Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change
MIA LANDAUER, TUIJA SIEVÄNEN AND MARJO NEUVONEN
Landaue , Mia, Tuija Sie änen & Ma jo Neu onen (2009). Adap a ion o Finnish
c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change. Fennia 187: 2, pp. 99–113. Helsinki.
ISSN 0015-0010.
C oss-coun y skiing has a long his o y in Finland, and i is a pa o he na ional
iden i y o Finns. This s udy on c oss-coun y skie s’ adap a ion o changing cli-
ma e desc ibes g oups o c oss-coun y skie s wi h e e ence o hei mo i es o
skiing, and hei pe cep ions and p e e ences on clima e change adap a ion
ools. The da a was collec ed by means o a web ques ionnai e con ac ing skie s
in ski a eas, mainly in sou he n Finland, and on he websi es o ski associa ions.
On he basis o a clus e analysis, we ound h ee g oups o skie ypes, each o
which has di e en pe cep ions o means o adap ing hei skiing beha iou o
he dec easing skiing oppo uni ies close o home. One g oup o skie s, he ‘so-
cial ype’ g oup, placed emphasis on skiing adi ions and social easons. This
g oup is he mos liable o gi e up skiing i he skiing condi ions close o home
a e poo . The ‘ou doo ype’ g oup, whose skiing mo i es we e ela ed o skiing
en i onmen quali ies (na u e, landscape, win e ) and he ‘ echnical ype’ g oup
mo i a ed by fi ness objec i es, we e in e es ed in beha iou al adap a ion, o
example, a elling u he away and using a ificial snow acks. Wi h a be e
unde s anding o skie s’ beha iou , i is possible o iden i y adap a ion s a egies
ha can help p o ide s o skiing se ices, such as municipal agencies and he ski
ou ism indus y, as well as skie s hemsel es, o p epa e o clima e change.
Mia Landaue , Depa men o Landscape, Spa ial and In as uc u e Sciences –
Ins i u e o Landscape De elopmen , Rec ea ion and Conse a ion Planning,
Uni e si y o Na u al Resou ces and Applied Li e Sciences (BOKU), Pe e -Jo -
dan-S asse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Aus ia. E-mail: [email p o ec ed].
Tuija Sie änen & Ma jo Neu onen, Finnish Fo es Resea ch Ins i u e, PL 18,
FI-01301 Van aa, Finland. E-mails: uija.sie anen@me la.fi, ma jo.neu onen@
me la.fi.
MS ecei ed 02.12.2008.
In oduc ion
C oss-coun y skiing has a s ong adi ion in Fin-
land, and skiing is o en men ioned as pa o he
Finnish na ional iden i y. Ou doo ec ea ion in
gene al plays a e y impo an pa in he daily li e
o Finns. Almos all Finnish people pa icipa e in
some o m o ec ea ion du ing he yea , and wo
ou o h ee engage in ou doo ec ea ion e e y
week (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). C oss-coun y ski-
ing is one o he a ou i e ou doo ec ea ion ac-
i i ies among Finns: 40% o he popula ion go
skiing 19 imes du ing he win e season on a e -
age (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). C oss-coun y skiing
is an e e yday spo and leisu e ac i i y, bu o
many i is also a popula way o spend ac i e holi-
days. Skiing is he main pu pose o abou 10% o
ou is ips made o pa icipa e in ou doo and na-
u e ac i i ies (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). Finnish
people lea n o ski by he age o fi e on a e age
(Sie änen 1995), and 94% o he Finnish adul
popula ion ha e c oss-coun y skiing skills (Pou a
& Sie änen 2001). Exe cise, elaxa ion, con ac
wi h na u e, being wi h amily o iends and
spending leisu e ime a e impo an mo i es o
skiing (Sie änen 1995). In addi ion, skiing is con-
side ed an excellen way o aking exe cise in o -
de o enhance one’s physical and men al heal h in
all age g oups (Wöllzenmülle & Wenge 2005).
The No dic concep o “e e yman’s igh ”, he a-
di ional igh o ee access, allows skiing in o -
es s, fields and on ice-co e ed lakes. Howe e ,
100 FENNIA 187:2(2009)
Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen
skiing mos o en akes place on p epa ed ski acks
in ec ea ion a eas close o he home (e en in la g-
e ci ies) p o ided by he au ho i ies esponsible
o ec ea ion adminis a ion in municipali ies. Fo
an a e age Finn, a sui able ski a ea wi h p epa ed
ski acks is a a dis ance o app oxima ely 1.5 kilo-
me es om he place o esidence (Pou a &
Sie änen 2001).
Global wa ming and clima e change a e con-
side ed o be he mos se ious en i onmen al p ob-
lem a ec ing snow-based ec ea ion and ou ism
(Elsasse & Bü ki 2004; Willbanks e al. 2007;
Sco e al. 2009), and c oss-coun y skiing is con-
side ed o be one o he ou doo ac i i ies ha is
mos sensi i e o changing clima e condi ions
(Sco e al. 2002; Neu onen e al. 2005). Win e s
wi h pe manen snow co e las 4–5 mon hs (ap-
p oxima ely 75 o 100 days) in sou he n Finland
and in no he n Finland 7 mon hs (200 days) on
a e age (Finnish Me eo ological Ins i u e 2008).
