Adaptation of Finnish cross-country skiers to climate change

Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change MIA LANDAUER, TUIJA SIEVÄNEN AND MARJO NEUVONEN Landaue , Mia, Tuija Sie änen & Ma jo Neu onen (2009). Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change. Fennia 187: 2, pp. 99–113. Helsinki. ISSN 0015-0010. C oss-coun y skiing has a long his o y in Finland, and i is a pa o he na ional iden i y o Finns. This s udy on c oss-coun y skie s’ adap a ion o changing cli- ma e desc ibes g oups o c oss-coun y skie s wi h e e ence o hei mo i es o skiing, and hei pe cep ions and p e e ences on clima e change adap a ion ools. The da a was collec ed by means o a web ques ionnai e con ac ing skie s in ski a eas, mainly in sou he n Finland, and on he websi es o ski associa ions. On he basis o a clus e analysis, we ound h ee g oups o skie ypes, each o which has di e en pe cep ions o means o adap ing hei skiing beha iou o he dec easing skiing oppo uni ies close o home. One g oup o skie s, he ‘so- cial ype’ g oup, placed emphasis on skiing adi ions and social easons. This g oup is he mos liable o gi e up skiing i he skiing condi ions close o home a e poo . The ‘ou doo ype’ g oup, whose skiing mo i es we e ela ed o skiing en i onmen quali ies (na u e, landscape, win e ) and he ‘ echnical ype’ g oup mo i a ed by fi ness objec i es, we e in e es ed in beha iou al adap a ion, o example, a elling u he away and using a ificial snow acks. Wi h a be e unde s anding o skie s’ beha iou , i is possible o iden i y adap a ion s a egies ha can help p o ide s o skiing se ices, such as municipal agencies and he ski ou ism indus y, as well as skie s hemsel es, o p epa e o clima e change. Mia Landaue , Depa men o Landscape, Spa ial and In as uc u e Sciences – Ins i u e o Landscape De elopmen , Rec ea ion and Conse a ion Planning, Uni e si y o Na u al Resou ces and Applied Li e Sciences (BOKU), Pe e -Jo - dan-S asse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Aus ia. E-mail: [email p o ec ed]. Tuija Sie änen & Ma jo Neu onen, Finnish Fo es Resea ch Ins i u e, PL 18, FI-01301 Van aa, Finland. E-mails: uija.sie anen@me la.fi, ma jo.neu onen@ me la.fi. MS ecei ed 02.12.2008. In oduc ion C oss-coun y skiing has a s ong adi ion in Fin- land, and skiing is o en men ioned as pa o he Finnish na ional iden i y. Ou doo ec ea ion in gene al plays a e y impo an pa in he daily li e o Finns. Almos all Finnish people pa icipa e in some o m o ec ea ion du ing he yea , and wo ou o h ee engage in ou doo ec ea ion e e y week (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). C oss-coun y ski- ing is one o he a ou i e ou doo ec ea ion ac- i i ies among Finns: 40% o he popula ion go skiing 19 imes du ing he win e season on a e - age (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). C oss-coun y skiing is an e e yday spo and leisu e ac i i y, bu o many i is also a popula way o spend ac i e holi- days. Skiing is he main pu pose o abou 10% o ou is ips made o pa icipa e in ou doo and na- u e ac i i ies (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). Finnish people lea n o ski by he age o fi e on a e age (Sie änen 1995), and 94% o he Finnish adul popula ion ha e c oss-coun y skiing skills (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). Exe cise, elaxa ion, con ac wi h na u e, being wi h amily o iends and spending leisu e ime a e impo an mo i es o skiing (Sie änen 1995). In addi ion, skiing is con- side ed an excellen way o aking exe cise in o - de o enhance one’s physical and men al heal h in all age g oups (Wöllzenmülle & Wenge 2005). The No dic concep o “e e yman’s igh ”, he a- di ional igh o ee access, allows skiing in o - es s, fields and on ice-co e ed lakes. Howe e , 100 FENNIA 187:2(2009) Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen skiing mos o en akes place on p epa ed ski acks in ec ea ion a eas close o he home (e en in la g- e ci ies) p o ided by he au ho i ies esponsible o ec ea ion adminis a ion in municipali ies. Fo an a e age Finn, a sui able ski a ea wi h p epa ed ski acks is a a dis ance o app oxima ely 1.5 kilo- me es om he place o esidence (Pou a & Sie änen 2001). Global wa ming and clima e change a e con- side ed o be he mos se ious en i onmen al p ob- lem a ec ing snow-based ec ea ion and ou ism (Elsasse & Bü ki 2004; Willbanks e al. 2007; Sco e al. 2009), and c oss-coun y skiing is con- side ed o be one o he ou doo ac i i ies ha is mos sensi i e o changing clima e