ed es o a-
i eness o he a ea (Hau u e al., 2012). Some ield expe imen s
s udying es o a i e e ec s o u ban pa ks (Beil and Hanes, 2013) o
g een and blue a eas (Gidlow e al., 2016) ha e no epo ed di e ences
in he es o a i e e ec s o na u e a eas.
The es o a i e ou comes in g een a eas migh also depend on in-
di idual di e ences. E en hough g een a eas in gene al seem o be
es o a i e, li le is known abou he di e ences o es o a i e ou comes
be ween indi iduals. The e is some e idence ha no all people pe -
cei e na u e and i s a o dances in a simila way (e.g. Faehnle e al.,
2014;Ty äinen e al., 2003) and i so, di e en u ban se ings could
in luence indi idual es o a ion di e en ly. The li e cycle, si ua ional
ac o s and wo king en i onmen in luence he choice o es o a i e
en i onmen s and he es o a i e e ec s in hese en i onmen s. Fo
example, people wi h heal h complain s, compa ed o hose wi h ewe
heal h complain s, a e mo e likely choose na u al a he han u ban
a ou i e places and in emo ional e ms bene i mo e om hei isi s o
hese places (Ko pela and Ylén, 2009). The mo i es behind isi ing
g een a eas a e ela ed o he es o a i e ou comes, he ones who isi
g een a eas o s ess educ ion expe ience es o a ion mo e han hose
who a e looking o soli ude (Pasanen e al., 2017). People whose wo k
is ela ed o na u al en i onmen s do no expe ience as much es o a-
ion in hese en i onmen s as people whose wo k is no ela ed wi h
na u e. Fo example o es p o essionals epo a lowe eeling o e-
s o a ion a e o es isi s compa ed o non- o es p o essionals (Von
Linde n e al., 2013), and child en who pe o m wo k-like ac i i ies in
ag icul u al a eas epo expe iencing ewe es o a i e expe iences
han child en who spend only hei ee ime in hese a eas (Collado
e al., 2016).
In his s udy, we hypo hesise ha indi idual cha ac e is ics, such as
u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise sensi i i y in luence es o a i e
e ec s in esponse o g een exposu es. These indi idual cha ac e is ics
a e p e iously shown o be linked pa ly o gene ic p edisposi ions (e.g.
gene al sensi i i y (Palmquis e al., 2014)) and pe sonal pas expe i-
ences (e.g. na u e o ien edness, Okokon e al., 2015)).
1.1. U ban-na u e o ien edness
The e a e concep s o desc ibing indi iduals’ subjec i e ela ion-
ship o na u e, o example connec edness o na u e (Maye and
McPhe son F an z, 2004), na u e ela edness (Nisbe e al., 2009) o
emo ional a ini y o na u e (Kals e al., 1999). These concep s e e o a
deep connec ion wi h na u e, such as he deg ee o emo ional a ilia-
ions and sense o oneness wi h he na u al wo ld and kinship wi h
animals and plan s (e.g. Maye and McPhe son F an z, 2004;Nisbe
e al., 2009).
The e is e idence ha exposu e o na u e ein o ces he na u e e-
la ionship ha is pa ially sugges ed o media e he posi i e e ec s o
na u e, o example mood imp o emen (Maye e al., 2009; Gidlow
e al., 2016). Na u e ela edness is posi i ely co ela ed wi h posi i e
a ec , i ali y, au onomy, pe sonal g ow h and pu pose in li e (Nisbe
e al., 2011).
In he u ban con ex , g een a eas a e in gene al app ecia ed in
housing en i onmen s. The alue o nea by na u e is also mani es ed by
he aised p ope y alues and i in luences loca ion and ype o housing
choices (Faehnle e al., 2011; Ty äinen and Mie inen, 2000;
Ty äinen e al., 2005). The ela i e impo ance o and expec a ions
owa ds na u e, howe e , seems o a y be ween indi iduals (e.g.
Faehnle e al., 2011;Ko pela e al., 2010;Ty äinen, e al., 2007a;
Ty äinen e al., 2007b). Linked o his discussion a concep – u ban-
na u e o ien edness – has been ound use ul. Hi onen (2000), o ex-
ample, sugges s ha ci y dwelle s could be ca ego ized in o na u e- and
u ban-o ien ed indi iduals acco ding o hei p e e ences o a ilia ions
owa ds na u al and buil en i onmen s. The u ban-na u e o ien edness
ocuses on indi iduals’ en i onmen al p e e ences in he u ban con ex
and conside s he ela i e appeal o bo h cons uc ed and na u e en-
i onmen s. Mo eo e , Ty äinen e al. (2007b) classi ied esiden s in
Finnish ci ies using a measu e de eloped o di e en ia e among e-
sponden s acco ding o he appeal ha na u al en i onmen s hold o
hem compa ed o a ac ions and se ices o u ban en i onmen s. The
g ouping esul ed in i e classes ha explained well he di e ences
linked o housing en i onmen p e e ences and he choice o housing
ype. The wo ex emes in his classi ica ion we e ue u bani es,
s ongly app ecia ing u ban en i onmen s and nea ness o se ices, and
ue na u e people, app ecia ing peace, sa e y and nea by na u e a eas.
In conclusion, exposu e o na u e seems o a ec na u e ela edness;
also people a e shown o alue en i onmen s and he oppo uni ies in
hese en i onmen s di e en ly. Howe e , he e a e no s udies o show i
he appeal owa ds na u e o buil -up en i onmen s a ec s he e-
s o a i e e ec s in di e en en i onmen s. We wan o ul il his gap
and o examine whe he he es o a i e e ec s a y in di e en g een
a eas by u ban-na u e o ien edness ype.
