Restorative effects of urban green environments and the role of urban-nature orientedness and noise sensitivity: A field experiment

Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec Heal h & Place jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/heal hplace Res o a i e e ec s o u ban g een en i onmen s and he ole o u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise sensi i i y: A ield expe imen Ann Ojala a,⁎ , Kale i Ko pela b , Liisa Ty äinen a , Pekka Tii anen c , Timo Lanki c,d a Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (Luke), La oka anonkaa i 9, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland b Facul y o Social Sciences/Psychology, Uni e si y o Tampe e, FI-33014 Tampe e, Finland c Depa men o Heal h Secu i y, Na ional Ins i u e o Heal h and Wel a e, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland d Uni o Public Heal h and Clinical Nu i ion, Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland, Kuopio, Finland ARTICLE INFO Keywo ds: Res o a ion Vi ali y U ban-na u e o ien edness Noise sensi i i y Blood p essu e Field expe imen ABSTRACT In his expe imen we in es iga ed how indi idual di e ences in o ien a ion owa ds buil s. na u e en i on- men as well as noise sensi i i y a ec psychological and physiological es o a ion in a cons uc ed u ban pa k, u ban woodland and ci y cen e o Helsinki, Finland. The pa icipan s, 30–61-yea -old heal hy women (N = 83), isi ed each s udy si e once. The expe imen consis ed o a 15-min iewing session, ollowed by a 30-min walking session in each en i onmen . We measu ed es o a i e e ec s: pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes, i ali y, and blood p essu e in hese h ee en i onmen s. The da a we e analysed in SAS wi h a linea mixed model. We ound signi ican di e ences be ween en i onmen s in psychological es o a i e e ec s, bu no in blood p es- su e. The u ban-na u e o ien edness, and o a lesse ex en noise sensi i i y, modi ied he e ec o en i onmen on es o a ion. In conclusion, indi idual cha ac e is ics a ec psychological es o a ion p o ided by a ious u ban en i onmen s. Va ying needs o indi iduals should be aken in o accoun in ci y planning. 1. In oduc ion Resea ch has shown ha con ac wi h he na u al en i onmen suppo s human heal h and wellbeing. In addi ion o he di ec e ec s o en i onmen al quali y (e.g. ai and wa e quali y, empe a u e and p o ision o p o ec ion agains hea ) (e.g. La o ezza e al., 2009;Maas e al., 2009;Pugh e al., 2012;Ty äinen e al., 2005), he e is cumu- la i e e idence o he posi i e e ec s o na u e mainly h ough s ess- amelio a ion and es o a ion (e.g. Ha ig e al., 2014; en B ink e al., 2016). The g een spaces ha e posi i e e ec s on mood and cogni i e unc ioning (Bowle e al., 2010; B a man e al., 2015; Van den Be g e al., 2003), people p e e na u e when emo ionally i ed (Ko pela e al., 2010), and u ban g een a eas help o educe a en ional s ess and enhance psychological eco e y (e.g. Bjö k e al., 2008;Ha ig e al., 2003;Ty äinen e al., 2014). O he physiological heal h e ec s, he esea ch e idence sugges s ha being in na u e has posi i e e ec s on blood p essu e, hea a e, skin conduc i i y, muscle ension and co isol le els (Ha ig e al., 2003; Ho iuchi e al., 2013; Laumann e al., 2003; Pa k e al., 2010; Tsune sugu e al., 2007). The wo main heo e ical s andpoin s behind he s udies on e- s o a i e e ec s o di e en en i onmen s a e he a en ion es o a ion heo y (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989) and he psychophysiological s ess eco e y heo y (Ul ich, 1983). The i s one poses ha he es o a i e en i onmen s allow es o a ion om di ec ed a en ion a igue and hus imp o emen in cogni i e unc ioning. The po en ial o es o a ion exis s i psychophysiological esou ces o coping wi h e e yday de- mands ha e been deple ed (Ha ig, 2004; Von Linde n e al., 2017). The second one allows eco e y om s ess h ough psycho-physiological pa hways (e.g. imp o emen o mood and physiological ma ke s). Ac- co ding o Kaplan (1995), a en ion and s ess a e dis inc bu in e - ac ing componen s o es o a ion. In addi ion o a en ion es o a ion and physiological ma ke s o s ess, in his s udy subjec i e i ali y was conside ed as a ela ed bu dis inc posi i e es o a i e e ec ela ed o na u e con ac s (Nix e al., 1999; Ryan e al., 2010a, 2010b). In con as o low ene gy s a es (e.g. elaxa ion), subjec i e i ali y e lec s high ene gy s a es (ali eness, ene gy a ailable o sel ). The e idence shows ha na u e expe iences ha e a unique e ec on i ali y (Ryan e al., 2010b). The es o a ion in u ban g een spaces is sugges ed o depend on physical cha ac e is ics, such as ype o ege a ion and size o he g een a ea (e.g. Ty äinen e al., 2014;Van den Be g e al., 2014). The e is e idence ha a ou i e na u al-like en i onmen s (e.g. woodlands), o h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.heal hplace.2018.11.004 Recei ed 23 Feb ua y 2018; Recei ed in e ised o m 2 No embe 2018; Accep ed 6 No embe 2018 ⁎ Co esponding au ho . E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (A. Ojala), [email p o ec ed] (K. Ko pela), [email p o ec ed] (L. Ty äinen), [email p o ec ed] (P. Tii anen), [email p o ec ed] (T. Lanki). Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 1353-8292/ © 2018 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/BY/4.0/). Please ci e his a icle as: Ojala, A., Heal h and Place, h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.heal hplace.2018.11.004 example, a e ound o be mo e es o a i e han u ban pa ks (Ko pela e al., 2010); he mo e edge ege a ion wi hin a o es ed pa k sc eens he iew o he buil en i onmen , he highe he pe cei ed es o a- i eness o he a ea (Hau u e al., 2012). Some ield expe imen s s udying es o a i e e ec s o u ban pa ks (Beil and Hanes, 2013) o g een and blue a eas (Gidlow e al., 2016) ha e no epo ed di e ences in he es o a i e e ec s o na u e a eas. The es o a i e ou comes in g een a eas migh also depend on in- di idual di e ences. E en hough g een a eas in gene al seem o be es o a i e, li le is known abou he di e ences o es o a i e ou comes be ween indi iduals. The e is