condi ions (Sco e al. 2002; Neu onen e al. 2005). Win e s wi h pe manen snow co e las 4–5 mon hs (ap- p oxima ely 75 o 100 days) in sou he n Finland and in no he n Finland 7 mon hs (200 days) on a e age (Finnish Me eo ological Ins i u e 2008). Clima e model p ojec ions show ha win e em- pe a u es a e ising in no he n Eu ope (Jylhä e al. 2004; Alcamo e al. 2007), and e eal a endency owa ds wa me win e s and educed snow co e , pa icula ly in sou he n Finland (Ca e & Kankaan- pää 2003). I is p edic ed ha snow dep h will de- c ease by 78% in sou he n Finland and by 48% in no he n Finland in he nex 100 yea s (Ruos eeno- ja e al. 2005).The dec easing numbe o days wi h snow co e , he lowe snow dep h and he ising ai empe a u es o win e days a e expec ed o ha e di ec influences on c oss-coun y skiing, es- pecially in sou he n Finland, whe e he majo i y o he Finnish popula ion li e (Neu onen e al. 2005). Sie änen e al. (2005: 3) poin ou ha ou doo ec ea ion and na u e-based ou ism a e depend- en on clima e ‘as a p econdi ion o he ac i i ies’ and on he wea he ‘ o he ac ion i sel ’. This means ha changing clima e will ha e an impac on he ec ea ional en i onmen , and will change ec ea ion and a el beha iou (Sco e al. 2009). Ou doo ec ea ion scena ios unde changing cli- ma e show ha in condi ions o wa me win e s, pa icipa ion in c oss-coun y skiing will dec ease (Sie änen e al. 2005).The e a e di e ences among skie s in hei sensibili y o clima e change im- pac s, depending on hei demog aphic and socio- economic s a us (Pou a e al. 2009). A longe - e m consequence may be ha ewe young people will lea n basic skiing skills compa ed wi h p e ious gene a ions due o he lack o skiing oppo uni ies close o home (Neu onen e al. 2005). The e is a g owing in e es in s udying adap a- ion me hods and de eloping adap a ion policies o win e ou ism and ec ea ion in condi ions o wa ming clima e, bu mos s udies conce ning ski- ing ocus on alpine (downhill) skiing (e.g. Wall & Badke 1994; Abegg 1996; Elsasse & Bü ki 2004; Sie änen e al. 2005; Sco & McBoyle 2007; Un- behaun e al. 2008). Neu onen e al. (2005) sug- ges ha sho - e m adap a ion s a egies o c oss- coun y skie s when skiing condi ions close o home a e poo could include a elling o mo e dis an loca ions, using a ificial snow acks, choosing snow-independen ac i i ies o in es ing in new ypes o ec ea ion equipmen using high- ech solu ions. In he longe e m, changes in win- e ec ea ion ac i i y p e e ences and choices a e o be expec ed. A u he aspec o he si ua ion is ha de e io a ion o skiing in as uc u e may be- come a se ious p oblem (Pe y 2004). Many coun- ies ha e na ional s a egies o clima e change adap a ion, which include he ec ea ion and ou - ism sec o (e.g. B eiling & Cham anza 1999; Ma ila e al. 2005; Sco & McBoyle 2007). Mo e- o e , clima e change and win e ou ism ha e also become an issue o conce n o in e na ional policy make s and ins i u ions such as he Wo ld Tou ism O ganisa ion (Wo ld Tou ism O ganiza ion 2003; Sco e al. 2009). The e is an inc easing need o moni o changes in ec ea ional beha iou , and some ends and p edic ions ha e been p esen ed (Co dell e al. 1999; Neu onen e al. 2005; Sie änen e al. 2005; Sco e al. 2008; Unbehaun e al. 2008). I is nec- essa y o ob ain mo e in o ma ion abou ypes o skie s, hei p e e ences, mo i es and skiing pa - e ns unde condi ions o clima e change, in o de o gain a be e unde s anding o po en ial adap a- ion s a egies and skiing beha iou . Ou doo ec ea ion in es men s o en ha e a long ime pe spec i e, since he mos impo an decisions conce n land use and also he use o o he na u al esou ces. Be e scena ios and un- de s anding o skie s’ eac ions and changing be- ha iou will help ski se ice p o ide s and poli i- cal decision make s o choose he bes adap a ion s a egies, and o plan and make decisions on u- u e skiing in as uc u e in es men s. Fo c oss- coun y skiing ou ism, sho - e m p edic ions a e also use ul in o de o espond a an ea ly phase o he challenges posed by clima e change. In o ma- ion is needed o find ways o adap ing manage- men p ac ices in ski a eas in o de o mi iga e he consequences o changing condi ions. When con- FENNIA 187:2(2009) 101 Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change side ing clima e change, he mi iga ing o e ec s, such as educ ion o a el- ela ed emissions, should also be a conce n. F om he s and poin o mi iga ion, a elling long dis ances in o de o ski is con o e sial as an adap a ion me hod, among