Clima e model p ojec ions show ha win e em-
pe a u es a e ising in no he n Eu ope (Jylhä e al.
2004; Alcamo e al. 2007), and e eal a endency
owa ds wa me win e s and educed snow co e ,
pa icula ly in sou he n Finland (Ca e & Kankaan-
pää 2003). I is p edic ed ha snow dep h will de-
c ease by 78% in sou he n Finland and by 48% in
no he n Finland in he nex 100 yea s (Ruos eeno-
ja e al. 2005).The dec easing numbe o days wi h
snow co e , he lowe snow dep h and he ising
ai empe a u es o win e days a e expec ed o
ha e di ec influences on c oss-coun y skiing, es-
pecially in sou he n Finland, whe e he majo i y o
he Finnish popula ion li e (Neu onen e al.
2005).
Sie änen e al. (2005: 3) poin ou ha ou doo
ec ea ion and na u e-based ou ism a e depend-
en on clima e ‘as a p econdi ion o he ac i i ies’
and on he wea he ‘ o he ac ion i sel ’. This
means ha changing clima e will ha e an impac
on he ec ea ional en i onmen , and will change
ec ea ion and a el beha iou (Sco e al. 2009).
Ou doo ec ea ion scena ios unde changing cli-
ma e show ha in condi ions o wa me win e s,
pa icipa ion in c oss-coun y skiing will dec ease
(Sie änen e al. 2005).The e a e di e ences among
skie s in hei sensibili y o clima e change im-
pac s, depending on hei demog aphic and socio-
economic s a us (Pou a e al. 2009). A longe - e m
consequence may be ha ewe young people will
lea n basic skiing skills compa ed wi h p e ious
gene a ions due o he lack o skiing oppo uni ies
close o home (Neu onen e al. 2005).
The e is a g owing in e es in s udying adap a-
ion me hods and de eloping adap a ion policies
o win e ou ism and ec ea ion in condi ions o
wa ming clima e, bu mos s udies conce ning ski-
ing ocus on alpine (downhill) skiing (e.g. Wall &
Badke 1994; Abegg 1996; Elsasse & Bü ki 2004;
Sie änen e al. 2005; Sco & McBoyle 2007; Un-
behaun e al. 2008). Neu onen e al. (2005) sug-
ges ha sho - e m adap a ion s a egies o c oss-
coun y skie s when skiing condi ions close o
home a e poo could include a elling o mo e
dis an loca ions, using a ificial snow acks,
choosing snow-independen ac i i ies o in es ing
in new ypes o ec ea ion equipmen using high-
ech solu ions. In he longe e m, changes in win-
e ec ea ion ac i i y p e e ences and choices a e
o be expec ed. A u he aspec o he si ua ion is
ha de e io a ion o skiing in as uc u e may be-
come a se ious p oblem (Pe y 2004). Many coun-
ies ha e na ional s a egies o clima e change
adap a ion, which include he ec ea ion and ou -
ism sec o (e.g. B eiling & Cham anza 1999;
Ma ila e al. 2005; Sco & McBoyle 2007). Mo e-
o e , clima e change and win e ou ism ha e also
become an issue o conce n o in e na ional policy
make s and ins i u ions such as he Wo ld Tou ism
O ganisa ion (Wo ld Tou ism O ganiza ion 2003;
Sco e al. 2009).
The e is an inc easing need o moni o changes
in ec ea ional beha iou , and some ends and
p edic ions ha e been p esen ed (Co dell e al.
1999; Neu onen e al. 2005; Sie änen e al. 2005;
Sco e al. 2008; Unbehaun e al. 2008). I is nec-
essa y o ob ain mo e in o ma ion abou ypes o
skie s, hei p e e ences, mo i es and skiing pa -
e ns unde condi ions o clima e change, in o de
o gain a be e unde s anding o po en ial adap a-
ion s a egies and skiing beha iou .
Ou doo ec ea ion in es men s o en ha e a
long ime pe spec i e, since he mos impo an
decisions conce n land use and also he use o
o he na u al esou ces. Be e scena ios and un-
de s anding o skie s’ eac ions and changing be-
ha iou will help ski se ice p o ide s and poli i-
cal decision make s o choose he bes adap a ion
s a egies, and o plan and make decisions on u-
u e skiing in as uc u e in es men s. Fo c oss-
coun y skiing ou ism, sho - e m p edic ions a e
also use ul in o de o espond a an ea ly phase o
he challenges posed by clima e change. In o ma-
ion is needed o find ways o adap ing manage-
men p ac ices in ski a eas in o de o mi iga e he
consequences o changing condi ions. When con-
FENNIA 187:2(2009) 101
Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change
side ing clima e change, he mi iga ing o e ec s,
such as educ ion o a el- ela ed emissions,
should also be a conce n. F om he s and poin o
mi iga ion, a elling long dis ances in o de o ski
is con o e sial as an adap a ion me hod, among
o he hings due o he need o educe ou ca bon
oo p in (Dubois & Ce on 2005). In no he n Fin-
land, win e ou ism al eady plays an impo an
ole in he ou ism sec o and in he egion’s eco-
nomic ac i i y in gene al, bu mos ou ism en e-
p eneu s ha e e y li le knowledge and ha dly
any adap a ion s a egies o dealing wi h clima e
change (Ma ila e al. 2005; Saa inen & Te o
2006), e en hough en e p ises ha e expe ience o
how a ia ions in wea he , and pa icula ly wea h-
e ex emes du ing he skiing season, impac hei
business (Te o 2008).