some e idence ha no all people pe - cei e na u e and i s a o dances in a simila way (e.g. Faehnle e al., 2014;Ty äinen e al., 2003) and i so, di e en u ban se ings could in luence indi idual es o a ion di e en ly. The li e cycle, si ua ional ac o s and wo king en i onmen in luence he choice o es o a i e en i onmen s and he es o a i e e ec s in hese en i onmen s. Fo example, people wi h heal h complain s, compa ed o hose wi h ewe heal h complain s, a e mo e likely choose na u al a he han u ban a ou i e places and in emo ional e ms bene i mo e om hei isi s o hese places (Ko pela and Ylén, 2009). The mo i es behind isi ing g een a eas a e ela ed o he es o a i e ou comes, he ones who isi g een a eas o s ess educ ion expe ience es o a ion mo e han hose who a e looking o soli ude (Pasanen e al., 2017). People whose wo k is ela ed o na u al en i onmen s do no expe ience as much es o a- ion in hese en i onmen s as people whose wo k is no ela ed wi h na u e. Fo example o es p o essionals epo a lowe eeling o e- s o a ion a e o es isi s compa ed o non- o es p o essionals (Von Linde n e al., 2013), and child en who pe o m wo k-like ac i i ies in ag icul u al a eas epo expe iencing ewe es o a i e expe iences han child en who spend only hei ee ime in hese a eas (Collado e al., 2016). In his s udy, we hypo hesise ha indi idual cha ac e is ics, such as u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise sensi i i y in luence es o a i e e ec s in esponse o g een exposu es. These indi idual cha ac e is ics a e p e iously shown o be linked pa ly o gene ic p edisposi ions (e.g. gene al sensi i i y (Palmquis e al., 2014)) and pe sonal pas expe i- ences (e.g. na u e o ien edness, Okokon e al., 2015)). 1.1. U ban-na u e o ien edness The e a e concep s o desc ibing indi iduals’ subjec i e ela ion- ship o na u e, o example connec edness o na u e (Maye and McPhe son F an z, 2004), na u e ela edness (Nisbe e al., 2009) o emo ional a ini y o na u e (Kals e al., 1999). These concep s e e o a deep connec ion wi h na u e, such as he deg ee o emo ional a ilia- ions and sense o oneness wi h he na u al wo ld and kinship wi h animals and plan s (e.g. Maye and McPhe son F an z, 2004;Nisbe e al., 2009). The e is e idence ha exposu e o na u e ein o ces he na u e e- la ionship ha is pa ially sugges ed o media e he posi i e e ec s o na u e, o example mood imp o emen (Maye e al., 2009; Gidlow e al., 2016). Na u e ela edness is posi i ely co ela ed wi h posi i e a ec , i ali y, au onomy, pe sonal g ow h and pu pose in li e (Nisbe e al., 2011). In he u ban con ex , g een a eas a e in gene al app ecia ed in housing en i onmen s. The alue o nea by na u e is also mani es ed by he aised p ope y alues and i in luences loca ion and ype o housing choices (Faehnle e al., 2011; Ty äinen and Mie inen, 2000; Ty äinen e al., 2005). The ela i e impo ance o and expec a ions owa ds na u e, howe e , seems o a y be ween indi iduals (e.g. Faehnle e al., 2011;Ko pela e al., 2010;Ty äinen, e al., 2007a; Ty äinen e al., 2007b). Linked o his discussion a concep – u ban- na u e o ien edness – has been ound use ul. Hi onen (2000), o ex- ample, sugges s ha ci y dwelle s could be ca ego ized in o na u e- and u ban-o ien ed indi iduals acco ding o hei p e e ences o a ilia ions owa ds na u al and buil en i onmen s. The u ban-na u e o ien edness ocuses on indi iduals’ en i onmen al p e e ences in he u ban con ex and conside s he ela i e appeal o bo h cons uc ed and na u e en- i onmen s. Mo eo e , Ty äinen e al. (2007b) classi ied esiden s in Finnish ci ies using a measu e de eloped o di e en ia e among e- sponden s acco ding o he appeal ha na u al en i onmen s hold o hem compa ed o a ac ions and se ices o u ban en i onmen s. The g ouping esul ed in i e classes ha explained well he di e ences linked o housing en i onmen p e e ences and he choice o housing ype. The wo ex emes in his classi ica ion we e ue u bani es, s ongly app ecia ing u ban en i onmen s and nea ness o se ices, and ue na u e people, app ecia ing peace, sa e y and nea by na u e a eas. In conclusion, exposu e o na u e seems o a ec na u e ela edness; also people a e shown o alue en i onmen s and he oppo uni ies in hese en i onmen s di e en ly. Howe e , he e a e no s udies o show i he appeal owa ds na u e o buil -up en i onmen s a ec s he e- s o a i e e ec s in di e en en i onmen s. We wan o ul il his gap and o examine whe he he es o a i e e ec s a y in di e en g een a eas by u ban-na u e o ien edness ype. 1.2. Noise sensi i i y Ano he aspec ha migh be ela ed o es o a i e e ec s in di - e en u ban en i onmen s is noise sensi i i y; a pe sonal ai ha is pa ly gene ically de e mined (Heinonen-Guzeje e al., 2005). Noise- sensi i e pe sons eac mo e nega i ely and s ongly o ele a ed le els o noise, and also eac a lowe le els han he es o he popula ion (S ans eld, 1992). Noise sensi i i y has been epo ed o be associa ed wi h, e.g. hype ension, pulmona y edema (and isk o smoking), ca - dio ascula mo ali y, and inc eased use o painkille s and psycho opic medica ion (Heinonen-Guzeje e al., 2004, 2007; Shephe d e al., 2010). This may be explained by he associa ion o pe sonal ai s such as anxie y and he nega i e a ec wi h noise sensi i i y. On he o he hand, noise sensi i i y p edic s annoyance caused by noise (Okokon e al., 2015; Pauno ic e al., 2009) and annoyance may p edic e ec s o noise on heal h e en be e han he ac ual noise le el. The pe cei ed dis u bance o a ic is also ela ed o he pe cei ed es o a i e quali y o esiden ial en i onmen s ha in u n is ela ed o heal h and well-being (Von Linde n e al., 2016). In he na u e condi- ions e en human oice can cause a dec ease in cogni i e unc ioning (e.g. memo y) (Ben ield e al., 2010). Na u al en i onmen s may be especially impo an o noise-sensi- i e pe sons, who end o su e om s ess and anxie y. Visi s o na - u al en i onmen s o e quie ness, which is a e in u ban en i onmen s and is mos impo an o his subpopula ion. In ac , in a ecen Finnish s udy, high o ex eme noise sensi i i y was ound o be associa ed also wi h highe na u e o ien edness (Okokon e al., 2015). I is no known how he cha ac e is ics o g een a eas in luence he psychophysiolo- gical e ec s o isi s o hese places among noise-sensi i e pe sons. In his s udy we examine whe he he es o a i e e ec s in di e en g een en i onmen s a y by noise sensi i e and noise insensi i e people. 