1.2. Noise sensi i i y
Ano he aspec ha migh be ela ed o es o a i e e ec s in di -
e en u ban en i onmen s is noise sensi i i y; a pe sonal ai ha is
pa ly gene ically de e mined (Heinonen-Guzeje e al., 2005). Noise-
sensi i e pe sons eac mo e nega i ely and s ongly o ele a ed le els
o noise, and also eac a lowe le els han he es o he popula ion
(S ans eld, 1992). Noise sensi i i y has been epo ed o be associa ed
wi h, e.g. hype ension, pulmona y edema (and isk o smoking), ca -
dio ascula mo ali y, and inc eased use o painkille s and psycho opic
medica ion (Heinonen-Guzeje e al., 2004, 2007; Shephe d e al.,
2010). This may be explained by he associa ion o pe sonal ai s such
as anxie y and he nega i e a ec wi h noise sensi i i y. On he o he
hand, noise sensi i i y p edic s annoyance caused by noise (Okokon
e al., 2015; Pauno ic e al., 2009) and annoyance may p edic e ec s
o noise on heal h e en be e han he ac ual noise le el.
The pe cei ed dis u bance o a ic is also ela ed o he pe cei ed
es o a i e quali y o esiden ial en i onmen s ha in u n is ela ed o
heal h and well-being (Von Linde n e al., 2016). In he na u e condi-
ions e en human oice can cause a dec ease in cogni i e unc ioning
(e.g. memo y) (Ben ield e al., 2010).
Na u al en i onmen s may be especially impo an o noise-sensi-
i e pe sons, who end o su e om s ess and anxie y. Visi s o na -
u al en i onmen s o e quie ness, which is a e in u ban en i onmen s
and is mos impo an o his subpopula ion. In ac , in a ecen Finnish
s udy, high o ex eme noise sensi i i y was ound o be associa ed also
wi h highe na u e o ien edness (Okokon e al., 2015). I is no known
how he cha ac e is ics o g een a eas in luence he psychophysiolo-
gical e ec s o isi s o hese places among noise-sensi i e pe sons. In
his s udy we examine whe he he es o a i e e ec s in di e en g een
en i onmen s a y by noise sensi i e and noise insensi i e people.
1.3. Hypo heses
In ou expe imen we examine how he u ban-na u e o ien edness
and sensi i i y o noise a e ela ed o es o a i e e ec s (pe cei ed e-
s o a i e ou comes, i ali y and blood p essu e) in di e en u ban
g een en i onmen s (ci y cen e – con ol en i onmen ), u ban pa k
and u ban woodland).
The speci ic hypo heses a e:
Fo people who a e mo e na u e o ien ed (and less u ban o ien ed),
he s onges es o a i e e ec s (pe cie ed es o a i e ou comes, i-
ali y and blood p essu e) ake place in an u ban woodland (in he mos
na u al-like u ban g een en i onmen ).
The p e ious s udies ha e shown ha he e a e no o small di e -
ences be ween di e en g een en i onmen s on es o a ion, he e o e
we hypo hesise ha he u ban-o ien ed people a e less a ec ed by he
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
2
ype o he en i onmen . We assume ha u ban pa k and u ban
woodland ha e equal es o a i e e ec s on u ban-o ien ed people
(pe cie ed es o a i e ou comes, i ali y and blood p essu e).
Taking in o accoun ha he ci y cen e is he noisies and u ban
woodland he mos peace ul en i onmen , we assume ha es o a i e
e ec s (pe cei ced es o a i e ou comes, i ali y and blood p essu e)
o noise-sensi i e people a e s onges in he woodland, whe eas he
ci y cen e has nega i e es o a i e e ec s. Noise-insensi i e people a e
expec ed o be less a ec ed by he ype o en i onmen compa ed o
noise-sensi i e indi iduals. We expec ha he e a e no di e ences o
es o a i e e ec s in g een a eas on noise-insensi i e people.
We a e no going o make any mo e speci ic hypo hesis, since he e
a e no p e ious s udies abou he e ec s o noise insensi i i y on e-
s o a ion in di e en g een en i onmen s.
2. Me hod
2.1. Timing and expe imen al se ings
The expe imen was ca ied ou in Helsinki, he capi al o Finland
ollowing ypical wo k days in he au umn o 2011 and 2012 om mid-
Augus un il mid-Sep embe , and in sp ing 2012 om he beginning o
May un il mid-June. In Finland, a his ime he lea es a e on ees and
he gene al appea ance o na u e en i onmen s is g een. By iming he
expe imen a e a egula wo king day, we aimed o ensu e ha he
pa icipan s we e in need o es o a ion o po en ia e es o a i e e ec s.
The empe a u e in sou he n Finland, du ing ea ly and la e summe
seasons is ela i ely wa m and mosqui os a e ela i ely inac i e. The
Resea ch E hics Commi ee o he No he n Sa o Hospi al Dis ic has
app o ed he s udy.
The pa icipan s isi ed h ee di e en en i onmen al se ings on
sepa a e days. The se ings we e: 1) he ci y cen e, ep esen ing a buil -
up en i onmen (con ol); 2) a cons uc ed u ban pa k, Alppipuis o
(20 ha), ha is one o he oldes pa ks in Helsinki; 3) an u ban wood-
land, Keskuspuis o wi h a o al size o 1000 ha, o 60–100-yea -old
mixed and coni e o es s.
Alppipuis o is es ablished in he 19 h cen u y, i has a well-designed
a ea wi h old ees, ponds wi h oun ains, pa k plan s, elemen s o
ec ea ion such as benches, and e en a small amphi hea e . The le el o
main enance o he pa k is high. The pa k is si ua ed in be ween an
amusemen pa k and ailway acks. I consis also a ocky a ea wi h
sigh seeing e ace, bu in his expe imen we used he la sou he n
a ea o Alppipuis o, he size o which is abou 5 ha.
Keskuspuis o, he u ban woodland used in his expe imen , is a
o es ed a ea wi h a o al size o 1000 ha con inuing all along om he
sou h o Helsinki o he edge o he ci y in he no h whe e he ex-
pe imen al si e was si ua ed. Keskuspuis o is he mos used ec ea ional
a ea in Helsinki a ound he yea . The pa k mainly consis s o 60–100-
yea -old mixed and coni e o es s, he a ea is ich in di e en plan and
animal species (e.g. elk, ox, black woodpecke , wood wa ble ). The
woodland has been managed o p ese ing and enhancing landscape,
ec ea ion and biodi e si y alues o decades by he ci y including
small-scale o es managemen and enewal o he olde o es s s ands
ou side p o ec ed a ea (Ci y o Helsinki, 2015).