o he hings due o he need o educe ou ca bon oo p in (Dubois & Ce on 2005). In no he n Fin- land, win e ou ism al eady plays an impo an ole in he ou ism sec o and in he egion’s eco- nomic ac i i y in gene al, bu mos ou ism en e- p eneu s ha e e y li le knowledge and ha dly any adap a ion s a egies o dealing wi h clima e change (Ma ila e al. 2005; Saa inen & Te o 2006), e en hough en e p ises ha e expe ience o how a ia ions in wea he , and pa icula ly wea h- e ex emes du ing he skiing season, impac hei business (Te o 2008). The aim o his s udy is o inc ease ou unde - s anding o how c oss-coun y skie s a e likely o adap hei skiing beha iou o changing clima e condi ions. The objec i e is o s udy c oss-coun y skie s’ p e e ences and pe cep ions o he skiing en i onmen , and in pa icula hei in e es and willingness o use di e en ypes o adap a ion me hods when skiing condi ions a e poo . Fi s , we o med skie g oups acco ding o hei mo i es o pa icipa ion in skiing and desc ibe ypical ski- ing pa e ns. Second, we analysed skiing en i on- men p e e ences and pe cep ions o adap a ion me hods in hese skie g oups. Mo i a ion-based classifica ion (see Léga é & Haide 2008) enables us o gain a deepe insigh in o he p e e ence he - e ogenei y among c oss-coun y skie s. Fac o s a ec ing he beha iou al adap a ion o skie s unde changing clima e condi ions By unde s anding pas beha iou , we gain insigh s ha help us o p edic u u e beha iou . Fac o s ha explain ec ea ional beha iou , pa icula ly pa icipa ion in a ce ain leisu e ac i i y, include ac i i y-specific a iables (i.e. skill le el, pas ex- pe ience, access o equipmen , access o ec ea- ion se ices and ype o na u al esou ces) in pa - icula , and socio-economic ac o s such as gen- de , age, income and educa ion in gene al (e.g. Manning 1999; Co ell 2002). Fu he , a i udes, mo i a ions, sa is ac ion, pe cep ions o p e e - ences also con ibu e o he p edic ion o beha - iou (e.g. Iso-Ahola 1986; Lea 1992; Pou a 2003). De F ei as (2001, 2003) a gue ha he e is li le knowledge abou he e ec s o clima e on human beha iou , bu beha iou can be used as a meas- u e o human sensi i i y and sa is ac ion, and be- ha iou is a eliable indica o o he significance o wea he condi ions. Wea he condi ions and he men al image o an a ea a e salien a iables in de e mining ec ea ionis s’ sa is ac ion: human e- sponse o clima e is in e connec ed wi h pe cep- ions (de F ei as 2001). Wea he p e e ences o a sui able ski a ea/skiing condi ions consis o physi- cal (e.g. ain o snow days, amoun o snow) and aes he ic aspec s (e.g. isibili y, sunshine o cloud), which can be used in de e mining ec ea ionis s’ beha iou al esponses and hei sensi i i y o and sa is ac ion wi h wea he /clima e condi ions (de F ei as 2001). A s udy o au onomous adap a ion in e ms o u u e pa icipa ion scena ios indica ed ha a dec ease in mean snow dep h and numbe o days wi h snow co e ha e di ec influences on c oss-coun y skiing oppo uni ies, and ha his de elopmen leads o dec eased pa icipa ion e- quencies (Neu onen e al. 2005). The place o esidence and i s en i onmen al quali ies a e ac- o s ha configu e peoples’ p e e ences ela ing o hei ec ea ional en i onmen , whe eas income le el o a ailable leisu e ime may ela e o con- s ain s a ec ing indi idual’s choices. None o he backg ound ac o s alone, bu always a se o ac- o s, help o explain pa icipa ion o non-pa ici- pa ion in ec ea ion ac i i ies (Sie änen e al. 2003). In he s udy by Pou a e al. (2009), sensi i - i y o clima e change was ound o di e among di e en popula ion g oups: an u ban li ing en i- onmen , emale gende and low social s a us we e associa ed wi h a highe sensi i i y o clima e change. Rec ea ionis s and ou is s ha e wo main ypes o me hod o adap ing o clima e change: beha - iou al and echnical (de F ei as 2003; Sco e al. 2009). In p inciple, ec ea ionis s ha e good op- po uni ies o choose he ac i i y, and he place and he ime o hei chosen leisu e- ime ac i i y (i.d.), bu in p ac ice, he choices in he close- o- home en i onmen a e limi ed du ing he ee ime a ailable in e e yday li e. Beha iou al adap a ion can be in e p e ed as a p ocess whe e a pe son changes his o he p e ious beha iou pa e n on accoun o changing en i onmen al condi ions o social se ing. When s udying beha iou al adap a- ion as a u u e op ion, adap a ion can be seen as ahypo he ical in ended way o beha ing in he u- u e. When s udying he adap a ion o c oss-coun- 102 FENNIA 