Ci a ion: Pasda , N.; Mos asha i, P.;
G eine , R.; Khel a, A.; Rashidinejad,
A.; Eshpa i, H.; Vale, J.M.;
Gha ibzahedi, S.M.T.; Roohinejad, S.
Ad ancemen s in Non-The mal
P ocessing Technologies o
Enhancing Sa e y and Quali y o
In an and Baby Food P oduc s:
A Re iew. Foods 2024,13, 2659.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
oods13172659
Academic Edi o s: Diego A. Mo eno
and Nie es Baenas
Recei ed: 19 July 2024
Re ised: 20 Augus 2024
Accep ed: 21 Augus 2024
Published: 23 Augus 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
oods
Re iew
Ad ancemen s in Non-The mal P ocessing Technologies o
Enhancing Sa e y and Quali y o In an and Baby Food P oduc s:
A Re iew
Nasim Pasda 1, Pa isa Mos asha i 2, Ral G eine 3, Anissa Khel a 4, Ali Rashidinejad 5, Hadi Eshpa i 6,
Jim M. Vale 7, Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gha ibzahedi 8,* and Shahin Roohinejad 7,*
1Depa men o Ag icul u al Enginee ing and Technology, Payame Noo Uni e si y (PNU),
Teh an 19395-4697, I an; [email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Food Science and Technology, Facul y o Pha macy, Teh an Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad
Uni e si y, Teh an 19419-33111, I an; [email p o ec ed]
3Max Rubne -Ins i u , Fede al Resea ch Ins i u e o Nu i ion and Food, 76131 Ka ls uhe, Ge many;
[email p o ec ed]
4École Supé ieu e de Chimie O ganique e Miné ale (ESCOM), Uni e si éde Technologie de
Compiègne (UTC), EA 4297 TIMR, 1 Allée du Réseau Jean-Ma ie Buckmas e , 60200 Compiègne, F ance;
[email p o ec ed]
5Ridde Ins i u e, Massey Uni e si y, P i a e Bag 11 222, Palme s on No h 4442, New Zealand;
a. [email protected]
6Depa men o Food Science and Technology, O egon S a e Uni e si y, Co allis, OR 97331, USA;
[email p o ec ed]
7Depa men o Food, Nu i ion and Packaging Sciences, Clemson Uni e si y, Clemson, SC 29634, USA;
[email p o ec ed]
8Ins i u e o Ma e ials Science, Facul y o Enginee ing, Kiel Uni e si y, 24143 Kiel, Ge many
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (S.M.T.G.); [email p o ec ed] (S.R.)
Abs ac : B eas milk is he main sou ce o nu i ion du ing ea ly li e, bu bo h in an o mulas (I s;
up o 12 mon hs) and baby oods (BFs; up o 3 yea s) a e also impo an o p o iding essen ial
nu ien s. The in an ood indus y igo ously con ols o po en ial physical, biological, and chemical
haza ds. Al hough he mal ea men s a e commonly used o ensu e ood sa e y in IFs and BFs,
hey can nega i ely a ec senso y quali ies, educe he mosensi i e nu ien s, and lead o chemical
con aminan o ma ion. To add ess hese challenges, non- he mal p ocessing echnologies such
as high-p essu e p ocessing, pulsed elec ic ields, adio equency, and ul asound o e e icien
pa hogen des uc ion simila o adi ional he mal me hods, while educing he p oduc ion o key
p ocess-induced oxican s such as u an and 5-hyd oxyme hyl-2- u u al (HMF). These al e na i e
he mal p ocesses aim o o e come he d awbacks o adi ional me hods while e aining hei
ad an ages. This e iew pape highligh s he g owing global demand o heal hy, sus ainable
oods, d i ing ood manu ac u e s o adop inno a i e and e icien p ocessing echniques o
bo h IFs and BFs. Based on a ious s udies e iewed o his wo k, he applica ion o hese no el
echnologies appea s o educe he mal p ocessing in ensi y, esul ing in p oduc s wi h enhanced
senso y p ope ies, compa able shel li e, and imp o ed isual appeal compa ed o con en ionally
p ocessed p oduc s.
Keywo ds: in an o mulas; baby oods; ood sa e y; quali y con ol; unc ional oods; nu i ion;
p obio ics; non- he mal p ocessing
1. In oduc ion
The i s days o li e, om be o e bi h o a child’s second bi hday, a e a pi o al pe iod
o human de elopmen [
1
,
2
]. In ancy is a pe iod o apid g ow h, second only o e al li e,
and main aining op imal nu i ion is necessa y du ing his ime [
3
]. This c i ical pe iod o
g ow h is ma ked by nume ous psychological, physical, and men al changes, including
Foods 2024,13, 2659. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ oods13172659 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ oods
Foods 2024,13, 2659 2 o 29
he de elopmen o diges i e and immune unc ions, as well as he composi ion o he gu
mic obio a [4,5].
Nu i ion du ing in ancy plays a i al ole in p e en ing non-communicable
diseases [
6
,
7
]. Insu icien nu ien in ake is a p ima y cause o pos na al g ow h es ic ion
in neona es and he pos -neona al pe iod [
5
]. Se e al s udies ha e epo ed ha unde -
nu i ion is esponsible o 45% o all dea hs among child en unde 5 yea s o age [
8
].
B eas eeding is widely ecognized as he nu i ional gold s anda d o in an s. The Wo ld
Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) ecommends b eas eeding o a leas six mon hs ollowing
bi h. Se e al s udies ha e shown ha b eas milk p o ec s agains nume ous diseases
and enhances he in ellec ual de elopmen o child en [
8
,
9
]. Howe e , in si ua ions whe e
b eas eeding is una ailable, inapp op ia e, o inadequa e, milk-based in an o mulas (IFs)
a e used as a subs i u e o b eas milk [1].
IFs, o mula ed o mimic ma u e human milk, a e designed o p o ide in an s wi h
op imal nu i ion o hei de elopmen and g ow h [
10
]. Baby oods (BFs) a e a ype o
so , easily diges ible ood specially o mula ed o in an s up o 12 mon hs and young
child en om 1 o 3 yea s old. They a e designed o p o ide essen ial nu ien s equi ed
o g ow h and de elopmen du ing he c i ical pe iod when in an s ansi ion om b eas
milk o o mula o solid oods [
11
]. The global ma ke alue o BF and IF p oduc s
exceeded USD 88 billion in 2022 and is expec ed o each USD 150 billion by 2032, wi h
a CAGR o o e 5.3% [
12
]. Howe e , despi e he inc easing demand o comme cial IFs
and BFs wo ldwide, conce ns emain ega ding hei sa e y and e icacy. Comme cial IFs
and BFs may become con amina ed wi h a ious mic obes a di e en s ages o p ocessing.
In many ins ances, IFs a e in insically con amina ed due o he addi ion o he mally
sensi i e mic onu ien s wi hou p io hea ea men , which is necessa y o mee egula o y
s anda ds. Consequen ly, hese aw ing edien s se e as po en ial pa hways o bac e ial
ansmission [
8
]. Fu he mo e, wi h ega d o liquid in an p oduc s, he d ying zone as
well as he con aine s used o illing ac as ec o s o biological ansmission.
Gene ally, hea s e iliza ion ensu es mic obiological sa e y and p oduc s abili y [
13
].
Howe e , excessi e hea ing can ad e sely a ec he senso y, biophysical, and nu i ional
cha ac e is ics o in an p oduc s. The main i e e sible changes ha occu du ing con-
en ional he mal ea men o mac onu ien s in in an ood include p o ein dena u a ion
and agg ega ion, lipid–p o ein in e ac ions, suga isome iza ion, and a ious chemical
eac ions [
14
]. The Mailla d eac ion is pa icula ly c i ical, p oducing oxican s such as
ac ylamide, he e ocyclic amines, and ce ain polycyclic a oma ic hyd oca bons, which a e
associa ed wi h he deg ada ion o nu i ional alues and a ios [
15
,
16
]. Balancing ood
sa e y wi h minimizing hea ea men losses emains a signi ican challenge o IF and BF
manu ac u e s. The limi a ions o adi ional ood p ocessing echnologies ha e led he
ood indus y o seek al e na i e p ocessing me hods.
Non- he mal ood p ocessing echnologies o e p omising app oaches o balancing
mic obiological and chemical sa e y, as well as senso y and nu i ional p ope ies in IF
and BF p oduc ion. Pionee ing echnologies such as high-p essu e p ocessing (HPP),
ul asound (US), pulsed elec ic ield (PEF), and adio equency (RF) a e leading esea ch
in ood p ocessing o newbo ns and child en. This e iew aims o assess he isk associa ed
wi h c i ical chemical and mic obial con aminan s in ood in ended o in an s and young
child en. I also highligh s he applica ion o non- he mal echnologies as al e na i es o
con en ional hea p ocessing, ensu ing he sa e y, quali y, and nu i ional con en o in an
and baby p oduc s a bo h pilo - and indus ial-scale p oduc ion le els (Figu e 1).