The aim o his s udy is o inc ease ou unde -
s anding o how c oss-coun y skie s a e likely o
adap hei skiing beha iou o changing clima e
condi ions. The objec i e is o s udy c oss-coun y
skie s’ p e e ences and pe cep ions o he skiing
en i onmen , and in pa icula hei in e es and
willingness o use di e en ypes o adap a ion
me hods when skiing condi ions a e poo . Fi s ,
we o med skie g oups acco ding o hei mo i es
o pa icipa ion in skiing and desc ibe ypical ski-
ing pa e ns. Second, we analysed skiing en i on-
men p e e ences and pe cep ions o adap a ion
me hods in hese skie g oups. Mo i a ion-based
classifica ion (see Léga é & Haide 2008) enables
us o gain a deepe insigh in o he p e e ence he -
e ogenei y among c oss-coun y skie s.
Fac o s a ec ing he beha iou al
adap a ion o skie s unde changing
clima e condi ions
By unde s anding pas beha iou , we gain insigh s
ha help us o p edic u u e beha iou . Fac o s
ha explain ec ea ional beha iou , pa icula ly
pa icipa ion in a ce ain leisu e ac i i y, include
ac i i y-specific a iables (i.e. skill le el, pas ex-
pe ience, access o equipmen , access o ec ea-
ion se ices and ype o na u al esou ces) in pa -
icula , and socio-economic ac o s such as gen-
de , age, income and educa ion in gene al (e.g.
Manning 1999; Co ell 2002). Fu he , a i udes,
mo i a ions, sa is ac ion, pe cep ions o p e e -
ences also con ibu e o he p edic ion o beha -
iou (e.g. Iso-Ahola 1986; Lea 1992; Pou a 2003).
De F ei as (2001, 2003) a gue ha he e is li le
knowledge abou he e ec s o clima e on human
beha iou , bu beha iou can be used as a meas-
u e o human sensi i i y and sa is ac ion, and be-
ha iou is a eliable indica o o he significance o
wea he condi ions. Wea he condi ions and he
men al image o an a ea a e salien a iables in
de e mining ec ea ionis s’ sa is ac ion: human e-
sponse o clima e is in e connec ed wi h pe cep-
ions (de F ei as 2001). Wea he p e e ences o a
sui able ski a ea/skiing condi ions consis o physi-
cal (e.g. ain o snow days, amoun o snow) and
aes he ic aspec s (e.g. isibili y, sunshine o cloud),
which can be used in de e mining ec ea ionis s’
beha iou al esponses and hei sensi i i y o and
sa is ac ion wi h wea he /clima e condi ions (de
F ei as 2001). A s udy o au onomous adap a ion
in e ms o u u e pa icipa ion scena ios indica ed
ha a dec ease in mean snow dep h and numbe
o days wi h snow co e ha e di ec influences on
c oss-coun y skiing oppo uni ies, and ha his
de elopmen leads o dec eased pa icipa ion e-
quencies (Neu onen e al. 2005). The place o
esidence and i s en i onmen al quali ies a e ac-
o s ha configu e peoples’ p e e ences ela ing o
hei ec ea ional en i onmen , whe eas income
le el o a ailable leisu e ime may ela e o con-
s ain s a ec ing indi idual’s choices. None o he
backg ound ac o s alone, bu always a se o ac-
o s, help o explain pa icipa ion o non-pa ici-
pa ion in ec ea ion ac i i ies (Sie änen e al.
2003). In he s udy by Pou a e al. (2009), sensi i -
i y o clima e change was ound o di e among
di e en popula ion g oups: an u ban li ing en i-
onmen , emale gende and low social s a us we e
associa ed wi h a highe sensi i i y o clima e
change.
Rec ea ionis s and ou is s ha e wo main ypes
o me hod o adap ing o clima e change: beha -
iou al and echnical (de F ei as 2003; Sco e al.