187:2(2009) Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen y skie s, i is essen ial o unde s and and know abou he skie ’s pas skiing beha iou . I is impo - an o unde s and how impo an c oss-coun y skiing is as a leisu e ac i i y o di e en people, and whe he hey ha e accep able subs i u es o skiing. Mo i a ion o skiing is one o he ele an ac o s. Pe sonal esou ces and commi men o c oss-coun y skiing in pa icula is an issue. This e e s, o example, o skiing skills as pa o he pe son’s in es men (‘capi al’) in leisu e, o as a cul u al ela ionship, o example, whe e skiing is iden ified as pa o he local and na ional cul u e. Economic esou ces and he ime a ailable o ou doo ec ea ion may ac as a cons ain on pa - icipa ion, which ei he upholds o hinde s pa ici- pa ion. In ou s udy, we fi s classified skie s ac- co ding o hei skiing mo i a ion and desc ibed hese g oups acco ding o hei socio-economic cha ac e is ics and skiing beha iou . In adap a ion esea ch, i is impo an o look a po en ial di e - ences in people’s beha iou ha may explain hei eac ions o changing condi ions, and o explo e whe he some o he ac o s a e ela ed o manage- men p ac ices ha can be changed in o de o as- sis he adap a ion p ocess o indi idual skie s. Basically, people a e used o adjus ing hei be- ha iou o hei local clima ic condi ions, ha ing ‘a coping ange’ (Smi & Pili oso a 2003). The e a e a ew s udies on clima e change and beha - iou al adap a ion ha ocus on di e en aspec s o beha iou al explana ions. Many ocus on issues o spa ial, empo al and ac i i y subs i u ion, and o he s a e ela ed o he concep o adap i e ca- paci y (Sco e al. 2009). Adap i e capaci y in- cludes h ee di e en componen s: awa eness (iden ifica ion o wea he ex emes and changed clima e); abili y (ha ing skiing skills, ha ing he equipmen , he dis ance o close- o-home skiing des ina ions, gende , age, income, willingness o a el in o de o ski, sensi i i y o wea he condi- ions); and ac ion (gi ing up skiing, willingness o a el o be e skiing condi ions) (e.g. Me zge e al. 2005). G o hmann and Pa (2005) in oduced he idea o aking socio-cogni i e a iables in o conside a ion in models o adap a ion and adap- i e capaci y, and Blenno and Pe sson (2009) s ess he ole o belie s in he p ocess o ealised adap i e capaci y. Adap a ion o changed en i onmen al condi- ions could also be desc ibed as a decision making p ocess o a se ies o decisions. D i e and B own (1975) p esen ed a social-psychological model ha explains he decision making p ocess and ac- o s ha a ec a pe son’s decision a each s age o he decision making p ocess. En i onmen al ac- o s a e influen ial a se e al s ages o he p ocess: messages om he en i onmen a ouse in e es in pa icipa ion and a e used o e alua e he di e en op ions be o e making a choice. I he decision a- ou s pa icipa ion, expe iences o ac ual pa ici- pa ion subsequen ly ei he s eng hen o weaken he beha iou al endency. I he e alua ion o he expe ience is posi i e, he expec ed benefi s ha e been ealised. These benefi s gained a e hen e- assessed, and he esul o he e alua ion has an influence on he nex decisions made on pa icipa- ion. When conside ing u u e adap a ion, a hypo- he ical decision making p ocess mus be imaged on he basis o p e ious expe iences (e.g. wea he condi ions and skiing) and expec a ions o he e- sou ces ha will be a ailable in he u u e. The la e ac o is o en based on he cu en si ua ion conce ning ime and money. Indeed, in e es and willingness o expend mo e in e ms o ime and money o ob ain he same benefi s, e.g. posi i e skiing expe iences, can be s udied i he in o man is o e ed in o ma ion abou op ions ha will be a ailable in he u u e. A se ies o ‘nega i e’ deci- sions on pa icipa ion may also each a lesson: when poo skiing condi ions occu o en du ing he skiing season, a pe son may a e some ime p e e o gi e up he ac i i y, o look o o he ad- ap a ion ools, such as o he ski a eas/des ina ions o di e en ypes o equipmen . In he li e a u e on ec ea ion (i.e. s udies on ec ea ion ends in gene al, such as Co dell e al. 1999) he e a e only a ew s udies ha include c oss-coun y skiing as an ac i i y,and he e a e e en ewe ocusing on he beha iou al adap a- ion o c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change (e.g. Neu onen e al. 2005). The e a e se e al ways o people o cope o adjus hei ec ea ional beha - iou in changing clima ic condi ions, bu e y li - le is known abou he mechanisms and influen ial ac o s (e.g. Sco e al. 2009). Adownhill skiing s udy by Unbehaun