Foods 2024,13, 2659 3 o 29
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 30
Figu e 1. Compa ison o con en ional and eme ging p ocessing echnologies in in luencing senso y
a ibu es, nu ien con en , and eshness o in an and young child oods.
2. In an and Young Child en’s Food Ca ego ies
The consume popula ion o in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age is
ypically di ided in o h ee s ages: s age one (0–6 mon hs, in an s), s age wo (7–12
mon hs, ollow-up in an s), and s age h ee (13–36 mon hs, young child en) [17]. In an
p oduc s a e speci ically o mula ed o mee he dis inc de elopmen al s ages o in an s,
each s age ha ing unique nu i ional equi emen s as de ined by he ecommended die-
a y allowance (RDA). Figu e 2 illus a es a ious s ages o IFs and BFs in acco dance wi h
child g ow h. The main oods consumed by in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs
o age include in an o mula, complemen a y oods, and wa e a e discussed as ollows:
Figu e 2. Examples o ood p oduc s o di e en s ages o in an and baby g ow h.
Figu e 1. Compa ison o con en ional and eme ging p ocessing echnologies in in luencing senso y
a ibu es, nu ien con en , and eshness o in an and young child oods.
2. In an and Young Child en’s Food Ca ego ies
The consume popula ion o in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age is
ypically di ided in o h ee s ages: s age one (0–6 mon hs, in an s), s age wo (7–12 mon hs,
ollow-up in an s), and s age h ee (13–36 mon hs, young child en) [
17
]. In an p oduc s
a e speci ically o mula ed o mee he dis inc de elopmen al s ages o in an s, each s age
ha ing unique nu i ional equi emen s as de ined by he ecommended die a y allowance
(RDA). Figu e 2illus a es a ious s ages o IFs and BFs in acco dance wi h child g ow h.
The main oods consumed by in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age include
in an o mula, complemen a y oods, and wa e a e discussed as ollows:
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 30
Figu e 1. Compa ison o con en ional and eme ging p ocessing echnologies in in luencing senso y
a ibu es, nu ien con en , and eshness o in an and young child oods.
2. In an and Young Child en’s Food Ca ego ies
The consume popula ion o in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age is
ypically di ided in o h ee s ages: s age one (0–6 mon hs, in an s), s age wo (7–12
mon hs, ollow-up in an s), and s age h ee (13–36 mon hs, young child en) [17]. In an
p oduc s a e speci ically o mula ed o mee he dis inc de elopmen al s ages o in an s,
each s age ha ing unique nu i ional equi emen s as de ined by he ecommended die-
a y allowance (RDA). Figu e 2 illus a es a ious s ages o IFs and BFs in acco dance wi h
child g ow h. The main oods consumed by in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs
o age include in an o mula, complemen a y oods, and wa e a e discussed as ollows:
Figu e 2. Examples o ood p oduc s o di e en s ages o in an and baby g ow h.
Figu e 2. Examples o ood p oduc s o di e en s ages o in an and baby g ow h.
2.1. In an Fo mula
The Eu opean Socie y o Pedia ic Gas oen e ology, Hepa ology, and Nu i ion
(ESPGHAN) Commi ee on Nu i ion, along wi h he Scien i ic Commi ee on Food o he
Foods 2024,13, 2659 4 o 29
Eu opean Commission, p o ides ecommenda ions and egula ions go e ning he nu ien
composi ion o in an o mula p oduc s. Acco ding o hei guidelines, “in an o mula” is
designed as a sui able subs i u e o b eas eeding du ing he i s 4–6 mon hs (s age one).
“Follow-on o mula” (FOF) is in ended o in an s aged 6–12 mon hs (s age wo), while
“ oddle o mula” o “ ollow-up o mula” (FUF) is app op ia e o child en be ween 12 and
36 mon hs (s age h ee) [
18
,
19
]. To mee he nu i ional needs o in an s aged 3 o 36 mon hs
as an al e na i e o b eas eeding, IFs mus adhe e o he nu i ional equi emen s ou lined
by he WHO and he Uni ed Na ions In e na ional Child en’s Eme gency Fund (UNICEF).
In an o mulas a e o mula ed using bo ine milk, milk om o he sou ces, o a com-
bina ion he eo , wi h o wi hou addi ional ing edien s, o ul ill he nu i ional needs o
in an s. These o mulas a e a ailable in a ious o mula ions, including skimmed e sions;
hose dilu ed wi h ege able oils; o i ied wi h i amins, mine als, and i on; and hose
con aining ice, ca ob, o soy o speci ic medical equi emen s [
9
,
20
]. Gene ally, IFs a e
a ailable in h ee o ms: powde , liquid concen a e, and eady- o- eed. While eady- o-
eed bo les con ain p e-dilu ed liquid o mula, concen a ed liquids and powde o ms
need o be mixed wi h wa e , which can include mine al wa e , bo led wa e , o ap wa-
e [
21
]. While a wide ange o o mula b ands and ypes a e a ailable on he ma ke
(Table 1, [
22
–
41
]), he e is no uni e sally app op ia e o mula o all babies. The ype o
powde ed milk ecommended by pedia icians depends on a child’s nu i ional needs o
speci ic in an isks. Se e al leading manu ac u e s in he global in an nu i ion ma ke
include Abbo (Chicago, IL, USA), Baby Gou me (Calga y, AB, Canada), Danone (Whi e
Plains, NY, USA), Recki Benckise G oup PLC (Slough, UK), Nes lé(Ve ey, Swi ze -
land) [
11
], SMA
®
Nu i ion (Ga wick, UK), F iesl (Ame s oo , The Ne he lands), K a
Heinz (Sha psbu gh, PA, USA), HiPP GmbH & Co. (P a enho en an de Ilm, Ge many),
Ve ieb KG (P a enho en, Ge many), and A la Food (Viby, Denma k).
Table 1. A selec ion o di e en comme cial in an o mula and baby oods cu en ly a ailable on
he ma ke .
Type o
In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re .
Fi s in an o mula milk
(IFM)
powde /liquid
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 30
2.1. In an Fo mula
The Eu opean Socie y o Pedia ic Gas oen e ology, Hepa ology, and Nu i ion (ES-
PGHAN) Commi ee on Nu i ion, along wi h he Scien i ic Commi ee on Food o he
Eu opean Commission, p o ides ecommenda ions and egula ions go e ning he nu i-
en composi ion o in an o mula p oduc s. Acco ding o hei guidelines, “in an o -
mula” is designed as a sui able subs i u e o b eas eeding du ing he i s 4–6 mon hs
(s age one). “Follow-on o mula” (FOF) is in ended o in an s aged 6–12 mon hs (s age
wo), while “ oddle o mula” o “ ollow-up o mula” (FUF) is app op ia e o child en
be ween 12 and 36 mon hs (s age h ee) [18,19]. To mee he nu i ional needs o in an s
aged 3 o 36 mon hs as an al e na i e o b eas eeding, IFs mus adhe e o he nu i ional
equi emen s ou lined by he WHO and he Uni ed Na ions In e na ional Child en’s
Eme gency Fund (UNICEF).
In an o mulas a e o mula ed using bo ine milk, milk om o he sou ces, o a com-
bina ion he eo , wi h o wi hou addi ional ing edien s, o ul ill he nu i ional needs o
in an s. These o mulas a e a ailable in a ious o mula ions, including skimmed e -
sions; hose dilu ed wi h ege able oils; o i ied wi h i amins, mine als, and i on; and
hose con aining ice, ca ob, o soy o speci ic medical equi emen s [9,20]. Gene ally, IFs
a e a ailable in h ee o ms: powde , liquid concen a e, and eady- o- eed. While eady-
o- eed bo les con ain p e-dilu ed liquid o mula, concen a ed liquids and powde o ms
need o be mixed wi h wa e , which can include mine al wa e , bo led wa e , o ap wa e
[21].
While a wide ange o o mula b ands and ypes a e a ailable on he ma ke (Table
1, [22–41]), he e is no uni e sally app op ia e o mula o all babies. The ype o pow-
de ed milk ecommended by pedia icians depends on a child’s nu i ional needs o spe-
ci ic in an isks. Se e al leading manu ac u e s in he global in an nu i ion ma ke in-
clude Abbo (Chicago, IL, USA), Baby Gou me (Calga y, AB, Canada), Danone (Whi e
Plains, NY, USA), Recki Benckise G oup PLC (Slough, UK), Nes lé (Ve ey, Swi ze land)
[11], SMA® Nu i ion (Ga wick, UK), F iesl (Ame s oo , The Ne he lands), K a Heinz
(Sha psbu gh, PA, USA), HiPP GmbH & Co. (P a enho en an de Ilm, Ge many), Ve ieb
KG (P a enho en, Ge many), and A la Food (Viby, Denma k).