2009). In p inciple, ec ea ionis s ha e good op-
po uni ies o choose he ac i i y, and he place
and he ime o hei chosen leisu e- ime ac i i y
(i.d.), bu in p ac ice, he choices in he close- o-
home en i onmen a e limi ed du ing he ee ime
a ailable in e e yday li e. Beha iou al adap a ion
can be in e p e ed as a p ocess whe e a pe son
changes his o he p e ious beha iou pa e n on
accoun o changing en i onmen al condi ions o
social se ing. When s udying beha iou al adap a-
ion as a u u e op ion, adap a ion can be seen as
ahypo he ical in ended way o beha ing in he u-
u e. When s udying he adap a ion o c oss-coun-
102 FENNIA 187:2(2009)
Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen
y skie s, i is essen ial o unde s and and know
abou he skie ’s pas skiing beha iou . I is impo -
an o unde s and how impo an c oss-coun y
skiing is as a leisu e ac i i y o di e en people,
and whe he hey ha e accep able subs i u es o
skiing. Mo i a ion o skiing is one o he ele an
ac o s. Pe sonal esou ces and commi men o
c oss-coun y skiing in pa icula is an issue. This
e e s, o example, o skiing skills as pa o he
pe son’s in es men (‘capi al’) in leisu e, o as a
cul u al ela ionship, o example, whe e skiing is
iden ified as pa o he local and na ional cul u e.
Economic esou ces and he ime a ailable o
ou doo ec ea ion may ac as a cons ain on pa -
icipa ion, which ei he upholds o hinde s pa ici-
pa ion. In ou s udy, we fi s classified skie s ac-
co ding o hei skiing mo i a ion and desc ibed
hese g oups acco ding o hei socio-economic
cha ac e is ics and skiing beha iou . In adap a ion
esea ch, i is impo an o look a po en ial di e -
ences in people’s beha iou ha may explain hei
eac ions o changing condi ions, and o explo e
whe he some o he ac o s a e ela ed o manage-
men p ac ices ha can be changed in o de o as-
sis he adap a ion p ocess o indi idual skie s.
Basically, people a e used o adjus ing hei be-
ha iou o hei local clima ic condi ions, ha ing
‘a coping ange’ (Smi & Pili oso a 2003). The e
a e a ew s udies on clima e change and beha -
iou al adap a ion ha ocus on di e en aspec s o
beha iou al explana ions. Many ocus on issues o
spa ial, empo al and ac i i y subs i u ion, and
o he s a e ela ed o he concep o adap i e ca-
paci y (Sco e al. 2009). Adap i e capaci y in-
cludes h ee di e en componen s: awa eness
(iden ifica ion o wea he ex emes and changed
clima e); abili y (ha ing skiing skills, ha ing he
equipmen , he dis ance o close- o-home skiing
des ina ions, gende , age, income, willingness o
a el in o de o ski, sensi i i y o wea he condi-
ions); and ac ion (gi ing up skiing, willingness o
a el o be e skiing condi ions) (e.g. Me zge e
al. 2005). G o hmann and Pa (2005) in oduced
he idea o aking socio-cogni i e a iables in o
conside a ion in models o adap a ion and adap-
i e capaci y, and Blenno and Pe sson (2009)
s ess he ole o belie s in he p ocess o ealised
adap i e capaci y.
Adap a ion o changed en i onmen al condi-
ions could also be desc ibed as a decision making
p ocess o a se ies o decisions. D i e and B own
(1975) p esen ed a social-psychological model
ha explains he decision making p ocess and ac-
o s ha a ec a pe son’s decision a each s age o
he decision making p ocess. En i onmen al ac-
o s a e influen ial a se e al s ages o he p ocess:
messages om he en i onmen a ouse in e es in
pa icipa ion and a e used o e alua e he di e en
op ions be o e making a choice. I he decision a-
ou s pa icipa ion, expe iences o ac ual pa ici-
pa ion subsequen ly ei he s eng hen o weaken
he beha iou al endency. I he e alua ion o he
expe ience is posi i e, he expec ed benefi s ha e
been ealised. These benefi s gained a e hen e-
assessed, and he esul o he e alua ion has an
influence on he nex decisions made on pa icipa-
ion. When conside ing u u e adap a ion, a hypo-
he ical decision making p ocess mus be imaged
on he basis o p e ious expe iences (e.g. wea he
condi ions and skiing) and expec a ions o he e-
sou ces ha will be a ailable in he u u e. The
la e ac o is o en based on he cu en si ua ion
conce ning ime and money. Indeed, in e es and
willingness o expend mo e in e ms o ime and
money o ob ain he same benefi s, e.g. posi i e
skiing expe iences, can be s udied i he in o man
is o e ed in o ma ion abou op ions ha will be
a ailable in he u u e. A se ies o ‘nega i e’ deci-
sions on pa icipa ion may also each a lesson:
when poo skiing condi ions occu o en du ing
he skiing season, a pe son may a e some ime
p e e o gi e up he ac i i y, o look o o he ad-
ap a ion ools, such as o he ski a eas/des ina ions
o di e en ypes o equipmen .
In he li e a u e on ec ea ion (i.e. s udies on
ec ea ion ends in gene al, such as Co dell e al.
1999) he e a e only a ew s udies ha include
c oss-coun y skiing as an ac i i y,and he e a e
e en ewe ocusing on he beha iou al adap a-
ion o c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change (e.g.