1.3. Hypo heses In ou expe imen we examine how he u ban-na u e o ien edness and sensi i i y o noise a e ela ed o es o a i e e ec s (pe cei ed e- s o a i e ou comes, i ali y and blood p essu e) in di e en u ban g een en i onmen s (ci y cen e – con ol en i onmen ), u ban pa k and u ban woodland). The speci ic hypo heses a e: Fo people who a e mo e na u e o ien ed (and less u ban o ien ed), he s onges es o a i e e ec s (pe cie ed es o a i e ou comes, i- ali y and blood p essu e) ake place in an u ban woodland (in he mos na u al-like u ban g een en i onmen ). The p e ious s udies ha e shown ha he e a e no o small di e - ences be ween di e en g een en i onmen s on es o a ion, he e o e we hypo hesise ha he u ban-o ien ed people a e less a ec ed by he A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 2 ype o he en i onmen . We assume ha u ban pa k and u ban woodland ha e equal es o a i e e ec s on u ban-o ien ed people (pe cie ed es o a i e ou comes, i ali y and blood p essu e). Taking in o accoun ha he ci y cen e is he noisies and u ban woodland he mos peace ul en i onmen , we assume ha es o a i e e ec s (pe cei ced es o a i e ou comes, i ali y and blood p essu e) o noise-sensi i e people a e s onges in he woodland, whe eas he ci y cen e has nega i e es o a i e e ec s. Noise-insensi i e people a e expec ed o be less a ec ed by he ype o en i onmen compa ed o noise-sensi i e indi iduals. We expec ha he e a e no di e ences o es o a i e e ec s in g een a eas on noise-insensi i e people. We a e no going o make any mo e speci ic hypo hesis, since he e a e no p e ious s udies abou he e ec s o noise insensi i i y on e- s o a ion in di e en g een en i onmen s. 2. Me hod 2.1. Timing and expe imen al se ings The expe imen was ca ied ou in Helsinki, he capi al o Finland ollowing ypical wo k days in he au umn o 2011 and 2012 om mid- Augus un il mid-Sep embe , and in sp ing 2012 om he beginning o May un il mid-June. In Finland, a his ime he lea es a e on ees and he gene al appea ance o na u e en i onmen s is g een. By iming he expe imen a e a egula wo king day, we aimed o ensu e ha he pa icipan s we e in need o es o a ion o po en ia e es o a i e e ec s. The empe a u e in sou he n Finland, du ing ea ly and la e summe seasons is ela i ely wa m and mosqui os a e ela i ely inac i e. The Resea ch E hics Commi ee o he No he n Sa o Hospi al Dis ic has app o ed he s udy. The pa icipan s isi ed h ee di e en en i onmen al se ings on sepa a e days. The se ings we e: 1) he ci y cen e, ep esen ing a buil - up en i onmen (con ol); 2) a cons uc ed u ban pa k, Alppipuis o (20 ha), ha is one o he oldes pa ks in Helsinki; 3) an u ban wood- land, Keskuspuis o wi h a o al size o 1000 ha, o 60–100-yea -old mixed and coni e o es s. Alppipuis o is es ablished in he 19 h cen u y, i has a well-designed a ea wi h old ees, ponds wi h oun ains, pa k plan s, elemen s o ec ea ion such as benches, and e en a small amphi hea e . The le el o main enance o he pa k is high. The pa k is si ua ed in be ween an amusemen pa k and ailway acks. I consis also a ocky a ea wi h sigh seeing e ace, bu in his expe imen we used he la sou he n a ea o Alppipuis o, he size o which is abou 5 ha. Keskuspuis o, he u ban woodland used in his expe imen , is a o es ed a ea wi h a o al size o 1000 ha con inuing all along om he sou h o Helsinki o he edge o he ci y in he no h whe e he ex- pe imen al si e was si ua ed. Keskuspuis o is he mos used ec ea ional a ea in Helsinki a ound he yea . The pa k mainly consis s o 60–100- yea -old mixed and coni e o es s, he a ea is ich in di e en plan and animal species (e.g. elk, ox, black woodpecke , wood wa ble ). The woodland has been managed o p ese ing and enhancing landscape, ec ea ion and biodi e si y alues o decades by he ci y including small-scale o es managemen and enewal o he olde o es s s ands ou side p o ec ed a ea (Ci y o Helsinki, 2015). The a ea used as a con ol si e in he ci y cen e was in he hea o Helsinki. The iewing a ea was nex o he main s ee (Manne heimin ie). The walking a ea wen along he big a ic- and walking s ee s, passing museums, shopping and a ic cen e. The e we e only ew single s ee ees in he expe imen al a ea. See Fig. 1 o expe imen al en i onmen s and Supplemen a y ma e ial o he ou e maps in all en i onmen s (Figs. SA–SC). 2.2. Sample The o al sample o he whole expe imen consis ed o 95 pa ici- pan s, bu because he e we e only ew men pa icipa ing in he expe imen , and because blood p essu e egula ion is di e en in men and women (Joyne e al., 2016), only he esul s om women (N = 88) we e included in he analysis in his pape . F om hese 88 women, i e we e no included in he analysis because hey had isi ed only one expe imen al si e. The inal sample o his s udy consis s o 83 women, aged 30–61 yea s old (M = 48.31; SD = 8.58), o which i e isi ed wo expe imen al si es and all he es isi ed all h ee expe imen al si es. F om he blood p essu e analysis, one addi ional pa icipan was an ou lie and excluded om he analysis due o high blood p essu e esul s. Mos o he pa icipan s came o he expe imen a e hei wo king day. We chose pa icipan s whose place o wo k was in he Helsinki Me opoli an A ea. The olun ee s we e ec ui ed h ough in i a ion le e s sen o pe sonnel manage s o di e en go e nmen al and municipal o ganiza ions, and he in i a ion le e was also pub- lished in he mon hly bulle in o he Uni e si y o Helsinki. The in- i a ion le e s we e also deli e ed di ec ly o households loca ed nea by he expe imen al mee ing poin a he Na ional Ins i u e o Heal h and Wel a e. Some pa icipan s could include hei pa icipa ion in his expe imen in o hei wo king-hou s. The a e age amoun o wo king hou s we e 38 pe week (SD = 13.4). The olun ee s had hei i s pe sonal con ac wi h esea che s and hei sui abili y o his ex- pe imen was con i med (e.g. heal h condi ion, wo