Table 1. A selec ion o di e en comme cial in an o mula and baby oods cu en ly a ailable on
he ma ke .
Type o In-
an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re .
Fi s in an o mula
milk (IFM)
powde /liquid
- Sui able om bi h
- Based on whey p o ein o easie diges-
ion
- Whey/casein a io o 60:40
- Ca bohyd a e: lac ose is he main sou ce
- Fa : polyunsa u a ed a y acids and
phospholipid con ibu es o cogni i e
unc ions, memo y and concen a ion,
cellula memb ane composi ion, and gen-
e al well-being
S age 1 [22]
- Sui able om bi h
-
Based on whey p o ein o easie diges ion
- Whey/casein a io o 60:40
- Ca bohyd a e: lac ose is he main sou ce
- Fa : polyunsa u a ed a y acids and
phospholipid con ibu es o cogni i e
unc ions, memo y and concen a ion,
cellula memb ane composi ion, and
gene al well-being
S age 1 [22]
Follow-on o mula
(s age 2)
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 30
Follow-on o -
mula
(s age 2)
- Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs
old as a complemen a y o weaning
- Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s
milk han b eas milk
- In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s
milk, hese p oduc s should con ain
less p o ein, a highe a con en simi-
la o human milk a , and mo e ca bo-
hyd a es.
- Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin
A and C le els han s anda d o mulas,
al hough hese a e less bioa ailable
- A majo diffe ence be ween IF and
FOF ( ollow-on o mula) is he highe
minimum and maximum i on con en
o IF
- Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o
g ow h as well as p ebio ics
(GOS/FOS) and p obio ics
S age 2 [23,24]
G owing up milk
GUM ( oddle
milk)/ ollow-up
o mula (FUF)
- Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3
yea s
- An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk
ha compensa es o nu i ional de i-
ciencies du ing a child’s ansi ion o
amily nu i ion
- A GUM made om cow’s milk should
p ese e calcium, B
2
, and A while ha -
ing a lowe p o ein and a con en and
ene gy alue
- I con ains ARA and DH since he cen-
al ne ous sys em con inues o de-
pose hese compounds in high concen-
a ions un il he second yea o li e
S age 3 [25]
Hung y baby o -
mulas
- Sui able o “hung ie babies”
- In an milk o hung ie babies is a
nu i ionally comple e b eas milk
subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o
milk p o ein
- Based on casein con en o slow diges-
ion and being less hung y soon a e
eeding
- Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80
- Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed
by he legisla ion o all in an o -
mula
S age
1, 2 [26]
- Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs old
as a complemen a y o weaning
- Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s
milk han b eas milk
- In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s milk,
hese p oduc s should con ain less p o ein,
a highe a con en simila o human milk
a , and mo e ca bohyd a es.
- Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin A
and C le els han s anda d o mulas,
al hough hese a e less bioa ailable
- A majo di e ence be ween IF and FOF
( ollow-on o mula) is he highe minimum
and maximum i on con en o IF
- Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o
g ow h as well as p ebio ics (GOS/FOS)
and p obio ics
S age 2 [23,24]
Foods 2024,13, 2659 5 o 29
Table 1. Con .
Type o
In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re .
G owing up milk GUM
( oddle milk)/ ollow-up
o mula (FUF)
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 30
Follow-on o -
mula
(s age 2)
- Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs
old as a complemen a y o weaning
- Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s
milk han b eas milk
- In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s
milk, hese p oduc s should con ain
less p o ein, a highe a con en simi-
la o human milk a , and mo e ca bo-
hyd a es.
- Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin
A and C le els han s anda d o mulas,
al hough hese a e less bioa ailable
- A majo diffe ence be ween IF and
FOF ( ollow-on o mula) is he highe
minimum and maximum i on con en
o IF
- Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o
g ow h as well as p ebio ics
(GOS/FOS) and p obio ics
S age 2 [23,24]
G owing up milk
GUM ( oddle
milk)/ ollow-up
o mula (FUF)
- Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3
yea s
- An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk
ha compensa es o nu i ional de i-
ciencies du ing a child’s ansi ion o
amily nu i ion
- A GUM made om cow’s milk should
p ese e calcium, B
2
, and A while ha -
ing a lowe p o ein and a con en and
ene gy alue
- I con ains ARA and DH since he cen-
al ne ous sys em con inues o de-
pose hese compounds in high concen-
a ions un il he second yea o li e
S age 3 [25]
Hung y baby o -
mulas
- Sui able o “hung ie babies”
- In an milk o hung ie babies is a
nu i ionally comple e b eas milk
subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o
milk p o ein
- Based on casein con en o slow diges-
ion and being less hung y soon a e
eeding
- Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80
- Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed
by he legisla ion o all in an o -
mula
S age
1, 2 [26]
-
Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3 yea s
- An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk ha
compensa es o nu i ional de iciencies
du ing a child’s ansi ion o
amily nu i ion
- A GUM made om cow’s milk should
p ese e calcium, B
2
, and A while ha ing a
lowe p o ein and a con en and
ene gy alue
- I con ains ARA and DH since he cen al
ne ous sys em con inues o depose hese
compounds in high concen a ions un il
he second yea o li e
S age 3 [25]
Hung y baby o mulas
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 30
Follow-on o -
mula
(s age 2)
- Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs
old as a complemen a y o weaning
- Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s
milk han b eas milk
- In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s
milk, hese p oduc s should con ain
less p o ein, a highe a con en simi-
la o human milk a , and mo e ca bo-
hyd a es.
- Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin
A and C le els han s anda d o mulas,
al hough hese a e less bioa ailable
- A majo diffe ence be ween IF and
FOF ( ollow-on o mula) is he highe
minimum and maximum i on con en
o IF
- Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o
g ow h as well as p ebio ics
(GOS/FOS) and p obio ics
S age 2 [23,24]
G owing up milk
GUM ( oddle
milk)/ ollow-up
o mula (FUF)
- Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3
yea s
- An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk
ha compensa es o nu i ional de i-
ciencies du ing a child’s ansi ion o
amily nu i ion
- A GUM made om cow’s milk should
p ese e calcium, B
2
, and A while ha -
ing a lowe p o ein and a con en and
ene gy alue
- I con ains ARA and DH since he cen-
al ne ous sys em con inues o de-
pose hese compounds in high concen-
a ions un il he second yea o li e
S age 3 [25]
Hung y baby o -
mulas
- Sui able o “hung ie babies”
- In an milk o hung ie babies is a
nu i ionally comple e b eas milk
subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o
milk p o ein
- Based on casein con en o slow diges-
ion and being less hung y soon a e
eeding
- Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80
- Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed
by he legisla ion o all in an o -
mula
S age
1, 2 [26]
- Sui able o “hung ie babies”
- In an milk o hung ie babies is a
nu i ionally comple e b eas milk
subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o
milk p o ein
- Based on casein con en o slow diges ion
and being less hung y soon a e eeding
- Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80
- Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed by
he legisla ion o all in an o mula
S age 1, 2 [26]
P e e m o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30
P e e m o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion,
g ow h ailu e
- Designed o low-weigh p ema u e
in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s
o con inue he p ope de elopmen o
he ne ous sys em
- Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo
ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein)
S age 1 [22]
Lac ose- ee o -
mula
- Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies:
De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e-
en s lac ose diges ion
- I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac-
osemia
- Reduces symp oms including nausea,
abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness,
and gas
- I con ains all he necessa y i amins,
mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids,
and DHA
- Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add-
ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk
- Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o
glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug-
a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e
han egula milk
S age
1, 2, 3 [27]
Com o o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h delica e um-
mies
- In an diges i e discom o is he esul
o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y,
wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic,
and cons ipa ion).
- Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o
diges
- Whey-based (100%)
- Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o
suppo he baby’s immune sys em
- A combina ion o supplemen s can e-
lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha-
ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en-
zymes)
S age
1, 2, 3 [28,29]
Ex ensi ely hy-
d olyzed o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed
- Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly-
sa es o casein o whey)
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
- Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion,
g ow h ailu e
- Designed o low-weigh p ema u e
in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s o
con inue he p ope de elopmen o he
ne ous sys em
- Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo
ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein)
S age 1 [22]
Lac ose- ee o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30
P e e m o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion,
g ow h ailu e
- Designed o low-weigh p ema u e
in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s
o con inue he p ope de elopmen o
he ne ous sys em
- Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo
ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein)
S age 1 [22]
Lac ose- ee o -
mula
- Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies:
De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e-
en s lac ose diges ion
- I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac-
osemia
- Reduces symp oms including nausea,
abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness,
and gas
- I con ains all he necessa y i amins,
mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids,
and DHA
- Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add-
ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk
- Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o
glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug-
a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e
han egula milk
S age
1, 2, 3 [27]
Com o o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h delica e um-
mies
- In an diges i e discom o is he esul
o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y,
wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic,
and cons ipa ion).
- Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o
diges
- Whey-based (100%)
- Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o
suppo he baby’s immune sys em
- A combina ion o supplemen s can e-
lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha-
ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en-
zymes)
S age
1, 2, 3 [28,29]
Ex ensi ely hy-
d olyzed o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed
- Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly-
sa es o casein o whey)
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
- Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies:
De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e en s
lac ose diges ion
- I is no sui able o in an s wi h
galac osemia
- Reduces symp oms including nausea,
abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness, and
gas
- I con ains all he necessa y i amins,
mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids, and
DHA
- Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by adding
lac ase o egula cow’s milk
- Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o
glucose and galac ose, wo simple suga s
ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e han
egula milk
S age 1, 2, 3 [27]

Foods 2024,13, 2659 6 o 29
Table 1. Con .
Type o
In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re .
Com o o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30
P e e m o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion,
g ow h ailu e
- Designed o low-weigh p ema u e
in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s
o con inue he p ope de elopmen o
he ne ous sys em
- Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo
ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein)
S age 1 [22]
Lac ose- ee o -
mula
- Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies:
De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e-
en s lac ose diges ion
- I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac-
osemia
- Reduces symp oms including nausea,
abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness,
and gas
- I con ains all he necessa y i amins,
mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids,
and DHA
- Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add-
ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk
- Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o
glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug-
a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e
han egula milk
S age
1, 2, 3 [27]
Com o o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h delica e um-
mies
- In an diges i e discom o is he esul
o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y,
wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic,
and cons ipa ion).
- Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o
diges
- Whey-based (100%)
- Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o
suppo he baby’s immune sys em
- A combina ion o supplemen s can e-
lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha-
ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en-
zymes)
S age
1, 2, 3 [28,29]
Ex ensi ely hy-
d olyzed o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed
- Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly-
sa es o casein o whey)
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
- Sui able o babies wi h delica e ummies
- In an diges i e discom o is he esul o
gas oin es inal ac imma u i y, wi h
mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic,
and cons ipa ion).
-
Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o diges
- Whey-based (100%)
- Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o
suppo he baby’s immune sys em
- A combina ion o supplemen s can elie e
colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha ides,
p obio ics, and diges i e enzymes)
S age 1, 2, 3 [28,29]
Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed
o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30
P e e m o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion,
g ow h ailu e
- Designed o low-weigh p ema u e
in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s
o con inue he p ope de elopmen o
he ne ous sys em
- Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo
ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein)
S age 1 [22]
Lac ose- ee o -
mula
- Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies:
De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e-
en s lac ose diges ion
- I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac-
osemia
- Reduces symp oms including nausea,
abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness,
and gas
- I con ains all he necessa y i amins,
mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids,
and DHA
- Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add-
ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk
- Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o
glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug-
a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e
han egula milk
S age
1, 2, 3 [27]
Com o o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h delica e um-
mies
- In an diges i e discom o is he esul
o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y,
wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic,
and cons ipa ion).
- Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o
diges
- Whey-based (100%)
- Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o
suppo he baby’s immune sys em
- A combina ion o supplemen s can e-
lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha-
ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en-
zymes)
S age
1, 2, 3 [28,29]
Ex ensi ely hy-
d olyzed o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed
- Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly-
sa es o casein o whey)
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
-
Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein
alle gy (CMPA)
- Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed
- Pep ide-based (con aining hyd olysa es o
casein o whey)
S age 1, 2, 3 [30]
Hypoalle genic o
elemen al o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30
Hypoalle genic o
elemen al o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Fully hyd olyzed p o ein
- Amino acid-based o mula
- No esidual p o ein
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
SOYA
al e na i e milk
o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h CMPA
- Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed-
based o mulas
- I is no ad ised o babies unde 6
mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig-
ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s
ed soy o mula
- I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1
yea
- The e a e some heo e ical conce ns
o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes-
ogens, which ad e sely affec human
de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo-
c ine unc ion
S age
3 [31]
MCT o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p-
ion p oblems
- Wi h a high in ake o medium chain
iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a )
- The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s,
such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do-
cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi-
donic acid (ARA))
S age
1, 2 [32]
An i- e lux o
p e- hickened
o mulas
- Sui able o babies wi h e lux and
GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis-
ease)
- The main gelling o hickening agen is
ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum)
- Feed hickene educes GERD by in-
c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o
he liquid con en , enabling he eed o
be e ained in he s omach
- Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able
a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy-
d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux
symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing
up)
S age
1, 2 [33]
-
Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein
alle gy (CMPA)
- Fully hyd olyzed p o ein
- Amino acid-based o mula
- No esidual p o ein
S age 1, 2, 3 [30]
SOYA
al e na i e milk o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30
Hypoalle genic o
elemen al o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Fully hyd olyzed p o ein
- Amino acid-based o mula
- No esidual p o ein
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
SOYA
al e na i e milk
o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h CMPA
- Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed-
based o mulas
- I is no ad ised o babies unde 6
mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig-
ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s
ed soy o mula
- I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1
yea
- The e a e some heo e ical conce ns
o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes-
ogens, which ad e sely affec human
de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo-
c ine unc ion
S age
3 [31]
MCT o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p-
ion p oblems
- Wi h a high in ake o medium chain
iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a )
- The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s,
such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do-
cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi-
donic acid (ARA))
S age
1, 2 [32]
An i- e lux o
p e- hickened
o mulas
- Sui able o babies wi h e lux and
GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis-
ease)
- The main gelling o hickening agen is
ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum)
- Feed hickene educes GERD by in-
c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o
he liquid con en , enabling he eed o
be e ained in he s omach
- Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able
a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy-
d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux
symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing
up)
S age
1, 2 [33]
- Sui able o babies wi h CMPA
- Al e na i e o ex ensi ely
hyd olyzed-based o mulas
-
I is no ad ised o babies unde 6 mon hs
due o he de elopmen o signi ican
os eopenia in p e e m in an s ed
soy o mula
- I is no gene ally ecommended un il
1 yea
- The e a e some heo e ical conce ns o e
soya milk as i con ains phy oes ogens,
which ad e sely a ec human
de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o
endoc ine unc ion
S age 3 [31]
Foods 2024,13, 2659 7 o 29
Table 1. Con .
Type o
In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re .
MCT o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30
Hypoalle genic o
elemen al o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Fully hyd olyzed p o ein
- Amino acid-based o mula
- No esidual p o ein
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
SOYA
al e na i e milk
o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h CMPA
- Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed-
based o mulas
- I is no ad ised o babies unde 6
mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig-
ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s
ed soy o mula
- I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1
yea
- The e a e some heo e ical conce ns
o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes-
ogens, which ad e sely affec human
de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo-
c ine unc ion
S age
3 [31]
MCT o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p-
ion p oblems
- Wi h a high in ake o medium chain
iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a )
- The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s,
such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do-
cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi-
donic acid (ARA))
S age
1, 2 [32]
An i- e lux o
p e- hickened
o mulas
- Sui able o babies wi h e lux and
GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis-
ease)
- The main gelling o hickening agen is
ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum)
- Feed hickene educes GERD by in-
c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o
he liquid con en , enabling he eed o
be e ained in he s omach
- Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able
a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy-
d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux
symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing
up)
S age
1, 2 [33]
- Sui able o babies wi h a
malabso p ion p oblems
- Wi h a high in ake o medium chain
iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a )
- The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s,
such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids
(docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and
a achidonic acid (ARA))
S age 1, 2 [32]
An i- e lux o
p e- hickened
o mulas
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30
Hypoalle genic o
elemen al o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk
p o ein alle gy (CMPA)
- Fully hyd olyzed p o ein
- Amino acid-based o mula
- No esidual p o ein
S age
1, 2, 3 [30]
SOYA
al e na i e milk
o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h CMPA
- Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed-
based o mulas
- I is no ad ised o babies unde 6
mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig-
ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s
ed soy o mula
- I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1
yea
- The e a e some heo e ical conce ns
o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes-
ogens, which ad e sely affec human
de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo-
c ine unc ion
S age
3 [31]
MCT o mula
- Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p-
ion p oblems
- Wi h a high in ake o medium chain
iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a )
- The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s,
such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do-
cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi-
donic acid (ARA))
S age
1, 2 [32]
An i- e lux o
p e- hickened
o mulas
- Sui able o babies wi h e lux and
GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis-
ease)
- The main gelling o hickening agen is
ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum)
- Feed hickene educes GERD by in-
c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o
he liquid con en , enabling he eed o
be e ained in he s omach
- Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able
a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy-
d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux
symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing
up)
S age
1, 2 [33]
- Sui able o babies wi h e lux and GERD
(gas oesophageal e lux disease)
- The main gelling o hickening agen is
ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum)
- Feed hickene educes GERD by
inc easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o
he liquid con en , enabling he eed o be
e ained in he s omach
- Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able a s,
and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hyd olyzed
p o ein o educe e lux symp oms (e.g.,
egu gi a ion/spi ing up)
S age 1, 2 [33]
P obio ic in an o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 30
P obio ic in an
o mula
- Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domi-
na ed by Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacil-
lus
- P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease
na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es i-
nal diseases, enhance immuni y, e-
duce cance isks, imp o e nu ien
syn hesis and bioa ailabili y, p e en
alle gies, p o ec he mucosa om
pa hogen coloniza ion, and balance he
in es inal mic obio a
- PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a
le els o 102 o 105 CFU/g modula es
hei immune sys ems in a simila
manne o b eas milk
S age
1, 2, 3 [34,35]
PKU o mula
- Sui able o in an s wi h phenylke-
onu ia (PKU)
- PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o-
ein die and a oid aspa ame
- PKU o mula should be used along
wi h b eas milk o in an o mula o
p o ide he in an wi h phenylalanine,
luid, and gene al nu i ion needs
- F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylala-
nine
- Con aining o he essen ial and non-es-
sen ial amino acids, a s, ca bohy-
d a es, i amins, mine als, ARA, and
DHA.