Neu onen e al. 2005). The e a e se e al ways o
people o cope o adjus hei ec ea ional beha -
iou in changing clima ic condi ions, bu e y li -
le is known abou he mechanisms and influen ial
ac o s (e.g. Sco e al. 2009). Adownhill skiing
s udy by Unbehaun e al. (2008) ound ou ha
snow-independen subs i u es a e accep ed as a
sho - e m compensa ion bu no o he whole
win e holiday, and i is accep able o a el long-
e dis ances and pay mo e o skiing i he des ina-
ion can o e sui able skiing condi ions. Landaue
and P öbs l (2008) in es iga ed c oss-coun y ski-
e s’ p e e ences, and indica ed ha c oss-coun y
skie s in Aus ia conside ha landscape and he
win e expe ience a e a undamen al pa o he
skiing expe ience.Technical adap a ion s a egies,
FENNIA 187:2(2009) 103
Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change
such as a ificial snow o ski unnels, a e less p e-
e ed.
The skie ’s mo i a ion is he e assumed o be
linked wi h his/he p e e ences as ega ds skiing
en i onmen and skiing se ices, and wi h beha -
iou al changes. In ou s udy, we fi s classified ski-
e s acco ding o hei skiing mo i a ion and de-
sc ibed hese g oups acco ding o hei socio-eco-
nomic cha ac e is ics and skiing beha iou . Clas-
sifica ion o skie s acco ding o hei mo i a ion
o e s a g ound o discussing p e e ences ega d-
ing he skiing en i onmen and skiing se ices and
in e es in choosing di e en ypes o adap a ion
me hod i skiing condi ions change as a esul o
clima e change.
Da a and me hods
Da a
The da a was collec ed wi h a web ques ionnai e
om skie s, who we e con ac ed pe sonally in ski
a eas in he Helsinki egion in sou he n Finland in
Feb ua y–Ma ch 2007. I was planned o decen-
alise he on-si e deli e y loca ions and da es o
he da a collec ion, bu due o he ex emely sho
win e season o 2006–2007 he possibili ies o
decen alisa ion we e limi ed. Skie s om sou h-
e n Finland we e chosen because hey may ha e
had mo e expe ience o wa m win e s han skie s
in o he egions. In addi ion, skie s om ec ea-
ional and skiing o ganisa ions such as Suomen
La u, Suomen Hiih olii o, Nes een ael aja ,
Oulun Hiih oseu a/Te ahiih o we e in i ed o
pa icipa e by o e ing a link o he web ques ion-
nai e on he o ganisa ions’ websi e, o by deli e -
ing con ac pos ca ds con aining in o ma ion on
how o access he web ques ionnai e. A emp s
we e hus made o con ac a la ge numbe o skie s
in ski a eas as well as ac i e skie s om skiing o -
ganisa ions. The web su ey is an inexpensi e way
o achie ing a la ge numbe o esponses, and i is
con enien o esponden s o fill i ou a home o
o he wise in ano he com o indoo s a he han
ou o doo s in win e . Also, i is possible o c ea e
a e sa ile and isually pleasing ques ionnai e ha
esponden s can easily access. Abou 1500 con-
ac pos ca ds (in Finnish language) we e dis ib-
u ed on-si e in ski a eas. The ca d consis ed o in-
o ma ion abou he web add ess o he su ey,
he p ojec i sel , con ac in o ma ion and in o ma-
ion on a a el p ize, which i was assumed would
se e as an incen i e o espond o he ques ion-
nai e.
A o al o 1192 skie s isi ed he websi e, and
744 esponses we e comple ed well enough o be
used o analysis. I is no ele an o de e mine he
accu a e pe cen age o he esponse a e in he
case o an online su ey ha was open o all in e -
es ed skie s. Specific ques ions we e used in he
ques ionnai e o ensu e ha he esponden s we e
c oss-coun y skie s. The esponden s in he su -
ey we e mos ly Finnish and he majo i y o hem
we e om sou he n Finland.
Ou da a seems o be easonably ep esen a i e
when compa ed wi h wha we know abou skie s
in gene al, i.e. he skiing popula ion in Finland.
Only 7% o esponden s in ou da a we e unde 25
yea s old, which is compa able o he figu e o 9%
o c oss-coun y skie s who a e unde 25 yea s
old p esen ed in he Finnish Na ional Exe cise Su -
ey (Kansallinen liikun a u kimus… 2006). Ou
skie s we e well educa ed, 61% ha ing a uni e -
si y o poly echnic le el deg ee. In o he s udies,
pa icipa ion a es a e highe among popula ion
g oups wi h a high educa ional le el han among
hose wi h a lowe educa ion le el (Pou a & Sie ä-
nen 2001; Kansallinen liikun a u kimus… 2006).