king in Helsinki Me opoli an A ea). Then, he ex ended in o ma ion package and he i s backg ound in o ma ion ques ionnai e we e sen by pos o o- lun ee s. The guiding shee in o med pa icipan s abou how o p epa e o each isi (no alcohol and obacco consump ion be o e he expe i- men , a oidance o ha d physical aining du ing he day o he ex- pe imen , and some guidance o clo hing), how o ind he mee ing poin , and he exac da es and imes o all h ee isi ing imes. 2.3. Expe imen al p ocedu e The pa icipan s came o he expe imen h ee imes a e wo k a 3 p.m. and he expe imen las ed app oxima ely h ee hou s. The e was a leas one week in be ween isi ing di e en se ings and he o de o isi ing each s udy si e was andomized. On he i s isi , pa icipan s also signed a w i en consen o hei olun a y pa icipa ion and e- u ned ques ionnai es sen o hem p io o he expe imen . A e a - i al a each o he h ee isi s, pa icipan s comple ed a sho ques- ionnai e conce ning possible ecen acu e illnesses, medica ion use, ca eine consump ion and ac i e physical aining. Then he pa ici- pan s hemsel es conduc ed con ol blood p essu e measu emen s a he mee ing o ice, and wo e he same ambula o y blood p essu e moni o s du ing he expe imen . Pa icipan s we e di ided in o g oups wi h a maximum o ou people. The g oup size was de e mined by he com o able si ing space in he an. The da es we e chosen by he pa icipan s so ha he expe imen al days would i o hei ime ables, and he e we e no s ic es ic ions ha he pa icipan s in he g oup could no know each-o he . The people in he g oups a ied, as he e we e cancella ions and changes o imes. The ip o he expe imen al si e ook 20–30 min by an, he a el ime o each si e a each day was ixed, and small a ia ion in ime was dependen on he si ua ional a ic condi ions. A e a i al o he expe imen al si e, he pa icipan s ook he i s blood p essu e measu e and comple ed he i s ques- ionnai e in he an. A e ha hey mo ed om he an o he si e and a i s hey we e asked o si and look eely a he en i onmen . A e he 15-min iewing session in he en i onmen , he second blood p essu e measu emen s and ques ionnai e we e done a e si ing a he si e. The iewing session was hen ollowed by a 30-min guided speed- con olled slow walk in he en i onmen s guided by he expe imen e . The ou es we e p ede ined and we e all app oxima ely 2-km long. The hi d blood p essu e measu emen s and ques ionnai e we e done in he an a e walking. The blood p essu e was measu ed a e si ing quie ly in he an o h ee minu es. Du ing he expe imen , he e- sea che ca ied da a logge s o ai empe a u e (and humidi y). See Figs. 2–4 o iewing and walking sessions in di e en en i onmen s. A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 3 The wea he a ied mos ly om sunny o cloudy and a li le ain on eigh days o he expe imen . A e age empe a u es a ied be ween 23.1, 22.1, and 22.0 °C du ing he 2011 au umn, 2012 sp ing, and 2012 au umn expe imen al pe iods, espec i ely. En i onmen al noise le els we e measu ed wi h class II La son Da is Spa k 706 noise dosime e s (PCB Piezo onics Inc., Depew, New Yo k, USA) wi h La son Da is MPR001 in eg a ed mic ophone/p eampli ie s. The noise le el in ci y cen e was 67.6 dBA (SD 2.6), in u ban pa k 63.5 dBA (SD 1.8) and in u ban woodland 58.8 dBA (SD 1.5), and he noise le els in all en- i onmen s we e signi ican ly di e en . 2.4. Ma e ials o his s udy 2.4.1. Backg ound a iables In addi ion o basic in o ma ion (age, amily si ua ion, cu en li ing en i onmen , e c.) he pa icipan s we e asked in o ma ion abou hei gene al heal h, isi s o g een a eas, and wo k s ess by ques ionnai e sen o hei homes be o e coming o he expe imen . Pe cei ed gene al heal h s a us was measu ed wi h a widely used single i em ‘How is you heal h in gene al a he momen ?’ using a i e-poin a ing scale anging om 1 (poo ), 2 (qui e poo ), 3 (nei he poo no good), 4 (qui e good) o 5 (excellen ) (Singh-Manoux e al., 2006). Physical heal h s a us was Fig. 1. Expe imen al en i onmen s and mee ing poin s (con ains da a om he Na ional Land Su ey o Finland Backg ound map se ies, accessed 06/2018). h ps:// ka a.paikka ie oikkuna. i/published/en/8 aad511-b528-4217-92 -6b6c75c 9e77. Fig. 2. Viewing session in Helsinki ci y cen e. Fig. 3. Walking session in Alppipuis o (u ban pa k). A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 4 measu ed wi h he ques ion ‘How is you physical heal h a he momen om 1 ( e y bad), 2 ( a he bad), 3 (sa is ac o y), 4 ( a he good) o 5 ( e y good)?’. Fo ge ing backg ound in o ma ion abou he ou doo ec ea ion habi s and isi s o g een a eas he ollowing ques ions we e posed: ‘How o en do you isi na u al o g een places in Helsinki Me opoli an a ea du ing summe /wa m season (May o Sep .) and win e /cold season (Oc .– Ap il) (e e y day, 4–6 imes pe week, 2–3 imes pe week, once a week, 1–3 imes pe mon h, less o en)?’. The gene al wo k s ess was measu ed by one ques ion ‘How s ess ul/ men ally i ing is you job o s udies by you e alua ion on a e age?’ ollowed by i e-poin Like scale (no a all, somewha , a he s ess ul, e y s ess ul, ex emely s ess ul). The le el o wo k s ess was addi ionally measu ed by one ques ion on he expe imen al day: ‘How s ess ul o i ing was you wo king-day?’ (I was no wo king oday, no a all, somewha , a he s ess ul, e y s ess ul, ex emely s ess ul). 2.4.2. Dependen a iables Fo measu ing es o a i e e ec s we used wo sel - epo ed scales and blood p essu e measu es. 2.4.2.1. Psychological measu es. We used he Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS) (Ko pela e al., 2008; c . Ha ig e al., 1998;S aa s e al., 2003) o measu e pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes, and Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) (Ryan and F ede ick, 1997) o measu e pe cep ions o i ali y in en i onmen al se ings. The pa icipan s answe ed he ques ion: ‘To wha ex en do he ollowing s a emen s co espond o you cu en emo ional s a e?’ The ROS scale has six i ems, o which h ee e lec elaxa ion and calmness (e.g. ‘I eel es o ed and elaxed’), one e lec s a en ion es o a ion (‘I eel ocused and ale ’), and wo e lec clea ing one's hough s (e.g. ‘I can o ge e e yday wo ies’). Fou i ems ou o six o iginal i ems (Bos ic e al., 2000) we e used o measu e sel - epo ed pe cep ions o ha ing ene gy and eelings o being ali e (e.g. ‘I eel ali e and i al’) om he Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS). In Finland, due o he synonymous na u e o he scale i ems and he wo ds a ailable in he Finnish language we used only ou i ems in ou ques ionnai e. The Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale has shown bo h high eliabili y and co a ia ion wi h soma ic and psychological ac o s (Bos ic e al., 2000; Ryan and F ede ick, 1997). The pa icipan s esponded wi h a se en-poin Like scale anging om no a all o comple ely. 2.4.2.2. Physiological measu es. We measu ed sys olic and dias olic blood p essu e wi h an oscillome ic blood p essu e moni o (Model 90207, Spacelabs Heal hca e, Snoqualmie, WA, USA). Be o e lea ing o an expe imen al si e, a cu was w apped a ound he le a m o he pa icipan . An ai hose connec ed he cu o he blood p essu e moni o , which was ca ied in a case a ached o a bel (o bel s ap) and shoulde s ap. Blood p essu e was measu ed in a si ing posi ion om he le a m es ing on a pe son's lap. Be o e a eading was aken, s udy pa icipan s sa s ill o a leas h ee minu es. A a esea che 's eques he pa i- cipan pushed a bu on s a ing he measu emen . A second measu e- men was aken 60 s a e he i s measu emen was inished. In he analyses, he a e age o he wo measu emen s was used. 2.4.3. G ouping a iables We used an u ban-na u e o ien edness scale o measu e he a ac- i eness owa ds na u e o a ci y en i onmen p e iously de eloped and used in Finnish s udies (e.g. Ty äinen e al., 2007b). The u ban- o ien edness subscale in his s udy included ou i ems (e.g., ‘I enjoy hanging a ound in he ci y’, ‘I app ecia e e y much he a eas wi h ca e e ias, shops, es au an s, museums, and hea es’) and he na u e- o ien edness included i e i ems (e.g., ‘some imes I eel compelled o isi na u e’, ‘u ban g een a eas a e no su icien o sa is y my need o na u e’), using a i e-poin a ing scale anging om 1 (comple ely disag ee), 2 (somewha disag ee), 3 (nei he disag ee no ag ee), 4 (somewha ag ee) o 5 (comple ely ag ee). The g oups based on he u ban-o ien edness subscale we e used in his s udy (see he eason in he Sec ion 3.1). Weins ein's (1978) noise sensi i i y scale is he mos widely used me hod o assess noise sensi i i y. Noise sensi i i y was measu ed by ou i ems exce p ed om he 21-i em scale ollowed by se en-poin Like scale om no a all o comple ely (‘I ge i i a ed when my neighbou s make noise’, ‘I am good a concen a ing no ma e wha happens a ound me’, ‘I is di icul o me o elax in a noisy place’, and ‘I am sensi i e o noise’). The basis o he selec ion o he i ems is hei ela i e con ex independence. In addi ion, he las i em is signi ican because sel -es ima ed sensi i i y has been epo ed o co ela e well wi h he esul s om he ull Weins ein scale in he adul Finnish po- pula ion (Heinonen-Guzeje e al., 2004). Tempe a u e was measu ed con inuously wi h Esco iLog EI-HS-D- 32-L da a logge s (C yopak, Quebec, Canada). Resea che s assessed he wea he be o e each iewing and walking pe iod, and a e he walking pe iod. Ca ego ies used o eco d he wea he we e: sunny, pa ly cloudy, cloudy, d izzle. The expe imen was cancelled i he e was hea y ain. Du ing he whole expe imen al pe iod only once was he expe imen pos poned because o his. 2.4.4. S a is ical analysis We conduc ed linea mixed model analysis wi h he epea ed model op ion o calcula e he e ec s o in e en ion in h ee di e en u ban en i onmen s. In he analysis we used a wi hin-subjec ac o (a ea ype) wi h h ee le els (Helsinki ci y cen e (Ci y), Alppipuis o (Pa k) and Keskuspuis o (Fo es )) and h ee measu emen poin s (a he s a (T1), in he middle (T2) and a he end o he expe imen (T3)) o he psychological and physiological ou come a iables. These ou come a iables we e he Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS), Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) and, sys olic and dias olic blood p essu e. We used he model ype CS (Compound-Symme y) which speci ies he com- pound-symme y s uc u e wi h cons an a iance and cons an co a - iance. Pa icipan s ac as hei own con ols when he e ec s o di - e en a eas a e compa ed. We calcula ed sepa a e models o each g oup based on ou come a iables. In he models, he e e ence poin was Ci y a Time 1. All models we e con olled o mean Tempe a u e (con inuous a iable) and Wea he (ca ego ical a iable) because uncom o able wea he condi ions migh a ec es o a ion and elaxa ion, and ai empe a u e is also di ec ly ela ed o blood p essu e. Fo he analysis we used IBM SPSS S a is ics 20 and SAS 9.3 packages. Fig. 4. Comple ing ques ionnai es in Keskuspuis o (u ban woodland). A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 5 3. Resul s 3.1. Backg ound in o ma ion, scale s a is ics and g ouping a iables Mos o he olun ee s in he expe imen e alua ed hemsel es as gene ally (M= 4.2, SD = 0.7) and physically heal hy (M= 4.7, SD = 0.7). They li ed in he Helsinki Me opoli an A ea (excep i e pa i- cipan s). Mos pa icipan s we e ac i e use s o u ban g een a eas and isi ed g een a eas a leas 2–3 imes pe week (82% du ing summe - ime and 59% win e ime) o a leas once a week (9.6% summe ime and 21.7% win e ime). The e we e only a ew pa icipan s who isi ed na u e a eas 1–3 imes a mon h o less du ing summe ime (8.4%) and a li le mo e in win e ime (18.6%). The gene al wo k s ess in ou sample was no e y high (M= 2.4, SD = 0.8). We also asked abou wo k s ess on he day o he expe imen . Howe e , he e we e a he many missing alues in he ques ionnai e conce ning wo k s ess on he day o he expe imen : o he esponden s 21–22% on di e en ex- pe imen al days did no answe o ha ques ion a all and in addi ion, 7–8% o pa icipan s we e no wo king on di e en expe imen al days. The e o e, we excluded wo k s ess om ou inal s a is ical model. Be o e isi ing any o he h ee en i onmen s, 21.7% o pa icipan s e alua ed hei wo k s ess as ‘ a he ’ o ‘ e y s ess ul’ in he Ci y, 18% in he Pa k, and 15.6% in he Fo es . Among