e al. (2008) ound ou ha snow-independen subs i u es a e accep ed as a sho - e m compensa ion bu no o he whole win e holiday, and i is accep able o a el long- e dis ances and pay mo e o skiing i he des ina- ion can o e sui able skiing condi ions. Landaue and P öbs l (2008) in es iga ed c oss-coun y ski- e s’ p e e ences, and indica ed ha c oss-coun y skie s in Aus ia conside ha landscape and he win e expe ience a e a undamen al pa o he skiing expe ience.Technical adap a ion s a egies, FENNIA 187:2(2009) 103 Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change such as a ificial snow o ski unnels, a e less p e- e ed. The skie ’s mo i a ion is he e assumed o be linked wi h his/he p e e ences as ega ds skiing en i onmen and skiing se ices, and wi h beha - iou al changes. In ou s udy, we fi s classified ski- e s acco ding o hei skiing mo i a ion and de- sc ibed hese g oups acco ding o hei socio-eco- nomic cha ac e is ics and skiing beha iou . Clas- sifica ion o skie s acco ding o hei mo i a ion o e s a g ound o discussing p e e ences ega d- ing he skiing en i onmen and skiing se ices and in e es in choosing di e en ypes o adap a ion me hod i skiing condi ions change as a esul o clima e change. Da a and me hods Da a The da a was collec ed wi h a web ques ionnai e om skie s, who we e con ac ed pe sonally in ski a eas in he Helsinki egion in sou he n Finland in Feb ua y–Ma ch 2007. I was planned o decen- alise he on-si e deli e y loca ions and da es o he da a collec ion, bu due o he ex emely sho win e season o 2006–2007 he possibili ies o decen alisa ion we e limi ed. Skie s om sou h- e n Finland we e chosen because hey may ha e had mo e expe ience o wa m win e s han skie s in o he egions. In addi ion, skie s om ec ea- ional and skiing o ganisa ions such as Suomen La u, Suomen Hiih olii o, Nes een ael aja , Oulun Hiih oseu a/Te ahiih o we e in i ed o pa icipa e by o e ing a link o he web ques ion- nai e on he o ganisa ions’ websi e, o by deli e - ing con ac pos ca ds con aining in o ma ion on how o access he web ques ionnai e. A emp s we e hus made o con ac a la ge numbe o skie s in ski a eas as well as ac i e skie s om skiing o - ganisa ions. The web su ey is an inexpensi e way o achie ing a la ge numbe o esponses, and i is con enien o esponden s o fill i ou a home o o he wise in ano he com o indoo s a he han ou o doo s in win e . Also, i is possible o c ea e a e sa ile and isually pleasing ques ionnai e ha esponden s can easily access. Abou 1500 con- ac pos ca ds (in Finnish language) we e dis ib- u ed on-si e in ski a eas. The ca d consis ed o in- o ma ion abou he web add ess o he su ey, he p ojec i sel , con ac in o ma ion and in o ma- ion on a a el p ize, which i was assumed would se e as an incen i e o espond o he ques ion- nai e. A o al o 1192 skie s isi ed he websi e, and 744 esponses we e comple ed well enough o be used o analysis. I is no ele an o de e mine he accu a e pe cen age o he esponse a e in he case o an online su ey ha was open o all in e - es ed skie s. Specific ques ions we e used in he ques ionnai e o ensu e ha he esponden s we e c oss-coun y skie s. The esponden s in he su - ey we e mos ly Finnish and he majo i y o hem we e om sou he n Finland. Ou da a seems o be easonably ep esen a i e when compa ed wi h wha we know abou skie s in gene al, i.e. he skiing popula ion in Finland. Only 7% o esponden s in ou da a we e unde 25 yea s old, which is compa able o he figu e o 9% o c oss-coun y skie s who a e unde 25 yea s old p esen ed in he Finnish Na ional Exe cise Su - ey (Kansallinen liikun a u kimus… 2006). Ou skie s we e well educa ed, 61% ha ing a uni e - si y o poly echnic le el deg ee. In o he s udies, pa icipa ion a es a e highe among popula ion g oups wi h a high educa ional le el han among hose wi h a lowe educa ion le el (Pou a & Sie ä- nen 2001; Kansallinen liikun a u kimus… 2006). Va iables The ques ionnai e consis ed o 43 ques ions, in- cluding a iables ela ing o skiing abili y, he ski- e s’ ac i i y mode, awa eness o clima e change and beha iou al flexibili y, as well as adap a ion op ions. The fi s pa o he ques ionnai e consis - ed o basic ques ions ela ing o skie s’ indi idual skiing habi s, which we e in ended o collec in- o ma ion on skiing abili y (i.e. skills, equipmen and equencies) and on skiing mo i es. Ac ion- based adap a ion measu emen s we e used o measu e skie s’ empo al and spa ial beha iou flexibili y (i.e. a ou ed dis ance o ski a eas, plan- ning a skiing