- Se e al o mulas con ain gly-
comac opep ides
- The le els o B i amins o co ac o
p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine
in an o mulas
S age
1, 2, 3 [36]
Pu ee meal (ani-
mal oods)
- A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle sʹ
eeding includes cheese and o he
dai y p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as
he main sou ces o a y acids
- High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be
offe ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such
as ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs
S age
2, 3 [37]
-
Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domina ed by
Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacillus
- P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease
na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es inal
diseases, enhance immuni y, educe cance
isks, imp o e nu ien syn hesis and
bioa ailabili y, p e en alle gies, p o ec
he mucosa om pa hogen coloniza ion,
and balance he in es inal mic obio a
- PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a
le els o 102 o 105CFU/g modula es hei
immune sys ems in a simila manne o
b eas milk
S age 1, 2, 3 [34,35]
PKU o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 30
P obio ic in an
o mula
- Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domi-
na ed by Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacil-
lus
- P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease
na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es i-
nal diseases, enhance immuni y, e-
duce cance isks, imp o e nu ien
syn hesis and bioa ailabili y, p e en
alle gies, p o ec he mucosa om
pa hogen coloniza ion, and balance he
in es inal mic obio a
- PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a
le els o 102 o 105 CFU/g modula es
hei immune sys ems in a simila
manne o b eas milk
S age
1, 2, 3 [34,35]
PKU o mula
- Sui able o in an s wi h phenylke-
onu ia (PKU)
- PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o-
ein die and a oid aspa ame
- PKU o mula should be used along
wi h b eas milk o in an o mula o
p o ide he in an wi h phenylalanine,
luid, and gene al nu i ion needs
- F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylala-
nine
- Con aining o he essen ial and non-es-
sen ial amino acids, a s, ca bohy-
d a es, i amins, mine als, ARA, and
DHA.
- Se e al o mulas con ain gly-
comac opep ides
- The le els o B i amins o co ac o
p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine
in an o mulas
S age
1, 2, 3 [36]
Pu ee meal (ani-
mal oods)
- A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle sʹ
eeding includes cheese and o he
dai y p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as
he main sou ces o a y acids
- High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be
offe ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such
as ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs
S age
2, 3 [37]
- Sui able o in an s wi h
phenylke onu ia (PKU)
- PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o ein
die and a oid aspa ame
- PKU o mula should be used along wi h
b eas milk o in an o mula o p o ide
he in an wi h phenylalanine, luid, and
gene al nu i ion needs
- F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylalanine
- Con aining o he essen ial and
non-essen ial amino acids, a s,
ca bohyd a es, i amins, mine als, ARA,
and DHA.
- Se e al o mulas con ain
glycomac opep ides
- The le els o B i amins o co ac o
p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine
in an o mulas
S age 1, 2, 3 [36]
Foods 2024,13, 2659 8 o 29
Table 1. Con .
Type o
In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re .
Pu ee meal (animal oods)
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 30
P obio ic in an
o mula
- Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domi-
na ed by Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacil-
lus
- P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease
na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es i-
nal diseases, enhance immuni y, e-
duce cance isks, imp o e nu ien
syn hesis and bioa ailabili y, p e en
alle gies, p o ec he mucosa om
pa hogen coloniza ion, and balance he
in es inal mic obio a
- PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a
le els o 102 o 105 CFU/g modula es
hei immune sys ems in a simila
manne o b eas milk
S age
1, 2, 3 [34,35]
PKU o mula
- Sui able o in an s wi h phenylke-
onu ia (PKU)
- PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o-
ein die and a oid aspa ame
- PKU o mula should be used along
wi h b eas milk o in an o mula o
p o ide he in an wi h phenylalanine,
luid, and gene al nu i ion needs
- F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylala-
nine
- Con aining o he essen ial and non-es-
sen ial amino acids, a s, ca bohy-
d a es, i amins, mine als, ARA, and
DHA.
- Se e al o mulas con ain gly-
comac opep ides
- The le els o B i amins o co ac o
p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine
in an o mulas
S age
1, 2, 3 [36]
Pu ee meal (ani-
mal oods)
- A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle sʹ
eeding includes cheese and o he
dai y p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as
he main sou ces o a y acids
- High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be
offe ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such
as ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs
S age
2, 3 [37]
- A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle s’
eeding includes cheese and o he dai y
p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as he main
sou ces o a y acids
- High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be
o e ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such as
ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs
S age 2, 3 [37]
O ganic in an o mula
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 30
O ganic in an
o mula
- Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g.,
palm oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan,
DHA, and ARA ex ac ed using hex-
ane), syn he ic p ese a i es, and a i-
icially syn hesized o chemically ex-
ac ed nu ien s (e.g., lycopene, lu ein,
nucleo ides, au ine, L-me hionine,
and L-ca ni ine)
S age
1, 2, 3 [38]
Complemen a y
oods:
ce eal/
po idge
- The ange o p oduc s includes ehy-
d a ion- eady powde s, RTS ( he -
mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed
wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas,
and biscui s, as well as o ganic ui
and ce eals.
- By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese
p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien ab-
so p ion by adap ing ce eal composi-
ion o in an diges ion
- The i s s age o semisolids begins
wi h diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice
- A pu ee made om whole g ains
(whea , ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good
sou ce o ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, o-
la e, and B i amins
- A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals
(whea , mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba -
ley, and ye) o deli e high nu i ional
alue, high in ibe , calcium, and i on,
and high in dex iniza ion (88% o
90%)
- High biological alue p o eins, includ-
ing a mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and
ui s ich in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B
1
,
B
2
, B
6
, bio in, olic acid, and B
12
S age
2, 3 [39]
Complemen a y
oods:
ui / ege able
pu ee
- By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e in-
oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e
sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege a-
bles, and g ains
- The mos popula ege able pu ee in-
cludes (e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , o-
ma o swee po a o, co n, pumpkin,
b occoli pu ee)
- F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles
(e.g., apple, banana, s awbe y,
mango, passion ui , bluebe y,
peach)
- The WHO bans added suga s in hese
p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs
o age
S age
2,3 [40]
- Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g., palm
oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan, DHA, and
ARA ex ac ed using hexane), syn he ic
p ese a i es, and a i icially syn hesized
o chemically ex ac ed nu ien s (e.g.,
lycopene, lu ein, nucleo ides, au ine,
L-me hionine, and L-ca ni ine)
S age 1, 2, 3 [38]
Complemen a y oods:
ce eal/
po idge
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 30
O ganic in an
o mula
- Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g.,
palm oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan,
DHA, and ARA ex ac ed using hex-
ane), syn he ic p ese a i es, and a i-
icially syn hesized o chemically ex-
ac ed nu ien s (e.g., lycopene, lu ein,
nucleo ides, au ine, L-me hionine,
and L-ca ni ine)
S age
1, 2, 3 [38]
Complemen a y
oods:
ce eal/
po idge
- The ange o p oduc s includes ehy-
d a ion- eady powde s, RTS ( he -
mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed
wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas,
and biscui s, as well as o ganic ui
and ce eals.
- By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese
p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien ab-
so p ion by adap ing ce eal composi-
ion o in an diges ion
- The i s s age o semisolids begins
wi h diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice
- A pu ee made om whole g ains
(whea , ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good
sou ce o ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, o-
la e, and B i amins
- A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals
(whea , mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba -
ley, and ye) o deli e high nu i ional
alue, high in ibe , calcium, and i on,
and high in dex iniza ion (88% o
90%)
- High biological alue p o eins, includ-
ing a mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and
ui s ich in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B
1
,
B
2
, B
6
, bio in, olic acid, and B
12
S age
2, 3 [39]
Complemen a y
oods:
ui / ege able
pu ee
- By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e in-
oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e
sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege a-
bles, and g ains
- The mos popula ege able pu ee in-
cludes (e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , o-
ma o swee po a o, co n, pumpkin,
b occoli pu ee)
- F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles
(e.g., apple, banana, s awbe y,
mango, passion ui , bluebe y,
peach)
- The WHO bans added suga s in hese
p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs
o age
S age
2,3 [40]
- The ange o p oduc s includes
ehyd a ion- eady powde s, RTS
( he mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed
wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas, and
biscui s, as well as o ganic ui and ce eals.