Va iables
The ques ionnai e consis ed o 43 ques ions, in-
cluding a iables ela ing o skiing abili y, he ski-
e s’ ac i i y mode, awa eness o clima e change
and beha iou al flexibili y, as well as adap a ion
op ions. The fi s pa o he ques ionnai e consis -
ed o basic ques ions ela ing o skie s’ indi idual
skiing habi s, which we e in ended o collec in-
o ma ion on skiing abili y (i.e. skills, equipmen
and equencies) and on skiing mo i es. Ac ion-
based adap a ion measu emen s we e used o
measu e skie s’ empo al and spa ial beha iou
flexibili y (i.e. a ou ed dis ance o ski a eas, plan-
ning a skiing ip). The second pa ocused on
p e e ences ega ding ski se ices in gene al. This
was ollowed by ques ions abou p e ious clima e
change expe iences and awa eness o clima e
change. When asked abou pe cep ions o possi-
ble adap a ion op ions, esponden s we e gi en
scena ios o skiing condi ions ha eflec a hypo-
he ical u u e si ua ion unde condi ions o cli-
ma e change. Thehypo he ical si ua ion was de-
sc ibed o example as ollows: ‘i he e was no
enough snow in you a ou i e skiing a ea’ o ‘i
he e we e se e al win e s wi h lack o snow’. The

104 FENNIA 187:2(2009)
Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen
a iables ela ing o ski a ea p e e ences and adap-
a ion op ions a e desc ibed in Appendices 1a and
1b. P e e ences we e mos ly measu ed on he fi e-
s ep Like scale (see Like 1977).
Analy ical me hods
In o de o iden i y po en ial mo i e g oups ega d-
ing skiing pa icipa ion and in o de o ob ain de-
ailed in o ma ion on p e e ence he e ogenei y in
he skie sample, a p incipal componen analysis
o skiing mo i es measu ed on a fi e-s ep Like
scale was fi s ca ied ou . Skie s we e g ouped ac-
co ding o hese skiing mo i e componen s using
K-Means clus e analysis, and a h ee-clus e solu-
ion was ound o be he bes .
The skiing pa e ns and socio-demog aphic
backg ounds o he skie ype g oups we e s udied
using c oss- abula ion wi h Chi-squa e es s. One-
way ANOVA was used o analyse po en ial di e -
ences be ween he clima e change adap a ion op-
ions o he skie ypes. Mul iple compa isons we e
made be ween he skie ypes using Tukey’s es s
(Tukey B and Tukey HSD). The aim was o find ou
which g oups di e and whe he he di e ences
a e s a is ically significan a p ≤0.05. In o de o
es he eliabili y o he One-Way ANOVA, he
K uskall Wallis es o he same a iables was also
applied.The esul s o he K uskall Wallis es we e
simila o he esul s o he One-Way ANOVA es .
Finally, he sum a iables o ski a ea and des ina-
ion choice p e e ences we e coun ed (Appendix
1a and 1b) in o de o comp ess (Figs. 1–2) he
salien in o ma ion ga he ed om he o iginal a i-
ables. All he esul s o he ela ionships p esen ed
in his s udy a e significan a p ≤0.05, unless o h-
e wise s a ed.
Resul s
Skie ypes and cu en skiing beha iou
Skie s in his s udy pa icipa ed in skiing ac i i ies
20–30 days in a season on a e age. The ypical
leng h o one skiing ip was 11–20 km on a e age.
Nea ly 30% o he skie s epo ed 11–30 km (one-
way) o be an accep able dis ance om home o
he ski des ina ion o a day ip. Fo a holiday ip
mo e han hal o he skie s we e willing o a el
mo e han 700 km. Skie s epo ed ha he deci-
sion o making a day ip is ypically spon aneous,
bu ski holidays a e planned a couple o mon hs
be o e he holiday begins. The classical skiing
s yle was he mos a ou ed way o skiing. Skie s
epo ed ha hey p e e skiing alone: app oxi-
ma ely hal o hem ski alone, nea ly 20% wi h
hei pa ne s and only 6.5% wi h iends. Almos
all he skie s (86%) lea ned o ski as child en, 12%
a school age, and only 2% as adul s. In he case o
62% o he skie s, skiing was augh by a amily
membe . O he popula ou doo ac i i ies among
skie s we e jogging, cycling, walking and No dic
walking (including No dic unning and blading).
O e 85% o skie s had ca s a hei disposal.
P incipal componen analysis e ealed h ee
componen s o skiing mo i es ela ing o he skiing
en i onmen , social se ing, echnical skills and
in e es in fi ness (Table 1). The clus e analysis
based on he p incipal componen sco es showed
ha he e a e ac ually h ee skie g oup ypes
based on hei skiing p e e ences (Table 2). G oup
1was called he ‘social ype’, which emphasises
he impo ance o adi ions and ime spen wi h
amily and iends when skiing. G oup 2 is he
‘ou doo ype’, which s esses he impo an quali-
ies o he skiing en i onmen , such as na u e,
landscape and win e . G oup 3 is he ‘ echnical
ype’, which conside s skiing a way o keeping fi
and de eloping skills. The majo i y o skie s be-
longed o he ou doo and echnical g oups. The
smalles g oup was he social g oup.
The classifica ion made i possible o s udy he
socio-economic cha ac e is ics o he skie ypes
in mo e de ail. All he g oups we e domina ed by
men, bu ela i ely speaking, he mos male domi-
na ed was he echnical ype g oup. The e we e no
s a is ically significan di e ences in age class be-
ween he g oups, bu he social ype g oup had
mo e olde skie s compa ed o o he g oups, while
he echnical ype g oup had he younges skie s.