ip). The second pa ocused on p e e ences ega ding ski se ices in gene al. This was ollowed by ques ions abou p e ious clima e change expe iences and awa eness o clima e change. When asked abou pe cep ions o possi- ble adap a ion op ions, esponden s we e gi en scena ios o skiing condi ions ha eflec a hypo- he ical u u e si ua ion unde condi ions o cli- ma e change. Thehypo he ical si ua ion was de- sc ibed o example as ollows: ‘i he e was no enough snow in you a ou i e skiing a ea’ o ‘i he e we e se e al win e s wi h lack o snow’. The 104 FENNIA 187:2(2009) Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen a iables ela ing o ski a ea p e e ences and adap- a ion op ions a e desc ibed in Appendices 1a and 1b. P e e ences we e mos ly measu ed on he fi e- s ep Like scale (see Like 1977). Analy ical me hods In o de o iden i y po en ial mo i e g oups ega d- ing skiing pa icipa ion and in o de o ob ain de- ailed in o ma ion on p e e ence he e ogenei y in he skie sample, a p incipal componen analysis o skiing mo i es measu ed on a fi e-s ep Like scale was fi s ca ied ou . Skie s we e g ouped ac- co ding o hese skiing mo i e componen s using K-Means clus e analysis, and a h ee-clus e solu- ion was ound o be he bes . The skiing pa e ns and socio-demog aphic backg ounds o he skie ype g oups we e s udied using c oss- abula ion wi h Chi-squa e es s. One- way ANOVA was used o analyse po en ial di e - ences be ween he clima e change adap a ion op- ions o he skie ypes. Mul iple compa isons we e made be ween he skie ypes using Tukey’s es s (Tukey B and Tukey HSD). The aim was o find ou which g oups di e and whe he he di e ences a e s a is ically significan a p ≤0.05. In o de o es he eliabili y o he One-Way ANOVA, he K uskall Wallis es o he same a iables was also applied.The esul s o he K uskall Wallis es we e simila o he esul s o he One-Way ANOVA es . Finally, he sum a iables o ski a ea and des ina- ion choice p e e ences we e coun ed (Appendix 1a and 1b) in o de o comp ess (Figs. 1–2) he salien in o ma ion ga he ed om he o iginal a i- ables. All he esul s o he ela ionships p esen ed in his s udy a e significan a p ≤0.05, unless o h- e wise s a ed. Resul s Skie ypes and cu en skiing beha iou Skie s in his s udy pa icipa ed in skiing ac i i ies 20–30 days in a season on a e age. The ypical leng h o one skiing ip was 11–20 km on a e age. Nea ly 30% o he skie s epo ed 11–30 km (one- way) o be an accep able dis ance om home o he ski des ina ion o a day ip. Fo a holiday ip mo e han hal o he skie s we e willing o a el mo e han 700 km. Skie s epo ed ha he deci- sion o making a day ip is ypically spon aneous, bu ski holidays a e planned a couple o mon hs be o e he holiday begins. The classical skiing s yle was he mos a ou ed way o skiing. Skie s epo ed ha hey p e e skiing alone: app oxi- ma ely hal o hem ski alone, nea ly 20% wi h hei pa ne s and only 6.5% wi h iends. Almos all he skie s (86%) lea ned o ski as child en, 12% a school age, and only 2% as adul s. In he case o 62% o he skie s, skiing was augh by a amily membe . O he popula ou doo ac i i ies among skie s we e jogging, cycling, walking and No dic walking (including No dic unning and blading). O e 85% o skie s had ca s a hei disposal. P incipal componen analysis e ealed h ee componen s o skiing mo i es ela ing o he skiing en i onmen , social se ing, echnical skills and in e es in fi ness (Table 1). The clus e analysis based on he p incipal componen sco es showed ha he e a e ac ually h ee skie g oup ypes based on hei skiing p e e ences (Table 2). G oup 1was called he ‘social ype’, which emphasises he impo ance o adi ions and ime spen wi h amily and iends when skiing. G oup 2 is he ‘ou doo ype’, which s esses he impo an quali- ies o he skiing en i onmen , such as na u e, landscape and win e . G oup 3 is he ‘ echnical ype’, which conside s skiing a way o keeping fi and de eloping skills. The majo i y o skie s be- longed o he ou doo and echnical g oups. The smalles g oup was he social g oup. The classifica ion made i possible o s udy he socio-economic cha ac e is ics o he skie ypes in mo e de ail. All he g oups we e domina ed by men, bu ela i ely speaking, he mos male domi- na ed was he echnical ype g oup. The e we e no s a is ically significan di e ences in age class be- ween he g oups, bu he social ype g oup had mo e olde skie s compa ed o o he g oups, while he echnical ype g oup had he younges skie s. As ega ds skiing company, he echnical skie s ended o go skiing alone