The a ea used as a con ol si e in he ci y cen e was in he hea o
Helsinki. The iewing a ea was nex o he main s ee
(Manne heimin ie). The walking a ea wen along he big a ic- and
walking s ee s, passing museums, shopping and a ic cen e. The e
we e only ew single s ee ees in he expe imen al a ea. See Fig. 1 o
expe imen al en i onmen s and Supplemen a y ma e ial o he ou e
maps in all en i onmen s (Figs. SA–SC).
2.2. Sample
The o al sample o he whole expe imen consis ed o 95 pa ici-
pan s, bu because he e we e only ew men pa icipa ing in he
expe imen , and because blood p essu e egula ion is di e en in men
and women (Joyne e al., 2016), only he esul s om women (N = 88)
we e included in he analysis in his pape . F om hese 88 women, i e
we e no included in he analysis because hey had isi ed only one
expe imen al si e. The inal sample o his s udy consis s o 83 women,
aged 30–61 yea s old (M = 48.31; SD = 8.58), o which i e isi ed
wo expe imen al si es and all he es isi ed all h ee expe imen al
si es. F om he blood p essu e analysis, one addi ional pa icipan was
an ou lie and excluded om he analysis due o high blood p essu e
esul s. Mos o he pa icipan s came o he expe imen a e hei
wo king day. We chose pa icipan s whose place o wo k was in he
Helsinki Me opoli an A ea. The olun ee s we e ec ui ed h ough
in i a ion le e s sen o pe sonnel manage s o di e en go e nmen al
and municipal o ganiza ions, and he in i a ion le e was also pub-
lished in he mon hly bulle in o he Uni e si y o Helsinki. The in-
i a ion le e s we e also deli e ed di ec ly o households loca ed
nea by he expe imen al mee ing poin a he Na ional Ins i u e o
Heal h and Wel a e. Some pa icipan s could include hei pa icipa ion
in his expe imen in o hei wo king-hou s. The a e age amoun o
wo king hou s we e 38 pe week (SD = 13.4). The olun ee s had hei
i s pe sonal con ac wi h esea che s and hei sui abili y o his ex-
pe imen was con i med (e.g. heal h condi ion, wo king in Helsinki
Me opoli an A ea). Then, he ex ended in o ma ion package and he
i s backg ound in o ma ion ques ionnai e we e sen by pos o o-
lun ee s. The guiding shee in o med pa icipan s abou how o p epa e
o each isi (no alcohol and obacco consump ion be o e he expe i-
men , a oidance o ha d physical aining du ing he day o he ex-
pe imen , and some guidance o clo hing), how o ind he mee ing
poin , and he exac da es and imes o all h ee isi ing imes.
2.3. Expe imen al p ocedu e
The pa icipan s came o he expe imen h ee imes a e wo k a
3 p.m. and he expe imen las ed app oxima ely h ee hou s. The e was
a leas one week in be ween isi ing di e en se ings and he o de o
isi ing each s udy si e was andomized. On he i s isi , pa icipan s
also signed a w i en consen o hei olun a y pa icipa ion and e-
u ned ques ionnai es sen o hem p io o he expe imen . A e a -
i al a each o he h ee isi s, pa icipan s comple ed a sho ques-
ionnai e conce ning possible ecen acu e illnesses, medica ion use,
ca eine consump ion and ac i e physical aining. Then he pa ici-
pan s hemsel es conduc ed con ol blood p essu e measu emen s a
he mee ing o ice, and wo e he same ambula o y blood p essu e
moni o s du ing he expe imen . Pa icipan s we e di ided in o g oups
wi h a maximum o ou people. The g oup size was de e mined by he
com o able si ing space in he an. The da es we e chosen by he
pa icipan s so ha he expe imen al days would i o hei ime ables,
and he e we e no s ic es ic ions ha he pa icipan s in he g oup
could no know each-o he . The people in he g oups a ied, as he e
we e cancella ions and changes o imes. The ip o he expe imen al
si e ook 20–30 min by an, he a el ime o each si e a each day was
ixed, and small a ia ion in ime was dependen on he si ua ional
a ic condi ions. A e a i al o he expe imen al si e, he pa icipan s
ook he i s blood p essu e measu e and comple ed he i s ques-
ionnai e in he an. A e ha hey mo ed om he an o he si e and
a i s hey we e asked o si and look eely a he en i onmen . A e
he 15-min iewing session in he en i onmen , he second blood
p essu e measu emen s and ques ionnai e we e done a e si ing a he
si e. The iewing session was hen ollowed by a 30-min guided speed-
con olled slow walk in he en i onmen s guided by he expe imen e .
The ou es we e p ede ined and we e all app oxima ely 2-km long. The
hi d blood p essu e measu emen s and ques ionnai e we e done in he
an a e walking. The blood p essu e was measu ed a e si ing
quie ly in he an o h ee minu es. Du ing he expe imen , he e-
sea che ca ied da a logge s o ai empe a u e (and humidi y). See
Figs. 2–4 o iewing and walking sessions in di e en en i onmen s.
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
3
The wea he a ied mos ly om sunny o cloudy and a li le ain on
eigh days o he expe imen . A e age empe a u es a ied be ween
23.1, 22.1, and 22.0 °C du ing he 2011 au umn, 2012 sp ing, and 2012
au umn expe imen al pe iods, espec i ely. En i onmen al noise le els
we e measu ed wi h class II La son Da is Spa k 706 noise dosime e s
(PCB Piezo onics Inc., Depew, New Yo k, USA) wi h La son Da is
MPR001 in eg a ed mic ophone/p eampli ie s. The noise le el in ci y
cen e was 67.6 dBA (SD 2.6), in u ban pa k 63.5 dBA (SD 1.8) and in
u ban woodland 58.8 dBA (SD 1.5), and he noise le els in all en-
i onmen s we e signi ican ly di e en .