As ega ds skiing company, he echnical skie s
ended o go skiing alone mo e o en han he o h-
e s, whe eas he membe s o he ou doo and so-
cial g oups p e e ed skiing in company. Technical
skie s p e e ed he ska ing skiing s yle. Thea ail-
abili y o a ca was highes in he echnical ype
g oup, al hough no o an ex en ha was s a is i-
cally significan (Table 3).
Mos o he skie s in all g oups wen day-skiing
spon aneously (mo e han 70% o occu ences in
all g oups). The e we e no significan di e ences
o opinion as o how a he skie s a e willing o
go/ a el o skiing in he case o a day ip: he
p e e ed dis ance om home was 11–30 km, al-
hough 3–5 km was p e e ed in he social g oup.
FENNIA 187:2(2009) 105
Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change
Table 1. P incipal componen analysis o skiing mo i es.
Skiing mo i es
Componen 1Componen 2Componen 3
Skiing en i onmen Social ea u es Technical skills and fi ness
Na u e expe ience 0.855
Win e expe ience 0.825
Landscape 0.772
Silence and peace 0.738
Rec ea ion 0.721
Sus aining skiing adi ions 0.780
Time wi h amily/ iends 0.662
Keeping fi 0.853
Imp o ing echnique 0.735
Eigen alues 3.55 1.38 1.03
In e p e a ion, %39.45 15.37 11.49
To al a iance explained, %66.3
Table 2. K-means clus e analysis o p incipal componen sco es.
Mo i e clus e s and mean sco e
P incipal componen s Social ype Ou doo ype Technical ype
Skiing en i onmen –0.177 0.607 –0.485
Social ea u es 0.431 0.525 –0.739
Technical skills and fi ness –1.393 0.457 0.321
To al: N=744 N=162 (21.8%) N=285 (38.3%) N=297 (39.9%)
Table 3. G oup cha ac e is ics.
Social ype Ou doo ype Technical ype
Gende Male 50.6%, emale 46.3% Male 51.6%, emale 46.7% Male 67.3%, emale 39.2%
S yle Classical Classical and ska ing Ska ing
Leng h o skiing ip Sho es (6–10 km) Longes (21–30 km) Medium (11–20 km)
Skiing equencyIn equen ly (6–10 days/season) F equen ly (mo e han 80 days/
season) Regula ly (31–50 days/season)
Skie ype Mos ly day skie s/ leisu e ype Mos ly holiday skie s/ fi ness
ype Mos ly holiday skie s/ fi ness
ype
The membe s o he ou doo ype g oup we e
eady o a el u he han he membe s o o he
g oups, e en as a as 31–100 km, o a day ip.
Beha iou al and pe cep ual di e ences
be ween skie s unde condi ions o clima e
change
In gene al, all he skie g oups we e awa e o
clima e change and i was conside ed a h ea o
c oss-coun y skiing. Expe iences o clima e
change di e ed be ween he g oups: he mem-
be s o he social ype g oup had ewe expe i-
ences o clima e change han he o he s. I skie s
had o choose an al e na i e o hei egula ski
a ea oday because o changed skiing condi-
ions, mo e han 70% o he esponden s o all
g oups would p e e going o ski in a eas wi h
eliable snow in Finland a he han elsewhe e
(ab oad).
106 FENNIA 187:2(2009)
Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen
P e e ences ega ding he impo an cha ac e is-
ics o ski a eas exp essed by di e en skie g oups
di e ed o some ex en (Fig. 1, Appendix 1a). The
mos impo an cha ac e is ics o a ski a ea in gen-
e al we e ela ed o ski se ice ea u es, such as
good ack condi ions, na u al ea u es such as
na u al snow eliabili y and closeness o home.
The membe s o he ou doo ype g oup assessed
mos cha ac e is ics, such as na u al ea u es (e.g.
he size o he a ea) and se ices (e.g. good pa k-
ing places) mo e posi i ely han he o he g oups.
In his ega d, he echnical ype g oup was e y
simila o he ou doo ype g oup. The social ype
g oup di e ed he mos om he o he g oups,
conside ing na u al ea u es such as closeness o
home, snow- eliabili y, se ice ea u es such as
good ack condi ions and echnical ea u es such
as a ificial snow possibili ies and a ailabili y o a
ski unnel less impo an in a ski a ea.
Rega ding clima e change adap a ion, he ech-
nical and ou doo g oups would a ou echnical
adap a ion s a egies i condi ions o skiing we e
poo . They also placed alue on na u al ea u es,
such as snow eliabili y and se ice ea u es, such
as good ack condi ions. The echnical ype g oup
did no app ecia e na u al ea u es, such as back-
coun y skiing (i.e. skiing wi hou p epa ed acks),
landscape beau y and se ice ea u es, such as
public anspo as much as he o he g oups.
Opinions on se ice ea u es, such as e sa ile
acks, and na u al ea u es, such as silence and
peace, di e ed among all he g oups, he ou doo
ype g oup conside ing hese op ions mo e impo -
an han he o he s. Na u al ea u es in a ski a ea,
such as silence and peace, we e mo e impo an o
he social ype g oup, whe eas se ice ea u es,
such as e sa ile acks, we e mo e impo an o
he echnical ype g oup. The social ype g oup
would mos likely gi e up skiing unde poo skiing
condi ions (Fig. 2, Appendix 1b).