mo e o en han he o h- e s, whe eas he membe s o he ou doo and so- cial g oups p e e ed skiing in company. Technical skie s p e e ed he ska ing skiing s yle. Thea ail- abili y o a ca was highes in he echnical ype g oup, al hough no o an ex en ha was s a is i- cally significan (Table 3). Mos o he skie s in all g oups wen day-skiing spon aneously (mo e han 70% o occu ences in all g oups). The e we e no significan di e ences o opinion as o how a he skie s a e willing o go/ a el o skiing in he case o a day ip: he p e e ed dis ance om home was 11–30 km, al- hough 3–5 km was p e e ed in he social g oup. FENNIA 187:2(2009) 105 Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change Table 1. P incipal componen analysis o skiing mo i es. Skiing mo i es Componen 1Componen 2Componen 3 Skiing en i onmen Social ea u es Technical skills and fi ness Na u e expe ience 0.855 Win e expe ience 0.825 Landscape 0.772 Silence and peace 0.738 Rec ea ion 0.721 Sus aining skiing adi ions 0.780 Time wi h amily/ iends 0.662 Keeping fi 0.853 Imp o ing echnique 0.735 Eigen alues 3.55 1.38 1.03 In e p e a ion, %39.45 15.37 11.49 To al a iance explained, %66.3 Table 2. K-means clus e analysis o p incipal componen sco es. Mo i e clus e s and mean sco e P incipal componen s Social ype Ou doo ype Technical ype Skiing en i onmen –0.177 0.607 –0.485 Social ea u es 0.431 0.525 –0.739 Technical skills and fi ness –1.393 0.457 0.321 To al: N=744 N=162 (21.8%) N=285 (38.3%) N=297 (39.9%) Table 3. G oup cha ac e is ics. Social ype Ou doo ype Technical ype Gende Male 50.6%, emale 46.3% Male 51.6%, emale 46.7% Male 67.3%, emale 39.2% S yle Classical Classical and ska ing Ska ing Leng h o skiing ip Sho es (6–10 km) Longes (21–30 km) Medium (11–20 km) Skiing equencyIn equen ly (6–10 days/season) F equen ly (mo e han 80 days/ season) Regula ly (31–50 days/season) Skie ype Mos ly day skie s/ leisu e ype Mos ly holiday skie s/ fi ness ype Mos ly holiday skie s/ fi ness ype The membe s o he ou doo ype g oup we e eady o a el u he han he membe s o o he g oups, e en as a as 31–100 km, o a day ip. Beha iou al and pe cep ual di e ences be ween skie s unde condi ions o clima e change In gene al, all he skie g oups we e awa e o clima e change and i was conside ed a h ea o c oss-coun y skiing. Expe iences o clima e change di e ed be ween he g oups: he mem- be s o he social ype g oup had ewe expe i- ences o clima e change han he o he s. I skie s had o choose an al e na i e o hei egula ski a ea oday because o changed skiing condi- ions, mo e han 70% o he esponden s o all g oups would p e e going o ski in a eas wi h eliable snow in Finland a he han elsewhe e (ab oad). 106 FENNIA 187:2(2009) Mia Landaue ,Tuija Sie änen and Ma jo Neu onen P e e ences ega ding he impo an cha ac e is- ics o ski a eas exp essed by di e en skie g oups di e ed o some ex en (Fig. 1, Appendix 1a). The mos impo an cha ac e is ics o a ski a ea in gen- e al we e ela ed o ski se ice ea u es, such as good ack condi ions, na u al ea u es such as na u al snow eliabili y and closeness o home. The membe s o he ou doo ype g oup assessed mos cha ac e is ics, such as na u al ea u es (e.g. he size o he a ea) and se ices (e.g. good pa k- ing places) mo e posi i ely han he o he g oups. In his ega d, he echnical ype g oup was e y simila o he ou doo ype g oup. The social ype g oup di e ed he mos om he o he g oups, conside ing na u al ea u es such as closeness o home, snow- eliabili y, se ice ea u es such as good ack condi ions and echnical ea u es such as a ificial snow possibili ies and a ailabili y o a ski unnel less impo an in a ski a ea. Rega ding clima e change adap a ion, he ech- nical and ou doo g oups would a ou echnical adap a ion s a egies i condi ions o skiing we e poo . They also placed alue on na u al ea u es, such as snow eliabili y and se ice ea u es, such as good ack condi ions. The echnical ype g oup did no app ecia e na u al ea u es, such as back- coun y skiing (i.e. skiing wi hou p epa ed acks), landscape beau y and se ice ea u es, such as public anspo as much as he o he g oups. Opinions on se ice ea u es, such as e sa ile acks, and na u al ea u es, such as silence and peace, di e ed among all he g oups, he ou doo ype g oup conside ing hese op ions mo e impo - an han he o he s. Na u al ea u es in a ski a ea, such as silence and peace, we e mo e impo an o he social ype g oup, whe eas se ice ea u es, such as e sa ile acks, we e mo e impo an o he echnical ype g oup. The social ype g