2.4. Ma e ials o his s udy
2.4.1. Backg ound a iables
In addi ion o basic in o ma ion (age, amily si ua ion, cu en li ing
en i onmen , e c.) he pa icipan s we e asked in o ma ion abou hei
gene al heal h, isi s o g een a eas, and wo k s ess by ques ionnai e
sen o hei homes be o e coming o he expe imen . Pe cei ed gene al
heal h s a us was measu ed wi h a widely used single i em ‘How is you
heal h in gene al a he momen ?’ using a i e-poin a ing scale anging
om 1 (poo ), 2 (qui e poo ), 3 (nei he poo no good), 4 (qui e good)
o 5 (excellen ) (Singh-Manoux e al., 2006). Physical heal h s a us was
Fig. 1. Expe imen al en i onmen s and mee ing poin s (con ains da a om he Na ional Land Su ey o Finland Backg ound map se ies, accessed 06/2018). h ps://
ka a.paikka ie oikkuna. i/published/en/8 aad511-b528-4217-92 -6b6c75c 9e77.
Fig. 2. Viewing session in Helsinki ci y cen e. Fig. 3. Walking session in Alppipuis o (u ban pa k).
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
4
measu ed wi h he ques ion ‘How is you physical heal h a he momen
om 1 ( e y bad), 2 ( a he bad), 3 (sa is ac o y), 4 ( a he good) o 5
( e y good)?’. Fo ge ing backg ound in o ma ion abou he ou doo
ec ea ion habi s and isi s o g een a eas he ollowing ques ions we e
posed: ‘How o en do you isi na u al o g een places in Helsinki
Me opoli an a ea du ing summe /wa m season (May o Sep .) and
win e /cold season (Oc .– Ap il) (e e y day, 4–6 imes pe week, 2–3
imes pe week, once a week, 1–3 imes pe mon h, less o en)?’. The
gene al wo k s ess was measu ed by one ques ion ‘How s ess ul/
men ally i ing is you job o s udies by you e alua ion on a e age?’
ollowed by i e-poin Like scale (no a all, somewha , a he
s ess ul, e y s ess ul, ex emely s ess ul). The le el o wo k s ess
was addi ionally measu ed by one ques ion on he expe imen al day:
‘How s ess ul o i ing was you wo king-day?’ (I was no wo king
oday, no a all, somewha , a he s ess ul, e y s ess ul, ex emely
s ess ul).
2.4.2. Dependen a iables
Fo measu ing es o a i e e ec s we used wo sel - epo ed scales
and blood p essu e measu es.
2.4.2.1. Psychological measu es. We used he Res o a ion Ou come
Scale (ROS) (Ko pela e al., 2008; c . Ha ig e al., 1998;S aa s e al.,
2003) o measu e pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes, and Subjec i e
Vi ali y Scale (SVS) (Ryan and F ede ick, 1997) o measu e
pe cep ions o i ali y in en i onmen al se ings. The pa icipan s
answe ed he ques ion: ‘To wha ex en do he ollowing s a emen s
co espond o you cu en emo ional s a e?’ The ROS scale has six
i ems, o which h ee e lec elaxa ion and calmness (e.g. ‘I eel
es o ed and elaxed’), one e lec s a en ion es o a ion (‘I eel
ocused and ale ’), and wo e lec clea ing one's hough s (e.g. ‘I can
o ge e e yday wo ies’). Fou i ems ou o six o iginal i ems (Bos ic
e al., 2000) we e used o measu e sel - epo ed pe cep ions o ha ing
ene gy and eelings o being ali e (e.g. ‘I eel ali e and i al’) om he
Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS). In Finland, due o he synonymous
na u e o he scale i ems and he wo ds a ailable in he Finnish
language we used only ou i ems in ou ques ionnai e. The
Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale has shown bo h high eliabili y and
co a ia ion wi h soma ic and psychological ac o s (Bos ic e al.,
2000; Ryan and F ede ick, 1997). The pa icipan s esponded wi h a
se en-poin Like scale anging om no a all o comple ely.
2.4.2.2. Physiological measu es. We measu ed sys olic and dias olic
blood p essu e wi h an oscillome ic blood p essu e moni o (Model
90207, Spacelabs Heal hca e, Snoqualmie, WA, USA). Be o e lea ing o
an expe imen al si e, a cu was w apped a ound he le a m o he
pa icipan . An ai hose connec ed he cu o he blood p essu e
moni o , which was ca ied in a case a ached o a bel (o bel s ap)
and shoulde s ap.
Blood p essu e was measu ed in a si ing posi ion om he le a m
es ing on a pe son's lap. Be o e a eading was aken, s udy pa icipan s
sa s ill o a leas h ee minu es. A a esea che 's eques he pa i-
cipan pushed a bu on s a ing he measu emen . A second measu e-
men was aken 60 s a e he i s measu emen was inished. In he
analyses, he a e age o he wo measu emen s was used.
2.4.3. G ouping a iables
We used an u ban-na u e o ien edness scale o measu e he a ac-
i eness owa ds na u e o a ci y en i onmen p e iously de eloped
and used in Finnish s udies (e.g. Ty äinen e al., 2007b). The u ban-
o ien edness subscale in his s udy included ou i ems (e.g., ‘I enjoy
hanging a ound in he ci y’, ‘I app ecia e e y much he a eas wi h
ca e e ias, shops, es au an s, museums, and hea es’) and he na u e-
o ien edness included i e i ems (e.g., ‘some imes I eel compelled o
isi na u e’, ‘u ban g een a eas a e no su icien o sa is y my need o
na u e’), using a i e-poin a ing scale anging om 1 (comple ely
disag ee), 2 (somewha disag ee), 3 (nei he disag ee no ag ee), 4
(somewha ag ee) o 5 (comple ely ag ee). The g oups based on he
u ban-o ien edness subscale we e used in his s udy (see he eason in
he Sec ion 3.1).
Weins ein's (1978) noise sensi i i y scale is he mos widely used
me hod o assess noise sensi i i y. Noise sensi i i y was measu ed by
ou i ems exce p ed om he 21-i em scale ollowed by se en-poin
Like scale om no a all o comple ely (‘I ge i i a ed when my
neighbou s make noise’, ‘I am good a concen a ing no ma e wha
happens a ound me’, ‘I is di icul o me o elax in a noisy place’, and
‘I am sensi i e o noise’). The basis o he selec ion o he i ems is hei
ela i e con ex independence. In addi ion, he las i em is signi ican
because sel -es ima ed sensi i i y has been epo ed o co ela e well
wi h he esul s om he ull Weins ein scale in he adul Finnish po-
pula ion (Heinonen-Guzeje e al., 2004).