- By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese
p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien
abso p ion by adap ing ce eal composi ion
o in an diges ion
- The i s s age o semisolids begins wi h
diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice
- A pu ee made om whole g ains (whea ,
ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good sou ce o
ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, ola e, and
B i amins
- A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals (whea ,
mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba ley, and ye)
o deli e high nu i ional alue, high in
ibe , calcium, and i on, and high in
dex iniza ion (88% o 90%)
-
High biological alue p o eins, including a
mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and ui s ich
in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B1, B2, B6, bio in,
olic acid, and B12
S age 2, 3 [39]
Foods 2024,13, 2659 9 o 29
Table 1. Con .
Type o
In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re .
Complemen a y oods:
ui / ege able pu ee
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 30
O ganic in an
o mula
- Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g.,
palm oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan,
DHA, and ARA ex ac ed using hex-
ane), syn he ic p ese a i es, and a i-
icially syn hesized o chemically ex-
ac ed nu ien s (e.g., lycopene, lu ein,
nucleo ides, au ine, L-me hionine,
and L-ca ni ine)
S age
1, 2, 3 [38]
Complemen a y
oods:
ce eal/
po idge
- The ange o p oduc s includes ehy-
d a ion- eady powde s, RTS ( he -
mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed
wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas,
and biscui s, as well as o ganic ui
and ce eals.
- By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese
p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien ab-
so p ion by adap ing ce eal composi-
ion o in an diges ion
- The i s s age o semisolids begins
wi h diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice
- A pu ee made om whole g ains
(whea , ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good
sou ce o ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, o-
la e, and B i amins
- A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals
(whea , mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba -
ley, and ye) o deli e high nu i ional
alue, high in ibe , calcium, and i on,
and high in dex iniza ion (88% o
90%)
- High biological alue p o eins, includ-
ing a mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and
ui s ich in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B
1
,
B
2
, B
6
, bio in, olic acid, and B
12
S age
2, 3 [39]
Complemen a y
oods:
ui / ege able
pu ee
- By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e in-
oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e
sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege a-
bles, and g ains
- The mos popula ege able pu ee in-
cludes (e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , o-
ma o swee po a o, co n, pumpkin,
b occoli pu ee)
- F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles
(e.g., apple, banana, s awbe y,
mango, passion ui , bluebe y,
peach)
- The WHO bans added suga s in hese
p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs
o age
S age
2,3 [40]
- By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e
in oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e
sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege ables,
and g ains
-
The mos popula ege able pu ee includes
(e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , oma o swee
po a o, co n, pumpkin, b occoli pu ee)
-
F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles (e.g.,
apple, banana, s awbe y, mango, passion
ui , bluebe y, peach)
- The WHO bans added suga s in hese
p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs
o age
S age 2,3 [40]
Baby wa e
Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 30
Baby wa e
- Pu i ied wa e : il e ed wa e , wi h im-
pu i ies emo ed
- Sui able wa e o d inking when ba-
bies ge olde
- Dis illed wa e : made by boiling pu i-
ied wa e and collec ing s eam
- Dis illed wa e is he cleanes and pu -
es wa e a ailable
- This wa e is comple ely ee o e e y-
hing, e en na u al mine als such as
calcium and magnesium a e also e-
mo ed du ing he p ocess
- Mine al and sp ing wa e : wa e de-
i ed om a sp ing o unde g ound
sou ce con ains na u ally dissol ed
mine als (a leas 250 ppm), including
po assium, calcium, and i on
S age
1, 2, 3 [41]
2.2. Complemen a y Foods
Complemen a y eeding, as de ined by he WHO, is “a p ocess s a ing when b eas
milk alone is no longe su icien o mee he nu i ional equi emen s o in an s, and
he e o e o he oods and liquids a e needed, along wi h b eas milk” [42]. This p ocess,
which includes con inued b eas eeding, ypically occu s be ween 6 o 23 mon hs o age
[43]. Comme cial complemen a y ood p oduc s a e o mula ed o p o ide essen ial mi-
c onu ien s and mac onu ien s needed du ing his s age. These p oduc s can be manu-
ac u ed using simple echniques such as mal ing, popping, and e men a ion, as well as
mode n ood-p ocessing echnologies like olle d ying, ex usion cooking, and non- he -
mal p ocessing. Some o he mos common comme cially p epa ed IFs include i on- o i-
ied ce eals in a ie ies such as ice, oa s, ba ley, whea , mixed-g ain, and g ain wi h ui .
Addi ionally, he e a e juices, including hose speci ically o in an s, ci us juice, canned
juice, ege able o ui pu ee, and specially p epa ed mea s o in an consump ion [44].
3. Assessmen o Haza ds and Sa e y Measu es in In an and Baby Foods
The sa e y and quali y o in an ood a e majo conce ns o pa en s and public heal h
au ho i ies [8]. Child en a e pa icula ly ulne able o oodbo ne illnesses, making he
sa e y o ood du ing p ocessing, p epa a ion, and handling c i ical o hei heal h. The e
a e h ee main ypes o haza ds in oods ha con ibu e o ou b eaks: biological, physical,
and chemical. These haza ds a e discussed in de ail below:
3.1. Mic obial Haza ds
The nu ien con en o in an and child oods makes hem excellen g ow h media
o bac e ia. The e o e, any pa hogen ha emains a e p ocessing o con amina ion can
apidly mul iply unde op imal condi ions [10]. Du ing 2004–2006, he FAO/WHO con-
sul a ion g oup iden i ied he mos common mic oo ganisms associa ed wi h con amina-
ion in in an ood. These include Salmonella en e i idis, C onobac e sp., En e obac e agglom-
e ans, En e obac e cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxy oca, Ci obac e eundii,
Ci obac e kose i, Esche ichia coli, Ha nia al ei, Acine obac e sp., Se a ia sp., Bacillus ce eus,
Clos idium bo ulinum, Clos idium pe ingens, Clos idium di icile, Lis e ia monocy ogenes,
and S aphylococcus sp. Among hese, Salmonella en e ica and C onobac e sp. we e iden i ied
as he mos conce ning pa hogens, alling unde haza d ca ego y A [45,46].
- Pu i ied wa e : il e ed wa e , wi h
impu i ies emo ed
- Sui able wa e o d inking when babies
ge olde
- Dis illed wa e : made by boiling pu i ied
wa e and collec ing s eam
- Dis illed wa e is he cleanes and pu es
wa e a ailable
-
This wa e is comple ely ee o e e y hing,
e en na u al mine als such as calcium and
magnesium a e also emo ed du ing
he p ocess
- Mine al and sp ing wa e : wa e de i ed
om a sp ing o unde g ound sou ce
con ains na u ally dissol ed mine als (a
leas 250 ppm), including po assium,
calcium, and i on
S age 1, 2, 3 [41]
2.2. Complemen a y Foods
Complemen a y eeding, as de ined by he WHO, is “a p ocess s a ing when b eas
milk alone is no longe su icien o mee he nu i ional equi emen s o in an s, and he e-
o e o he oods and liquids a e needed, along wi h b eas milk” [
42
]. This p ocess, which
includes con inued b eas eeding, ypically occu s be ween 6 o 23 mon hs o age [
43
].
Comme cial complemen a y ood p oduc s a e o mula ed o p o ide essen ial mic onu i-
en s and mac onu ien s needed du ing his s age. These p oduc s can be manu ac u ed
using simple echniques such as mal ing, popping, and e men a ion, as well as mode n
ood-p ocessing echnologies like olle d ying, ex usion cooking, and non- he mal p o-
cessing. Some o he mos common comme cially p epa ed IFs include i on- o i ied ce eals
in a ie ies such as ice, oa s, ba ley, whea , mixed-g ain, and g ain wi h ui . Addi ionally,
he e a e juices, including hose speci ically o in an s, ci us juice, canned juice, ege able
o ui pu ee, and specially p epa ed mea s o in an consump ion [44].
3. Assessmen o Haza ds and Sa e y Measu es in In an and Baby Foods
The sa e y and quali y o in an ood a e majo conce ns o pa en s and public heal h
au ho i ies [
8
]. Child en a e pa icula ly ulne able o oodbo ne illnesses, making he
Foods 2024,13, 2659 16 o 29
s a ic p inciple. Le Cha elie ’s heo y s a es ha p essu e-induced olume educ ion al e s
s uc u al cha ac e is ics, while he isos a ic p inciple main ains ha p essu e is uni o mly
dis ibu ed and p opo ional in all luid oods [
117
,
118
]. Indus ially, his me hod is p e-
dominan ly used o p ocessing liquids and solids bu is unsui able o d ied milk powde
o ce eals due o hei low mois u e con en [119].