hose pa icipan s who we e wo king on ha day, he e was no signi ican di e ence in wo k s ess le el be ween Ci y, Pa k and Fo es en i onmen s a he s a o he expe imen in a gi en en i onmen (χ 2 (6) = 6.01, p> .05). The scale s a is ic o he Res o a ion Ou come Scale and Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale was good h oughou he expe imen (see Table 1). The dis ibu ions o na u e-o ien edness and u ban-o ien edness subscales we e compa ed o a ep esen a i e sample o he wo bigges Finnish ci ies (Helsinki and Tampe e) (Ty äinen e al., 2007b) o check whe he olun ee s in ou s udy we e biased owa ds na u e o ien ed- ness. In he s udy by Ty äinen e al. (2007b), he pa icipan s we e di ided in o di e en subg oups based on a sco e in na u e-o ien edness subscale and u ban-o ien edness subscale as high, medium o small. In he cu en s udy, he di e ence be ween hese subg oup-speci ic p o- po ions was es ed by applying wo independen p opo ions es as- suming no mal app oxima ion. A signi ican di e ence in p opo ions in ‘o dina y na u e people’ (z= 17.1, p< .01), and ‘o he ’ g oups (z= 7.3, p< .01) was ound in ou sample. I is possible o conclude ha he e we e mo e people o ien ed o na u e in ou sample han in he p e ious u ban popula ion Helsinki–Tampe e sample. Conse- quen ly, we chose he u ban-o ien edness subscale o ou g ouping a iable o p o ide enough indi idual a ia ion. Fo u ban-o ien edness and noise sensi i i y, he scale s a is ics and mean sum sco es we e calcula ed be o e di iding esponden s in o se- pa a e g oups. Fo u ban-o ien edness he scale s a is ics we e C onbach α = 0.76, M= 3.21, Mdn = 3.24, SD= 0.89 and o noise sensi i i y C onbach α = 0.75, M= 4.2, Mdn = 4.25, SD= 1.08. The co ela ion be ween a iables was 0.04 (p= 0.74). The esponden s we e di ided in o u ban-o ien edness and noise sensi i i y g oups based on he median. Fi s ly, he pa icipan s we e di ided by hei high o low u ban o ien edness. In he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup we e 41 pa icipan s and in he high-u ban-o ien ed g oup 42 pa icipan s. Howe e , he g oups di ided by hei u ban-o ien edness dimension di e en ia ed also sig- ni ican ly by hei na u e-o ien edness dimension ( (80) = 4.9, p< .00); whe e in he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup he na u e-o ien ed- ness mean sco e was 4.1 (SD = 0.53) and in high-u ban-o ien ed g oup i was 3.4 (SD = 0.67). Secondly, he pa icipan s we e di ided in o wo g oups by hei high o low noise sensi i i y. The noise-sensi i e g oup included 47 pa icipan s and in he noise-insensi i e g oup he e we e 36 pa ici- pan s. 3.2. Res o a i e e ec s, u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise sensi i i y All models, based on he linea mixed model analysis, we e sig- ni ican acco ding o model i indexes, and he χ 2 o all models was signi ican a p< .01 le el. The desc ip i e s a is ics and goodness o i indexes a e p esen ed in Supplemen a y ma e ials (see Tables SA–SB). The s a is ical signi icance o he main e ec s and in e ac ions o he models a e p esen ed in Table 2. In a majo i y o psychological measu es models, he in e ac ion o En i onmen and Time was sig- ni ican . None o he in e ac ions we e signi ican on blood p essu e measu es. 3.2.1. Resul s by g oups and sel - epo ed measu es (ROS, SVS) 3.2.1.1. U ban-o ien edness. In he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he e was a signi ican in e ac ion e ec o En i onmen and Time on a ings o he es o a i e ou comes (ROS) and subjec i e i ali y (SVS) sco es (see Table 2). In his g oup, Fo es and Pa k had signi ican ly mo e posi i e e ec on pe cei ed es o a ion and eelings o i ali y al eady a e 15 min si ing compa ed o he Ci y. A he end o he expe imen , Fo es was signi ican ly mo e es o a i e and i alizing han Pa k (see Figs. 5 and 6, and Table C (supplemen al). In addi ion, he ROS and SVS sco es dec eased signi ican ly in Ci y du ing he expe imen . Fo he ROS, he dec ease was signi ican al eady a e 15 min si ing (Time 2 s. Time 1 (154) = −2.54, p< .05; Time 3 s. Time 2 (154) = − 2.57, p< .05). Fo he SVS he dec ease was signi ican a he end o he expe imen (Time 3 s. Time 2 ( (154)= − 3.08, p< .01, and Time 3 s. Time 1 ( (154) = − 3.507, p< .01)). The addi ional in e ac ion e ec s o Time a e p esen ed in Table SE (supplemen al). In he high-u ban-o ien ed g oup, only main e ec s we e sig- ni ican . The signi ican main e ec o En i onmen on a ings o he es o a i e ou comes (ROS) showed ha Fo es and Pa k we e expe i- enced as mo e es o a i e compa ed o Ci y. The e ec o Time showed ha he e we e mo e pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes in he middle and in he end o he expe imen compa ed o he s a . The i ali y sco es Table 1 Scale s a is ics o Res o a ion Ou come Scale and Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale in h ee places du ing he expe imen . Place Ci y Pa k Fo es Scale s a is ics Measu es Mean SD C on α Mean SD C on α Mean SD C on α A he beginning ROS 4.63 0.93 0.89 4.71 0.84 0.89 4.71 0.88 0.90 SVS 4.68 1.09 0.87 4.71 0.86 0.81 4.74 1.01 0.86 A e iewing ROS 4.45 0.99 0.87 5.16 0.84 0.88 5.14 0.98 0.61 SVS 4.70 0.94 0.86 4.96 0.83 0.79 4.86 0.97 0.88 A e walking ROS 4.29 1.03 0.88 5.10 0.93 0.91 5.24 0.85 0.89 SVS 4.48 1.01 0.83 5.06 0.86 0.82 5.12 0.88 0.88 A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 6 (SVS) we e signi ican ly highe a he end o he expe imen compa ed o he s a and in he middle o he expe imen (see Fig. 6 and Table SC (supplemen al)). 