Tempe a u e was measu ed con inuously wi h Esco iLog EI-HS-D-
32-L da a logge s (C yopak, Quebec, Canada). Resea che s assessed he
wea he be o e each iewing and walking pe iod, and a e he walking
pe iod. Ca ego ies used o eco d he wea he we e: sunny, pa ly
cloudy, cloudy, d izzle. The expe imen was cancelled i he e was
hea y ain. Du ing he whole expe imen al pe iod only once was he
expe imen pos poned because o his.
2.4.4. S a is ical analysis
We conduc ed linea mixed model analysis wi h he epea ed model
op ion o calcula e he e ec s o in e en ion in h ee di e en u ban
en i onmen s. In he analysis we used a wi hin-subjec ac o (a ea
ype) wi h h ee le els (Helsinki ci y cen e (Ci y), Alppipuis o (Pa k)
and Keskuspuis o (Fo es )) and h ee measu emen poin s (a he s a
(T1), in he middle (T2) and a he end o he expe imen (T3)) o he
psychological and physiological ou come a iables. These ou come
a iables we e he Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS), Subjec i e
Vi ali y Scale (SVS) and, sys olic and dias olic blood p essu e. We used
he model ype CS (Compound-Symme y) which speci ies he com-
pound-symme y s uc u e wi h cons an a iance and cons an co a -
iance. Pa icipan s ac as hei own con ols when he e ec s o di -
e en a eas a e compa ed.
We calcula ed sepa a e models o each g oup based on ou come
a iables. In he models, he e e ence poin was Ci y a Time 1. All
models we e con olled o mean Tempe a u e (con inuous a iable)
and Wea he (ca ego ical a iable) because uncom o able wea he
condi ions migh a ec es o a ion and elaxa ion, and ai empe a u e
is also di ec ly ela ed o blood p essu e. Fo he analysis we used IBM
SPSS S a is ics 20 and SAS 9.3 packages.
Fig. 4. Comple ing ques ionnai es in Keskuspuis o (u ban woodland).
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
5

3. Resul s
3.1. Backg ound in o ma ion, scale s a is ics and g ouping a iables
Mos o he olun ee s in he expe imen e alua ed hemsel es as
gene ally (M= 4.2, SD = 0.7) and physically heal hy (M= 4.7, SD =
0.7). They li ed in he Helsinki Me opoli an A ea (excep i e pa i-
cipan s). Mos pa icipan s we e ac i e use s o u ban g een a eas and
isi ed g een a eas a leas 2–3 imes pe week (82% du ing summe -
ime and 59% win e ime) o a leas once a week (9.6% summe ime
and 21.7% win e ime). The e we e only a ew pa icipan s who isi ed
na u e a eas 1–3 imes a mon h o less du ing summe ime (8.4%) and a
li le mo e in win e ime (18.6%). The gene al wo k s ess in ou
sample was no e y high (M= 2.4, SD = 0.8). We also asked abou
wo k s ess on he day o he expe imen . Howe e , he e we e a he
many missing alues in he ques ionnai e conce ning wo k s ess on he
day o he expe imen : o he esponden s 21–22% on di e en ex-
pe imen al days did no answe o ha ques ion a all and in addi ion,
7–8% o pa icipan s we e no wo king on di e en expe imen al days.
The e o e, we excluded wo k s ess om ou inal s a is ical model.
Be o e isi ing any o he h ee en i onmen s, 21.7% o pa icipan s
e alua ed hei wo k s ess as ‘ a he ’ o ‘ e y s ess ul’ in he Ci y, 18%
in he Pa k, and 15.6% in he Fo es . Among hose pa icipan s who
we e wo king on ha day, he e was no signi ican di e ence in wo k
s ess le el be ween Ci y, Pa k and Fo es en i onmen s a he s a o
he expe imen in a gi en en i onmen (χ
2
(6) = 6.01, p> .05).
The scale s a is ic o he Res o a ion Ou come Scale and Subjec i e
Vi ali y Scale was good h oughou he expe imen (see Table 1).
The dis ibu ions o na u e-o ien edness and u ban-o ien edness
subscales we e compa ed o a ep esen a i e sample o he wo bigges
Finnish ci ies (Helsinki and Tampe e) (Ty äinen e al., 2007b) o check
whe he olun ee s in ou s udy we e biased owa ds na u e o ien ed-
ness. In he s udy by Ty äinen e al. (2007b), he pa icipan s we e
di ided in o di e en subg oups based on a sco e in na u e-o ien edness
subscale and u ban-o ien edness subscale as high, medium o small. In
he cu en s udy, he di e ence be ween hese subg oup-speci ic p o-
po ions was es ed by applying wo independen p opo ions es as-
suming no mal app oxima ion. A signi ican di e ence in p opo ions
in ‘o dina y na u e people’ (z= 17.1, p< .01), and ‘o he ’ g oups
(z= 7.3, p< .01) was ound in ou sample. I is possible o conclude
ha he e we e mo e people o ien ed o na u e in ou sample han in
he p e ious u ban popula ion Helsinki–Tampe e sample. Conse-
quen ly, we chose he u ban-o ien edness subscale o ou g ouping
a iable o p o ide enough indi idual a ia ion.
Fo u ban-o ien edness and noise sensi i i y, he scale s a is ics and
mean sum sco es we e calcula ed be o e di iding esponden s in o se-
pa a e g oups. Fo u ban-o ien edness he scale s a is ics we e
C onbach α = 0.76, M= 3.21, Mdn = 3.24, SD= 0.89 and o noise
sensi i i y C onbach α = 0.75, M= 4.2, Mdn = 4.25, SD= 1.08. The
co ela ion be ween a iables was 0.04 (p= 0.74). The esponden s
we e di ided in o u ban-o ien edness and noise sensi i i y g oups based
on he median.