An HHP echnology sys em in ol es injec ing wa e in o a high-pe o mance cylin-
de , whe e oods o be ea ed a e p e-packaged in a lexible ma e ial ha ansmi s he
wa e p essu e. Solid ood p oduc s a e acuum-sealed, while liquid ood p oduc s use
a headspace- ee seal [
116
]. HHP p ocessing echnology allows o simul aneous con ol
o h ee p ocessing pa ame e s—p essu e, empe a u e, and ime—o e ing signi ican
p ocess design lexibili y [
120
,
121
]. This ypically en ails subjec ing a ge ood p oduc s
o p essu es o 400–600 MPa a empe a u e anges o 45
◦
C o e ige a ion, wi h holding
imes o 1.5–6 min [48,122].
Unlike hea ea men , p essu e ea men is no in luenced by p oduc size o geom-
e y, leading o educed p ocessing imes. P e ious epo s indica e ha one o he key
ad an ages o HHP o he IFs/BBF indus y is a dec ease in unwan ed ood p ocessing
con aminan s and mic obial popula ions [
115
,
123
]. A majo mechanism o mic obial inac i-
a ion in ol es he dis up ion o non-co alen bonds and damage o cy oplasmic ibosomes
and cell memb anes. HHP can induce se e al phenomena simul aneously (e.g., dis up ion
o cell walls and memb anes, chemical eac ions, enzyme ac i a ion o inac i a ion, and
p o ein modi ica ion, such as dena u a ion and gel o ma ion), he eby in luencing he
o e all mic obial load [124,125].
High-p essu e pas eu iza ion e ec i ely elimina es spoilage bac e ia, yeas s, and
molds bu is ine ec i e agains spo es [
25
]. To enhance he s e iliza ion and pas eu iza-
ion p ocesses, high p essu es (600 MPa) combined wi h high empe a u es (90–121
◦
C)
a e used o inac i a e spo es, a me hod known as “high-p essu e he mal s e iliza ion”
(HPTS) [
126
,
127
]. The combina ion o high p essu e and high empe a u e p oduces a
syne gis ic e ec ha educes p ocessing ime, minimizes undesi ed ood p ocessing con-
aminan s, imp o es ood quali y, and elimina es mic oo ganisms [
128
]. In 2015, he FDA
app o ed p essu e-enhanced s e iliza ion, allowing o s e iliza ion empe a u es below
121.1 ◦C a 600 MPa [129].
Nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed he e ec i eness o HPP, ei he alone o in com-
bina ion wi h o he echnologies, o p ocessing a ious BFs. Fo ins ance,
Kul u e al. [
90
] used HHP o he pas eu iza ion o ui pu ees o babies, achie ing
pa hogen inac i a ion wi hou gene a ing chemical con aminan s such as u an. HPP
ea men s we e conduc ed a 25, 35, and 45
◦
C, and p essu es o 200, 300, and 400 MPa,
o ea men du a ions o 5, 10, and 15 min. Signi ican educ ions (a ound 6 log
10
) in
mesophilic ae ophiles and yeas s/molds we e achie ed a 400 MPa and 45
◦
C o 15 min
wi hou u an o ma ion. Kul u e al. [
91
] also in es iga ed he po en ial o HPP o in-
ac i a ing o al mesophilic ae obic bac e ia, o al yeas s and molds, and educing u an
o ma ion in ege able-based IFs. They highligh ed he syne gis ic e ec s o p ocessing
pa ame e s such as ime, empe a u e, and p essu e in mic obial inac i a ion. The e ec-
i eness o mic obial educ ion depended on he speci ic mic oo ganism and he HPP
condi ions. Fo example, ea men a 400 MPa and 45
◦
C o 15 min led o comple e
inac i a ion o all mic oo ganisms, wi h no u an de ec ed in any sample. The use o
low empe a u es in p ocessing ui and ege able baby p oduc s helps p ese e hei
senso y cha ac e is ics.
Li e al. [92] e alua ed he nu i ional and unc ional p ope ies o soy p o ein isola e
o IFs using HHP ea men . They ound ha a ious unc ional a ibu es, such as
solubili y, wa e holding capaci y, oaming capaci y, and emulsi ica ion ac i i y index, we e
enhanced a lowe p essu e and ime le els bu diminished a highe le els. Foaming
s abili y dec eased wi h inc easing p essu e and ime, while he emulsi ica ion s abili y
index dec eased wi h highe p essu e. Soy p o ein isola e gels exhibi ed imp o emen s
in sp inginess, ha dness, and adhesi e o ce wi h longe ea men imes and inc eased

Foods 2024,13, 2659 17 o 29
p essu e, al hough hese imp o emen s we e less p onounced han hose obse ed in he
con ol g oup. Fu he mo e, HHP induced con o ma ional changes in he e ia y and/o
qua e na y s uc u e o soy p o ein isola e [93].
Bu and Li [
130
] epo ed ha he HHP- ea ed sample exhibi ed a highe swallowing
esponse and g ea e
in i o
diges ibili y compa ed o he con ol. Gel elec opho esis
indica ed ha glycinin was mo e s able unde p essu e han
β
-conglycinin, and high
molecula weigh subuni s we e o med h ough disul ide in e ac ions a highe ea men
le els. In ano he s udy, Ce in-Ka aca e al. [
131
] combined high p essu e wi h ans-
cinnamaldehyde o assess he e ec i eness o HPP in deac i a ing B. ce eus spo es in
econs i u ed powde ed in an o mula milk (RPIFM) unde op imal condi ions (5 min a
600 MPa). The p oduc s we e hen s o ed a 23
◦
C and 7
◦
C o 4 and 6 weeks, espec i ely.
The combined me hod demons a ed signi ican an imic obial ac i i y by elimina ing
ege a i e cells and B. ce eus spo es in in an oods s o ed a oom empe a u e and unde
e ige a ion. HPP a 600 MPa educed pa hogen popula ions by wo logs and combining
HPP wi h 0.1% ans-cinnamaldehyde esul ed in a h ee-log educ ion. Long- e m s o age
o RPIFM a oom empe a u e led o dec eased pH and inc eased mic obial g ow h. The
combina ion o HPP and ans-cinnamaldehyde was conside ed a obus an imic obial
al e na i e o he mal ea men s and a i icial p ese a i es. Ce in-Ka aca e al. [
94
] ound
ha a combina ion o HPP a 600 MPa o 5 min, 0.05% ans-cinnamaldehyde, and 1%
chi osan, wi h s o age empe a u es o 7, 23, and 45 ◦C, led o he comple e elimina ion o
C onobac e sakazakii a e 4, 6, and 2 weeks, espec i ely. In all HPP ea men s, he colony-
o ming uni s pe millili e (CFU/mL) dec eased by a leas 5.5 logs CFU/mL, compa ed o
maximum educ ions o 2.1, 1.1, and 3.7 logs CFU/mL wi hou HPP ea men s a 7, 23,
and 45
◦
C. Mo eo e , senso y es ing did no e eal a signi ican di e ence be ween he
ea men g oup and he con ol g oup.
I has been documen ed ha he mal p ocessing and high-p essu e he mal p ocessing
(HPTP) o pea pu ees, wi h o wi hou ci ic acid, can inhibi oxida i e enzymes such
as pe oxidase (POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO), while also imp o ing hei senso y
p ope ies [
95
]. Following HPTP ea men (600 MPa, 90
◦
C, 5 min) and he mal p ocessing
ea men (90
◦
C, 7 min) in acidi ied pu ee, POD was comple ely deac i a ed, whe eas
PPO was deac i a ed o a maximum o 60%. The e o e, pea pu ee ea ed wi h HP and
HPTP was conside ed a sui able candida e o use in baby o mulas due o i s low pH, high
an ioxidan capaci y, and educed ac i i y o oxida i e enzymes.
Se enich e al. [
97
] in es iga ed he po en ial bene i s o HPTS in he ood indus y,
emphasizing i s capaci y o enhance ood quali y, diminish he mal impac , and lowe he
p esence o undesi ed ood p ocessing con aminan s such as u an. The s udy conduc ed
labo a o y-scale ials on speci ic ood i ems o es ablish empe a u e– ime combina ions
o achie ing a 12 log
10
inac i a ion o Bacillus amylolique aciens. These combina ions we e
hen applied in a scale-up p ocess using a 55 L essel equipped wi h a high-p essu e, high-
empe a u e sys em. The esul s demons a ed a signi ican dec ease in u an le els, anging
om 41 o 98% compa ed o con en ional e o ing me hods. Pilo -scale expe imen s
con i med hese indings, wi h only one ood p oduc exhibi ing ins abili y a e ea men .