3.2.1.2. Noise sensi i i y. In he noise-sensi i e and noise-insensi i e g oups, he in e ac ion be ween En i onmen and Time had signi ican e ec s on es o a i e ou comes (ROS) and subjec i e i ali y (SVS) sco es (see Table 2). A e si ing, Fo es and Pa k compa ed o Ci y we e pe cei ed as signi ican ly mo e es o a i e (ROS) in bo h g oups, bu he subjec i e i ali y sco e (SVS) a Time 2 was highe only in noise-sensi i e g oup. In bo h g oups, es o a i e ou comes and subjec i e i ali y sco es we e highe in Fo es and Pa k compa ed o Ci y a he end o he expe imen (see Figs. 7 and 8, and Table SD, supplemen al). In addi ion, he pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes (ROS) in Ci y dec eased signi ican ly du ing he expe imen (Time 3 s. Time 2 (176) = − 2.21, p< .05; Time 3 s. Time 1 (176) = − 3.21, p< .01) among noise-sensi i e g oup. Also, pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes in Fo es we e highe in his g oup al eady in he middle o he expe imen (Time 2 s. Time 1 (176) = 3.56, p< .01), while he e was no such di e ence among he noise-insensi i e g oup. Howe e , in he noise-insensi i e g oup, Pa k a Time 2 was expe ienced as mo e es o a i e han pa k a Time 1 (134) = 2.23, p< .05 (see Table SE, Supplemen al). 3.2.2. Resul s by g oups and blood-p essu e The expe imen al e ec s on blood p essu e, ou ma ke o phy- siological es o a ion, we e no as s aigh o wa d as he esul s om he psychological measu es. None o he in e ac ions be ween en- i onmen s and expe imen al ime we e signi ican in he cu en s udy Table 2 Main e ec s and in e ac ions o all models (deg ees o eedom, F- es and le el o signi icance). G oup Low-u ban-o ien ed High-u ban-o ien ed Noise-sensi i e Noise-insensi i e Measu e d F d F d F d F ROS En i onmen (2, 77) 40.23 ** (2, 78) 10.23 ** (2, 88) 30.33 ** (2, 67) 12.94 ** Time (2, 80) 1.78 (2, 82) 7.51 ** (2, 92) 6.63 ** (2, 70) 1.16 En * Time (4, 154) 11.02 ** (4, 156) 1.96 (4, 176) 7.18 ** (2, 134) 2.57 * Wea he (3, 37) 2.18 (3, 41) 2.24 (3, 48) 4.10 * (3, 30) 0.43 Temp. (1, 307) 7.43 ** (1, 312) 0.40 (1, 358) 3.99 * (1, 267) 0.06 SVS En (2, 77) 21.97 ** (2, 78) 1.85 (2, 88) 15.95 ** (2, 67) 2.18 Time (2, 80) 2.22 (2, 82) 5.29 ** (2, 92) 3.78 * (2, 70) 1.48 En * Time (4, 154) 5.66 ** (4, 156) 1.43 (4, 176) 3.62 ** (4, 134) 2.54 * Wea he (3, 37) 1.87 (3, 41) 1.99 (3, 48) 2.86 * (3, 30) 0.89 Temp. (1, 307) 1.06 (1, 312) 2.27 (1, 352) 0.05 (1, 267) 0.70 SYS En (2, 76) 8.80 ** (2, 76) 2.61 (2, 88) 1.86 (2, 64) 1.69 Time (2, 80) 6.74 ** (2, 80) 2.30 (2, 92) 5.46 ** (2, 68) 2.22 En * Time (4, 144) 1.49 (4, 143) 1.00 (4, 169) 1.37 (4, 118) 0.81 Wea he (3, 37) 1.86 (3, 40) 1.62 (3, 48) 2.55 (3, 29) 3.49 * Temp. (1, 296) 3.52 (1, 295) 4.61 * (1, 345) 1.39 (1, 246) 4.79 * DIA En (2, 76) 2.90 (2, 76) 6.96 ** (2, 88) 2.20 (2, 64) 4.24 * Time (2, 80) 0.89 (2, 80) 3.95 * (2, 92) 0.75 (2, 68) 5.46 ** En * Time (4, 144) 0.70 (4, 143) 0.73 (4, 169) 1.22 (4, 118) 0.41 Wea he (3, 37) 1.20 (3, 40) 2.99 * (3, 48) 1.81 (3, 29) 10.9 ** Temp. (1, 296) 6.19 * (1, 295) 7.17 ** (1, 345) 3.69 (1, 246) 5.68 * *p< .05. ** p< .01. Fig. 5. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes measu ed by Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS) by low- and high-u ban- o ien ed g oups. A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 7 (see Table 2), and blood p essu e was no he lowes a e en e ing he g een a eas as expec ed. In con as , he blood p essu e was highes in he middle o he expe imen , a e si ing and iewing he en i on- men s. As he blood p essu e esul s we e no consis en , o sa ing space, he ull ma e ial abou blood-p essu e esul s by g oups a e p esen ed in Supplemen a y ma e ial F. 4. Discussion and conclusions In his s udy, we examined he e ec o u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise sensi i i y on es o a i e e ec s (pe cei ed es o a i e ou - comes, i ali y, and blood p essu e) in di e en u ban en i onmen s: ci y cen e (con ol), u ban pa k and u ban woodland. We assumed ha pa icipan s di e ing in hei u ban-na u e o ien edness and noise sensi i i y di e in he s eng h o es o a i e e ec s in di e en en- i onmen s. The p e ious expe imen al s udies ha e indica ed only a small o no di e ence be ween di e en g een a eas on people's well- being, such as pe cei ed es o a i eness, cogni i e unc ioning, o mood change (e.g. Van den Be g e al., 2014;Gidlow e al., 2016). In a s udy whe e he ended o es was ound o be mo e es o a i e han wild o es (Ma ens e al., 2011), he indi idual di e ences we e no measu ed. As in se e al p e ious s udies, we ound ha sho - e m isi s o u ban na u e a eas ha e posi i e, empo ally p og essi e e ec s on psychological well-being (e.g. Tsune sugu e al., 2013;Van den Be g e al., 2014) and as hypo hesized, he e we e some speci ic di e ences be ween g oups. The esul s om blood p essu e measu es we e no ha consis en . Acco ding o he backg ound measu es, he s udy olun ee s (all women) we e ela i ely ac i e use s o g een a eas. The e we e also mo e na u e-o ien ed people in ou sample, han in he ep esen a i e sample o Helsinki-Tampe e s udy (Ty äinen e al., 2007b). We cal- cula ed low-u ban-o ien ed and high-u ban-o ien ed g oups acco ding o he median in o iginal u ban-o ien edness dimension. Howe e , in ou expe imen he high-u ban-o ien endess should be unde s ood as a ela i e measu e wi hin he s udy g oup. O all g oups ( he sample di ided i s ly by low-/high-/u ban-o - ien edness and hen by noise in/sensi i i y), he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup was he mos sensi i e o he ype o he en i onmen o e ime and explained di e ences be ween g oups e en be e han he noise sensi i i y. As hypo hesized, he highes es o a i e e ec s o psycho- logical measu es (pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes (clea ing one's hough s, ge ing es o ed and elaxed), and i ali y) in he low-u ban- o ien ed g oup we e ound in u ban woodland a he end o he ex- pe imen . In he case o noise sensi i i y, he e was no signi ican di - e ence be ween u ban pa k and u ban woodland. Being in he ci y cen e lowe ed pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes in he low-u ban-o - ien ed and noise-sensi i e g oups, bu eelings o i ali y lowe ed only in he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup. The high-u ban-o ien ed and noise-insensi i e people we e less Fig. 6. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o eelings o i ali y measu ed by Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) by low- and high-u ban-o ien ed g oups. Fig. 7. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes measu ed by Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS) by noise-sensi i e and noise- insensi i e g oups. A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 8 sensi i e o di e en ypes o en i onmen s in e ms o empo al changes in hei esponses, and he e was no di e ence be ween g een a eas. Howe e , somewha s onge posi i e psychological e ec s we e e iden in na u e a eas compa ed o he ci y cen e e en among hese g oups. The esul s show ha pe cei ed es o a i e ou comes measu ed by Res o a ion Ou come Scale (ROS) and subjec i e i ali y measu ed by Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) a e di e en al hough complemen a y phenomena as sugges ed by Ryan e al. (2010b). Howe e , he di e - ences we e a he sub le. Wi hin he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he ci y cen e diminished eelings o i ali y only a he end o he expe imen , and no al eady a e iewing as wi h he pe cei ed es o a i e ou - comes. In high-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he g een en i onmen s aised eelings o es o a ion, bu only ime was signi ican ac o o he aise o i ali y. Wi hin low-u ban-o ien ed g oup, he esul s con o m wi h hose by Ryan e al. (2010b) ha showed he p esence o na u e and na u e elemen s media ing he e ec o ou doo s on i ali y. An addi ional in e es ing physiological e ec appea ed. We had hypo hesized ha u ban pa k and u ban woodland migh be equally es o a i e en i onmen s o high-u ban-o ien ed people. Based on he esul s, blood p essu e was he lowes in he u ban pa k (and no in he woodland) among his g oup and also in noise-insensi i e g oup. Howe e , he e ec s seemed o ha e s a ed al eady be o e he ex- pe imen . Fu he mo e, he expe imen al e ec s on blood p essu e, ou ma ke o physiological es o a ion, we e no as s aigh o wa d as he esul s om he psychological measu es. This is in line wi h p e ious s udies which ha e epo ed con as ing esul s on blood p essu e (Ha ig e al., 2003; Lee e al., 2014; Pa k e al., 2009; Tsune sugu e al., 2007). None o he in e ac ions be ween en i onmen s and expe i- men al ime we e signi ican in he cu en s udy, and blood p essu e was no he lowes a e en e ing he g een a eas as expec ed. In con- clusion, he hypo hesis ha g een a eas dec ease blood p essu e and u ban woodland e en mo e in low-u ban-o ien ed and noise-sensi i e g oups was no con i med. The expe imen consis ed o wo pa s – si ing and walking. The pa icipan s had been si ing quie ly in he an o almos hal an hou be o e a i ing a he si e and had aken blood p essu e measu emen s in he an be o e en e ing o he ac ual en i onmen . The highe blood p essu e measu es a e si ing and iewing he se ing could be due o he obse ed new en i onmen , en i onmen al s imuli (mosqui os, ex- posu e o wind and sun), o he people passing by, as well as sudden ac i i y ( aking he commands and p essing he moni o bu on) ha all migh ha e an e ec on blood p essu e measu es. The walking ac i i y a e si ing (physical ac i i y) migh also explain why he e is no di - e ence be ween he s a and he end o he expe imen on blood p essu e in di e en en i onmen s since he ac i i ies aise blood p essu e and can mask he e ec s o en i onmen s. In addi ion, he pa icipan s knew which o he h ee en i onmen s hey we e going o isi , and i seems ha he e was an an icipa ion e ec – he e we e subs an ial di e ences be ween en i onmen s in blood p essu e mea- su es in he beginning o he isi s ( he lowes blood p essu e in he woodland among he low-u ban-o ien ed g oup and in he pa k among he high-u ban-o ien ed and noise-insensi i e g oup). Al hough he e is some e idence showing ha people unde es ima e he s eng h o po- si i e a ec be o e hei na u e walks, such esul s depend on he sample and he u ban en i onmen s used o compa ison (Nisbe and Zelenski, 2011); woodland and pa k walks ha e high posi i e ex- pec ancy alue in he Finnish cul u e. I would be impo an o s udy u he and o elabo a e mo e upon he e ec s o he exposu e o en i onmen al noise and pollu ion o- ge he wi h he e ec s o en i onmen al p e e ences on es o a ion in u ban g een a eas. I is hypo hesized ha physiological changes asso- cia ed wi h isi s o na u e may pa ly be due o educed exposu e o ai pollu ion and noise. I is known ha he ca dio ascula sys em eac s apidly o en i onmen al exposu es (Lanki e al., 2007; Tassi e al., 2010). The physiological s ess eac ions o noise a e pa ly un- conscious and a e mani es ed by highe blood p essu e, co isol, and hea a e a iabili y (Huang e al., 2013; Selande e al., 2009; Van Kempen and Babisch, 2012). The possible e ec s o en i onmen al p e e ences on human physiology a e less known. The e a e some limi a ions in ou s udy. Fi s , he inclusion o only women limi s he gene alizabili y o ou esul s. As women seem o olun ee mo e eadily, in he u u e, special e o s should be made o ec ui men. Second, we do no know he deg ee o pe manence o he e ec s o isi s o di e en u ban a eas. Ou s udy did no include a ollow-up and we we e no able o ollow he olun ee s a e he ex- pe imen . Thi d, mos o ou pa icipan s we e ac i e use s o na u e. I is di icul o know how his a ec s he esul s o he expe imen . Fou h, ou olun ee s had o lea e wo k a ew hou s ea lie han on a no mal wo king day because o he iming o he expe imen . We had o s a ela i ely ea ly due o aking in o accoun he changes in dayligh du ing he expe imen al pe iod. This could mean ha hese pa ici- pan s, who we e e y busy, and possibly high in occupa ional s ess did no ake pa in he expe imen . S ill, his would mean ha he e- s o a i e ou comes could be e en highe o hose people who su e mo e om esou ce deple ion (such as a en ion es o a ion, eelings o s ess). Fi h, he expe imen al se ing is no e y na u al (exac iming o si ing and walking, he same si ing posi ion, walking a a gi en speed on a gi en cou se) and p obably in luences he esul s (e.g. blood p essu e ha is he mos sensi i e measu e). Six h, be o e he i s and second se o blood-p essu e measu emen s he pa icipan s had been Fig. 8. G aphic ep esen a ion o leas squa e means o eelings o i ali y measu ed by Subjec i e Vi ali y Scale (SVS) by noise-sensi i e and noise-insensi i e g oups. A. Ojala e al. Heal h and Place xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 9