Fi s ly, he pa icipan s we e di ided by hei high o low u ban
o ien edness. In he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup we e 41 pa icipan s and
in he high-u ban-o ien ed g oup 42 pa icipan s. Howe e , he g oups
di ided by hei u ban-o ien edness dimension di e en ia ed also sig-
ni ican ly by hei na u e-o ien edness dimension ( (80) = 4.9,
p< .00); whe e in he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup he na u e-o ien ed-
ness mean sco e was 4.1 (SD = 0.53) and in high-u ban-o ien ed g oup
i was 3.4 (SD = 0.67).
Secondly, he pa icipan s we e di ided in o wo g oups by hei
high o low noise sensi i i y. The noise-sensi i e g oup included 47
pa icipan s and in he noise-insensi i e g oup he e we e 36 pa ici-
pan s.
3.2. Res o a i e e ec s, u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise sensi i i y
All models, based on he linea mixed model analysis, we e sig-
ni ican acco ding o model i indexes, and he χ
2
o all models was
signi ican a p< .01 le el. The desc ip i e s a is ics and goodness o
i indexes a e p esen ed in Supplemen a y ma e ials (see Tables
SA–SB). The s a is ical signi icance o he main e ec s and in e ac ions
o he models a e p esen ed in Table 2. In a majo i y o psychological
measu es models, he in e ac ion o En i onmen and Time was sig-
ni ican . None o he in e ac ions we e signi ican on blood p essu e
measu es.
3.2.1. Resul s by g oups and sel - epo ed measu es (ROS, SVS)
3.2.1.1. U ban-o ien edness. In he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he e was
a signi ican in e ac ion e ec o En i onmen and Time on a ings o
he es o a i e ou comes (ROS) and subjec i e i ali y (SVS) sco es (see
Table 2). In his g oup, Fo es and Pa k had signi ican ly mo e posi i e
e ec on pe cei ed es o a ion and eelings o i ali y al eady a e
15 min si ing compa ed o he Ci y. A he end o he expe imen ,
Fo es was signi ican ly mo e es o a i e and i alizing han Pa k (see
Figs. 5 and 6, and Table C (supplemen al). In addi ion, he ROS and SVS
sco es dec eased signi ican ly in Ci y du ing he expe imen . Fo he
ROS, he dec ease was signi ican al eady a e 15 min si ing (Time 2
s. Time 1 (154) = −2.54, p< .05; Time 3 s. Time 2
(154) = − 2.57, p< .05). Fo he SVS he dec ease was signi ican
a he end o he expe imen (Time 3 s. Time 2 ( (154)= − 3.08,
p< .01, and Time 3 s. Time 1 ( (154) = − 3.507, p< .01)). The
addi ional in e ac ion e ec s o Time a e p esen ed in Table SE
(supplemen al).
In he high-u ban-o ien ed g oup, only main e ec s we e sig-
ni ican . The signi ican main e ec o En i onmen on a ings o he
es o a i e ou comes (ROS) showed ha Fo es and Pa k we e expe i-
enced as mo e es o a i e compa ed o Ci y. The e ec o Time showed
ha he e we e mo e pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes in he middle and
in he end o he expe imen compa ed o he s a . The i ali y sco es
Table 1
Scale s a is ics o Res o a ion Ou come Scale and Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale in h ee places du ing he expe imen .
Place Ci y Pa k Fo es
Scale s a is ics
Measu es Mean SD C on α Mean SD C on α Mean SD C on α
A he beginning
ROS 4.63 0.93 0.89 4.71 0.84 0.89 4.71 0.88 0.90
SVS 4.68 1.09 0.87 4.71 0.86 0.81 4.74 1.01 0.86
A e iewing
ROS 4.45 0.99 0.87 5.16 0.84 0.88 5.14 0.98 0.61
SVS 4.70 0.94 0.86 4.96 0.83 0.79 4.86 0.97 0.88
A e walking
ROS 4.29 1.03 0.88 5.10 0.93 0.91 5.24 0.85 0.89
SVS 4.48 1.01 0.83 5.06 0.86 0.82 5.12 0.88 0.88
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
6
(SVS) we e signi ican ly highe a he end o he expe imen compa ed
o he s a and in he middle o he expe imen (see Fig. 6 and Table SC
(supplemen al)).
3.2.1.2. Noise sensi i i y. In he noise-sensi i e and noise-insensi i e
g oups, he in e ac ion be ween En i onmen and Time had signi ican
e ec s on es o a i e ou comes (ROS) and subjec i e i ali y (SVS)
sco es (see Table 2). A e si ing, Fo es and Pa k compa ed o Ci y
we e pe cei ed as signi ican ly mo e es o a i e (ROS) in bo h g oups,
bu he subjec i e i ali y sco e (SVS) a Time 2 was highe only in
noise-sensi i e g oup. In bo h g oups, es o a i e ou comes and
subjec i e i ali y sco es we e highe in Fo es and Pa k compa ed o
Ci y a he end o he expe imen (see Figs. 7 and 8, and Table SD,
supplemen al).
In addi ion, he pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes (ROS) in Ci y
dec eased signi ican ly du ing he expe imen (Time 3 s. Time 2
(176) = − 2.21, p< .05; Time 3 s. Time 1 (176) = − 3.21,
p< .01) among noise-sensi i e g oup. Also, pe cei ed es o a i e
ou comes in Fo es we e highe in his g oup al eady in he middle o
he expe imen (Time 2 s. Time 1 (176) = 3.56, p< .01), while he e
was no such di e ence among he noise-insensi i e g oup. Howe e , in
he noise-insensi i e g oup, Pa k a Time 2 was expe ienced as mo e
es o a i e han pa k a Time 1 (134) = 2.23, p< .05 (see Table SE,
Supplemen al).
3.2.2. Resul s by g oups and blood-p essu e
The expe imen al e ec s on blood p essu e, ou ma ke o phy-
siological es o a ion, we e no as s aigh o wa d as he esul s om
he psychological measu es. None o he in e ac ions be ween en-
i onmen s and expe imen al ime we e signi ican in he cu en s udy
Table 2
Main e ec s and in e ac ions o all models (deg ees o eedom, F- es and le el o signi icance).