Rega ding he accep ance o subs i u e op ions
unde poo snow condi ions, none o he g oups
would be eady o a el o he same place a he
same ime as usual, bu hey would a he choose
a egion wi h eliable snow condi ions. The ou -
doo and echnical g oups would p e e o book
hei holidays when hey a e su e o snow in he
a ea (Fig. 2, Appendix 1b). The social ype g oup
could be a ac ed by snow-independen ac i i ies
as an adap a ion op ion. All-season ac i i ies,
snow-independen ac i i ies and cul u al ac i i ies
as subs i u e op ions we e p e e ed by he social
and ou doo g oups. The echnical ype g oup was
no a ac ed by hese op ions, al hough indoo ac-
i i ies we e accep ed by all g oups o some ex-
en .
This s udy indica es ha Finnish skie s a e no
willing o pay o skiing in gene al. The majo i y o
skie s expec some suppo om socie y o he
p o ision o skiing se ices. The e we e, howe e ,
some di e ences be ween he skie ype g oups in
hei pe cep ions o he di ision o financial e-
sponsibili ies. The echnical ype g oup would be
eady o buy a ski ca d (a ee o ack use). The
1
2
3
4
5
Na u al snow eliabili y
impo an
App ecia esna u al
ea u es in a ski a ea
Needsski se ices
Mean
Social ype
Ou doo ype
Technical ype
Fig. 1. P e e ences ega ding pa icula ski a ea ea u es among skie g oup ypes (1=no impo an …5= e y impo an ).
FENNIA 187:2(2009) 107
Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change
1
2
3
4
5
Accep ssubs i u ional
op ions
Accep s echnical
adap a ion oolsand is
eady o use and pay o
hem
Gi esupskiing
Mean
Social ype
Ou doo ype
Technical ype
Fig. 2. Accep ance o adap a ion op ions among skie g oup ypes (1=no likely…5= e y likely).
social ype g oup could imagine paying pa king
and se ice ees, bu compa ed o he o he g oups,
his g oup conside ed ha addi ional financing o
ski a eas is no needed, and ha socie y does no
necessa ily ha e o suppo skiing.
The ou doo and social ype g oups conside ed
ha suppo o se ices migh be needed, in he
o m o axes and ack ees combined, in o de o
main ain se ices in ski a eas. Acco ding o he
ou doo and echnical ype g oups, a ificial acks
and ski unnels could be financed by a combina-
ion o axes and ack ees, bu he social ype
g oup hough ha no addi ional financing is
needed. A i udes o axes o ack ees as sole
o ms o suppo we e no a ou able. In he case
o a ificial snow and ski unnels he e we e sig-
nifican di e ences among all h ee skie g oups as
ega ds hei a i udes o paying o hese op ions.
The echnical ype g oup had he mos posi i e a -
i udes o paying o a ificial snow and ski unnels.
Because he social ype g oup was he leas in e -
es ed in a ificial snow, ski unnels and he a aila-
bili y o se ices in gene al, a compa ison be ween
only he ou doo and he echnical ype g oups
was made. I e ealed (al hough a a 0.10 signifi-
cance le el) ha he ou doo ype g oup p e e ed
axes whe eas he echnical ype g oup could im-
agine paying ack ees in o de o use a ificial
snow o unnels.The ou doo ype g oup had mo e
posi i e opinions on he need o finance se ices
han did he echnical ype g oup (Fig. 3).
Discussion and conclusions
The pu pose o his s udy was o p o ide in o ma-
ion on skie s’ pe cep ions and p e e ences in
changing clima e condi ions. The s udy iden ified
skie ype g oups ha di e in hei skiing beha -
iou and p e e ences ega ding di e en adap a-
ion op ions in a po en ial u u e si ua ion o cli-
ma e change. In his s udy, he classifica ion (clus-
e ing) o c oss-coun y skie s made i possible o
ocus in mo e de ail on he adap a ion s a egies
and p e e ence he e ogenei y o skie s. The clus-
e ing p ocedu e e ealed h ee skie ype g oups.
The fi s g oup was called he ‘social ype’, which
emphasises he impo ance o skiing adi ions and
ime spen wi h amily and iends when skiing.
The second g oup was he ‘ou doo ype’, which
s essed impo an quali ies o he skiing en i on-
men , such as na u e, landscape and win e . The
hi d g oup was he ‘ echnical ype’, which con-
side ed skiing a way o keeping fi and de eloping
skills. The majo i y o he skie s belonged o he
ou doo and echnical ype g oups. The smalles
g oup was he social ype g oup. The membe s o
he ou doo and echnical ype g oups had high
skiing equencies, and hey we e also younge
han he skie s in he social ype g oup.
The ou doo ype g oup was he mos flexible
g oup: hey would be mos likely o be able o
adap o he changes caused by clima e change.
They a e willing o a el longe dis ances han a