oup would mos likely gi e up skiing unde poo skiing condi ions (Fig. 2, Appendix 1b). Rega ding he accep ance o subs i u e op ions unde poo snow condi ions, none o he g oups would be eady o a el o he same place a he same ime as usual, bu hey would a he choose a egion wi h eliable snow condi ions. The ou - doo and echnical g oups would p e e o book hei holidays when hey a e su e o snow in he a ea (Fig. 2, Appendix 1b). The social ype g oup could be a ac ed by snow-independen ac i i ies as an adap a ion op ion. All-season ac i i ies, snow-independen ac i i ies and cul u al ac i i ies as subs i u e op ions we e p e e ed by he social and ou doo g oups. The echnical ype g oup was no a ac ed by hese op ions, al hough indoo ac- i i ies we e accep ed by all g oups o some ex- en . This s udy indica es ha Finnish skie s a e no willing o pay o skiing in gene al. The majo i y o skie s expec some suppo om socie y o he p o ision o skiing se ices. The e we e, howe e , some di e ences be ween he skie ype g oups in hei pe cep ions o he di ision o financial e- sponsibili ies. The echnical ype g oup would be eady o buy a ski ca d (a ee o ack use). The 1 2 3 4 5 Na u al snow eliabili y impo an App ecia esna u al ea u es in a ski a ea Needsski se ices Mean Social ype Ou doo ype Technical ype Fig. 1. P e e ences ega ding pa icula ski a ea ea u es among skie g oup ypes (1=no impo an …5= e y impo an ). FENNIA 187:2(2009) 107 Adap a ion o Finnish c oss-coun y skie s o clima e change 1 2 3 4 5 Accep ssubs i u ional op ions Accep s echnical adap a ion oolsand is eady o use and pay o hem Gi esupskiing Mean Social ype Ou doo ype Technical ype Fig. 2. Accep ance o adap a ion op ions among skie g oup ypes (1=no likely…5= e y likely). social ype g oup could imagine paying pa king and se ice ees, bu compa ed o he o he g oups, his g oup conside ed ha addi ional financing o ski a eas is no needed, and ha socie y does no necessa ily ha e o suppo skiing. The ou doo and social ype g oups conside ed ha suppo o se ices migh be needed, in he o m o axes and ack ees combined, in o de o main ain se ices in ski a eas. Acco ding o he ou doo and echnical ype g oups, a ificial acks and ski unnels could be financed by a combina- ion o axes and ack ees, bu he social ype g oup hough ha no addi ional financing is needed. A i udes o axes o ack ees as sole o ms o suppo we e no a ou able. In he case o a ificial snow and ski unnels he e we e sig- nifican di e ences among all h ee skie g oups as ega ds hei a i udes o paying o hese op ions. The echnical ype g oup had he mos posi i e a - i udes o paying o a ificial snow and ski unnels. Because he social ype g oup was he leas in e - es ed in a ificial snow, ski unnels and he a aila- bili y o se ices in gene al, a compa ison be ween only he ou doo and he echnical ype g oups was made. I e ealed (al hough a a 0.10 signifi- cance le el) ha he ou doo ype g oup p e e ed axes whe eas he echnical ype g oup could im- agine paying ack ees in o de o use a ificial snow o unnels.The ou doo ype g oup had mo e posi i e opinions on he need o finance se ices han did he echnical ype g oup (Fig. 3). Discussion and conclusions The pu pose o his s udy was o p o ide in o ma- ion on skie s’ pe cep ions and p e e ences in changing clima e condi ions. The s udy iden ified skie ype g oups ha di e in hei skiing beha - iou and p e e ences ega ding di e en adap a- ion op ions in a po en ial u u e si ua ion o cli- ma e change. In his s udy, he classifica ion (clus- e ing) o c oss-coun y skie s made i possible o ocus in mo e de ail on he adap a ion s a egies and p e e ence he e ogenei y o skie s. The clus- e ing p ocedu e e ealed h ee skie ype g oups. The fi s g oup was called he ‘social ype’, which emphasises he impo ance o skiing adi ions and ime spen wi h amily and iends when skiing. The second g oup was he ‘ou doo ype’, which s essed impo an quali ies o he skiing en i on- men , such as na u e, landscape and win e . The hi d g oup was he ‘ echnical ype’, which con- side ed skiing a way o keeping fi and de eloping skills. The majo i y o he skie s belonged o he ou doo and echnical ype g oups. The smalles g oup was he social ype g oup. The membe s o he ou doo and echnical ype g oups had high skiing equencies, and hey we e also younge han he skie s in he social ype g oup. The ou doo ype g oup was he mos flexible g oup: hey would be mos likely o be able o adap o he changes caused by clima e change. They a e willing o a el longe dis ances han a