G oup Low-u ban-o ien ed High-u ban-o ien ed Noise-sensi i e Noise-insensi i e
Measu e d F d F d F d F
ROS
En i onmen (2, 77) 40.23
**
(2, 78) 10.23
**
(2, 88) 30.33
**
(2, 67) 12.94
**
Time (2, 80) 1.78 (2, 82) 7.51
**
(2, 92) 6.63
**
(2, 70) 1.16
En
*
Time (4, 154) 11.02
**
(4, 156) 1.96 (4, 176) 7.18
**
(2, 134) 2.57
*
Wea he (3, 37) 2.18 (3, 41) 2.24 (3, 48) 4.10
*
(3, 30) 0.43
Temp. (1, 307) 7.43
**
(1, 312) 0.40 (1, 358) 3.99
*
(1, 267) 0.06
SVS
En (2, 77) 21.97
**
(2, 78) 1.85 (2, 88) 15.95
**
(2, 67) 2.18
Time (2, 80) 2.22 (2, 82) 5.29
**
(2, 92) 3.78
*
(2, 70) 1.48
En
*
Time (4, 154) 5.66
**
(4, 156) 1.43 (4, 176) 3.62
**
(4, 134) 2.54
*
Wea he (3, 37) 1.87 (3, 41) 1.99 (3, 48) 2.86
*
(3, 30) 0.89
Temp. (1, 307) 1.06 (1, 312) 2.27 (1, 352) 0.05 (1, 267) 0.70
SYS
En (2, 76) 8.80
**
(2, 76) 2.61 (2, 88) 1.86 (2, 64) 1.69
Time (2, 80) 6.74
**
(2, 80) 2.30 (2, 92) 5.46
**
(2, 68) 2.22
En
*
Time (4, 144) 1.49 (4, 143) 1.00 (4, 169) 1.37 (4, 118) 0.81
Wea he (3, 37) 1.86 (3, 40) 1.62 (3, 48) 2.55 (3, 29) 3.49
*
Temp. (1, 296) 3.52 (1, 295) 4.61
*
(1, 345) 1.39 (1, 246) 4.79
*
DIA
En (2, 76) 2.90 (2, 76) 6.96
**
(2, 88) 2.20 (2, 64) 4.24
*
Time (2, 80) 0.89 (2, 80) 3.95
*
(2, 92) 0.75 (2, 68) 5.46
**
En
*
Time (4, 144) 0.70 (4, 143) 0.73 (4, 169) 1.22 (4, 118) 0.41
Wea he (3, 37) 1.20 (3, 40) 2.99
*
(3, 48) 1.81 (3, 29) 10.9
**
Temp. (1, 296) 6.19
*
(1, 295) 7.17
**
(1, 345) 3.69 (1, 246) 5.68
*
*p< .05.
** p< .01.
Fig. 5. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes measu ed by Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS) by low- and high-u ban-
o ien ed g oups.
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
7
(see Table 2), and blood p essu e was no he lowes a e en e ing he
g een a eas as expec ed. In con as , he blood p essu e was highes in
he middle o he expe imen , a e si ing and iewing he en i on-
men s. As he blood p essu e esul s we e no consis en , o sa ing
space, he ull ma e ial abou blood-p essu e esul s by g oups a e
p esen ed in Supplemen a y ma e ial F.
4. Discussion and conclusions
In his s udy, we examined he e ec o u ban-na u e o ien edness
and noise sensi i i y on es o a i e e ec s (pe cei ed es o a i e ou -
comes, i ali y, and blood p essu e) in di e en u ban en i onmen s:
ci y cen e (con ol), u ban pa k and u ban woodland. We assumed ha
pa icipan s di e ing in hei u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise
sensi i i y di e in he s eng h o es o a i e e ec s in di e en en-
i onmen s. The p e ious expe imen al s udies ha e indica ed only a
small o no di e ence be ween di e en g een a eas on people's well-
being, such as pe cei ed es o a i eness, cogni i e unc ioning, o
mood change (e.g. Van den Be g e al., 2014;Gidlow e al., 2016). In a
s udy whe e he ended o es was ound o be mo e es o a i e han
wild o es (Ma ens e al., 2011), he indi idual di e ences we e no
measu ed.
As in se e al p e ious s udies, we ound ha sho - e m isi s o
u ban na u e a eas ha e posi i e, empo ally p og essi e e ec s on
psychological well-being (e.g. Tsune sugu e al., 2013;Van den Be g
e al., 2014) and as hypo hesized, he e we e some speci ic di e ences
be ween g oups. The esul s om blood p essu e measu es we e no
ha consis en .
Acco ding o he backg ound measu es, he s udy olun ee s (all
women) we e ela i ely ac i e use s o g een a eas. The e we e also
mo e na u e-o ien ed people in ou sample, han in he ep esen a i e
sample o Helsinki-Tampe e s udy (Ty äinen e al., 2007b). We cal-
cula ed low-u ban-o ien ed and high-u ban-o ien ed g oups acco ding
o he median in o iginal u ban-o ien edness dimension. Howe e , in
ou expe imen he high-u ban-o ien endess should be unde s ood as a
ela i e measu e wi hin he s udy g oup.
O all g oups ( he sample di ided i s ly by low-/high-/u ban-o -
ien edness and hen by noise in/sensi i i y), he low-u ban-o ien ed
g oup was he mos sensi i e o he ype o he en i onmen o e ime
and explained di e ences be ween g oups e en be e han he noise
sensi i i y. As hypo hesized, he highes es o a i e e ec s o psycho-
logical measu es (pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes (clea ing one's
hough s, ge ing es o ed and elaxed), and i ali y) in he low-u ban-
o ien ed g oup we e ound in u ban woodland a he end o he ex-
pe imen . In he case o noise sensi i i y, he e was no signi ican di -
e ence be ween u ban pa k and u ban woodland. Being in he ci y
cen e lowe ed pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes in he low-u ban-o -
ien ed and noise-sensi i e g oups, bu eelings o i ali y lowe ed only
in he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup.
The high-u ban-o ien ed and noise-insensi i e people we e less
Fig. 6. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o eelings o i ali y measu ed by Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) by low- and high-u ban-o ien ed g oups.
Fig. 7. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes measu ed by Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS) by noise-sensi i e and noise-
insensi i e g oups.
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
8
sensi i e o di e en ypes o en i onmen s in e ms o empo al
changes in hei esponses, and he e was no di e ence be ween g een
a eas. Howe e , somewha s onge posi i e psychological e ec s we e
e iden in na u e a eas compa ed o he ci y cen e e en among hese
g oups.
The esul s show ha pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes measu ed by
Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS) and subjec i e i ali y measu ed by
Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) a e di e en al hough complemen a y
phenomena as sugges ed by Ryan e al. (2010b). Howe e , he di e -
ences we e a he sub le. Wi hin he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he ci y
cen e diminished eelings o i ali y only a he end o he expe imen ,
and no al eady a e iewing as wi h he pe cei ed es o a i e ou -
comes. In high-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he g een en i onmen s aised
eelings o es o a ion, bu only ime was signi ican ac o o he aise
o i ali y. Wi hin low-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he esul s con o m wi h
hose by Ryan e al. (2010b) ha showed he p esence o na u e and
na u e elemen s media ing he e ec o ou doo s on i ali y.
An addi ional in e es ing physiological e ec appea ed. We had
hypo hesized ha u ban pa k and u ban woodland migh be equally
es o a i e en i onmen s o high-u ban-o ien ed people. Based on he
esul s, blood p essu e was he lowes in he u ban pa k (and no in he
woodland) among his g oup and also in noise-insensi i e g oup.
Howe e , he e ec s seemed o ha e s a ed al eady be o e he ex-
pe imen .
Fu he mo e, he expe imen al e ec s on blood p essu e, ou
ma ke o physiological es o a ion, we e no as s aigh o wa d as he
esul s om he psychological measu es. This is in line wi h p e ious
s udies which ha e epo ed con as ing esul s on blood p essu e
(Ha ig e al., 2003; Lee e al., 2014; Pa k e al., 2009; Tsune sugu e al.,
2007). None o he in e ac ions be ween en i onmen s and expe i-
men al ime we e signi ican in he cu en s udy, and blood p essu e
was no he lowes a e en e ing he g een a eas as expec ed. In con-
clusion, he hypo hesis ha g een a eas dec ease blood p essu e and
u ban woodland e en mo e in low-u ban-o ien ed and noise-sensi i e
g oups was no con i med.
The expe imen consis ed o wo pa s – si ing and walking. The
pa icipan s had been si ing quie ly in he an o almos hal an hou
be o e a i ing a he si e and had aken blood p essu e measu emen s
in he an be o e en e ing o he ac ual en i onmen . The highe blood
p essu e measu es a e si ing and iewing he se ing could be due o
he obse ed new en i onmen , en i onmen al s imuli (mosqui os, ex-
posu e o wind and sun), o he people passing by, as well as sudden
ac i i y ( aking he commands and p essing he moni o bu on) ha all
migh ha e an e ec on blood p essu e measu es. The walking ac i i y
a e si ing (physical ac i i y) migh also explain why he e is no di -
e ence be ween he s a and he end o he expe imen on blood
p essu e in di e en en i onmen s since he ac i i ies aise blood
p essu e and can mask he e ec s o en i onmen s. In addi ion, he
pa icipan s knew which o he h ee en i onmen s hey we e going o
isi , and i seems ha he e was an an icipa ion e ec – he e we e
subs an ial di e ences be ween en i onmen s in blood p essu e mea-
su es in he beginning o he isi s ( he lowes blood p essu e in he
woodland among he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup and in he pa k among
he high-u ban-o ien ed and noise-insensi i e g oup). Al hough he e is
some e idence showing ha people unde es ima e he s eng h o po-
si i e a ec be o e hei na u e walks, such esul s depend on he
sample and he u ban en i onmen s used o compa ison (Nisbe and
Zelenski, 2011); woodland and pa k walks ha e high posi i e ex-
pec ancy alue in he Finnish cul u e.
I would be impo an o s udy u he and o elabo a e mo e upon
he e ec s o he exposu e o en i onmen al noise and pollu ion o-
ge he wi h he e ec s o en i onmen al p e e ences on es o a ion in
u ban g een a eas. I is hypo hesized ha physiological changes asso-
cia ed wi h isi s o na u e may pa ly be due o educed exposu e o ai
pollu ion and noise. I is known ha he ca dio ascula sys em eac s
apidly o en i onmen al exposu es (Lanki e al., 2007; Tassi e al.,
2010). The physiological s ess eac ions o noise a e pa ly un-
conscious and a e mani es ed by highe blood p essu e, co isol, and
hea a e a iabili y (Huang e al., 2013; Selande e al., 2009; Van
Kempen and Babisch, 2012). The possible e ec s o en i onmen al
p e e ences on human physiology a e less known.
The e a e some limi a ions in ou s udy. Fi s , he inclusion o only
women limi s he gene alizabili y o ou esul s. As women seem o
olun ee mo e eadily, in he u u e, special e o s should be made o
ec ui men. Second, we do no know he deg ee o pe manence o he
e ec s o isi s o di e en u ban a eas. Ou s udy did no include a
ollow-up and we we e no able o ollow he olun ee s a e he ex-
pe imen . Thi d, mos o ou pa icipan s we e ac i e use s o na u e. I
is di icul o know how his a ec s he esul s o he expe imen .
Fou h, ou olun ee s had o lea e wo k a ew hou s ea lie han on a
no mal wo king day because o he iming o he expe imen . We had o
s a ela i ely ea ly due o aking in o accoun he changes in dayligh
du ing he expe imen al pe iod. This could mean ha hese pa ici-
pan s, who we e e y busy, and possibly high in occupa ional s ess did
no ake pa in he expe imen . S ill, his would mean ha he e-
s o a i e ou comes could be e en highe o hose people who su e
mo e om esou ce deple ion (such as a en ion es o a ion, eelings o
s ess). Fi h, he expe imen al se ing is no e y na u al (exac iming
o si ing and walking, he same si ing posi ion, walking a a gi en
speed on a gi en cou se) and p obably in luences he esul s (e.g. blood
p essu e ha is he mos sensi i e measu e). Six h, be o e he i s and
second se o blood-p essu e measu emen s he pa icipan s had been
Fig. 8. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o eelings o i ali y measu ed by Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) by noise-sensi i e and noise-insensi i e g oups.
A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
9