Addi ionally, s o age ials (s anda dized me hod NF V 08-408) e ealed ha only wo
selec ed ea men condi ions (107.5
◦
C, 9.8 min and 115
◦
C, 0.45 min a 600 MPa) esul ed
in an uns able p oduc , speci ically in he case o baby ood pu ee. In conclusion, he
s udy sugges ed ha HPTS holds p omise as a iable op ion o adop ion wi hin he
ood indus y.
G a z e al. [
98
] e alua ed he e ec s o p essu e-enhanced s e iliza ion (PES) and
ohmic (OH) echnologies as al e na i es o he mal e o ing. Thei goal was o enhance he
quali y o ca o pu ee o in an consump ion by iden i ying op imal ood sa e y p ocess
pa ame e s. Bo h me hods we e ound o educe he he mal load on he p oduc wi hou
comp omising ood sa e y o quali y. This echnology was obse ed o hea pu ee samples
mo e apidly and uni o mly compa ed o con en ional e o s, leading o lowe C alues.
Addi ionally, PES ea men s, besides hei syne gis ic inac i a ion e ec o empe a u e
Foods 2024,13, 2659 18 o 29
and high p essu e, esul ed in lowe C alues by lowe ing he p ocessing empe a u e. As
a esul , colo , bioac i e compounds like ca o enoids, and ex u e we e be e p ese ed,
while ood p ocessing con aminan s, pa icula ly u an and i s de i a i es, we e educed.
Wang e al. [
99
] in es iga ed he applica ion o p essu e-assis ed he mal s e iliza ion
(PATS) o s e ilize BFs, which o e highe nu i ional alue compa ed o p oduc s p ocessed
using con en ional he mal me hods. Thei s udy ocused on s e ilizing BFs inocula ed
wi h B. sub ilis spo es using he PATS echnique. The esul s indica ed ha he combina ion
o empe a u e and he mal expansion p essu e had a syne gis ic e ec on mic obial
elimina ion, leading o signi ican educ ions in B. sub ilis le els and imp o ed e en ion o
asco bic acid.
5.2. Radio F equency (RF) Technology
Radio F equency (RF) echnology u ilizes elec omagne ic wa es in he equency
ange o 1 o 300 MHz. In RF hea ing, elec omagne ic wa es pene a e he ood p oduc ,
causing pola molecules (such as wa e ) o oscilla e and gene a e hea h ough molecula
ic ion. The apid and olume ic hea ing ensu es uni o m empe a u e dis ibu ion,
which is pa icula ly bene icial o oods wi h high mois u e con en . Key ope a ional
pa ame e s include equency ( ypically 13.56 o 27.12 MHz o ood applica ions), powe
(adjus able depending on he ood’s dielec ic p ope ies), and ea men ime ( om seconds
o minu es). RF hea ing is p ima ily used o pas eu iza ion, s e iliza ion, d ying, and
hawing, p o iding apid and uni o m hea ing wi h minimal quali y deg ada ion [
105
,
132
].
In RF hea ing uni s (RF-H), elec odes do no di ec ly con ac he ood o p e en Joule
hea ing (OH hea ing). This echnology is sui able o bo h solids and liquids due o i s deep
pene a ion capaci y and apid hea ing speed [
133
]. Nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed
he success ul use o RF hea ing o pas eu izing/s e ilizing liquid o semi-liquid IFs. A
ecen expe imen al s udy by Lin e al. [
103
] con i med he e ec i eness o RF-enhanced
adi ional he mal p ocessing (RF-assis ed TTP) o pas eu izing PIFM. In his s udy, RF
ene gy was applied o a ay con aining PIFM, esul ing in a cold spo obse ed in he cen e
o he op laye . The RF ea men was used a e inocula ing he sample wi h C. sakazakii o
hea i un il he cold spo eached 65
◦
C a 27.12 MHz and 6 kW. Subsequen ly, he samples
we e held a 65
◦
C in a ho ai o en o a ying imes. Following RF-assis ed TTP a 65
◦
C
o 21 h, C. sakazakii was educed by app oxima ely 5 logs. Quali a i e analysis e ealed no
signi ican di e ences in solubili y, we abili y, diges ibili y, and colo pa ame e s be ween
RF-assis ed TTP and TTP. Howe e , bo h ea men s led o signi ican changes in mois u e
con en , wa e ac i i y, TBARS, and pe oxide alue.
Ano he s udy aimed o de elop adio equency dielec ic hea ing (RFDH) p ocesses
o elimina e Salmonella spp. and C. sakazakii in con amina ed non a d y milk (NDM) in-
ended o in an s [
104
]. They used a he mal dea h ime (TDT) disk p ocess o es ima e he
D- alues ( ime equi ed o a one-log educ ion) o Salmonella spp. and C. sakazakii in NDM
(low-hea : LH; high-hea : HH) a empe a u es o 75, 80, 85, o 90
◦
C, and calcula ed he
z- alues ( empe a u e inc ease equi ed o a en old educ ion in D- alue). Fo C. sakazakii,
D- alues anged om 5.37 o 24.86 min a di e en empe a u es, while o Salmonella spp.,
D- alues anged om 4.55 o 24.94 min. The s udy ound ha bo h pa hogens we e inac i-
a ed simila ly ega dless o he ea men me hod (RFDH s. con en ional). This sugges s
ha RFDH ea men could be used o achie e a ge empe a u es o pos - ea men
le hali y in NDM be o e packaging, in a high-speed and uni o m manne , he eby educing
he isk o ood sa e y issues.
Zhang, Zhu e al. [
105
] compa ed he e ec s o combined adio equency and ho
ai ea men (RF-HA) wi h ho wa e ea men (HW) on he quali y o PIFM o inac i-
a ing C. sakazakii by 5 log. Bo h hea ea men me hods showed no signi ican di e -
ences in solubili y o c ude p o ein con en . Howe e , he inc ease in mois u e con en o
2.70 g/100 g (aw: 0.4) esul ed in a signi ican dec ease in he glass ansi ion empe a u e
o amo phous lac ose, comp omising he quali y o PIFM. Lowe ing he mois u e con-
en in PIFM subjec ed o RF-HA ea men inc eased p o ein dena u a ion empe a u es,
Foods 2024,13, 2659 19 o 29
leading o mo e s able p o ein s uc u es. Addi ionally, RF-HA ea men induced less
non-enzyma ic b owning compa ed o HW- ea ed samples. This was u he suppo ed by
FTIR spec a, which indica ed a lowe a e o he Mailla d eac ion in samples ea ed wi h
RF-HA. Mo eo e , RF had a signi ican e ec on pa icle agglome a ion in PIFM compa ed
o con en ional HW ea men .
In a s udy by Zhang, Xie e al. [
106
] a he mos a ic RF sys em was used o deac i a e
C. sakazakii
in PIFM. A p opo ional–in eg al–de i a i e con olle was employed o main-
ain cons an ma e ial empe a u e du ing holding. Simila o p e ious s udies, dielec ic
ma e ial assis ance and ho ai we e u ilized o enhance RF hea ing uni o mi y. Resul s
showed ha he he mal esis ance o C. sakazakii dec eased wi h inc easing wa e ac i i y
(0.2–0.4 a 25
◦
C) and empe a u e (55–70
◦
C). Combining RF wi h ho ai pas eu iza ion
imp o ed mic obial inac i a ion compa ed o RF o ma e ial assis ance alone, a ibu ed
o be e empe a u e uni o mi y. T ansmission elec on mic oscopy (TEM) analyses and
low cy ome y con i med ha RF ea men did no signi ican ly a ec he cell wall. RF
p ocessing has been shown o achie e signi ican ly highe hea ing a es han adi ional
me hods, making i a p omising echnique o pas eu izing PIFM e icien ly. Ano he s udy
by Wang e al. [
107
] e alua ed he he mal dea h kine ics o C. sakazakii in PIFM using
RF and ho wa e ea men . The esea ch demons a ed ha RF echnology e ec i ely
disables C. sakazakii in packaged powde ed IFs while main aining p oduc quali y.
Lin e al. [
108
] s udied he dielec ic p ope ies o packaging ma e ials o PIFM o
imp o e in-package pas eu iza ion using RF and mic owa e hea ing (MWH). They in es-
iga ed how empe a u e (20–80
◦
C), equency (10 MHz–3 GHz), and main componen s
(mois u e, whey p o ein, a , and lac ose) in luenced hese p ope ies. Resul s indica ed ha
he loss ac o and dielec ic cons an dec eased wi h highe equency, while he dielec ic
loss ac o dec eased wi h inc eased densi y, empe a u e, and a con en . The dielec ic
cons an inc eased wi h densi y and main componen s. Lac ose and whey p o ein exhibi ed
posi i e dielec ic p ope ies due o ionic conduc ion, while a had nega i e dielec ic
p ope ies due o weak pola a ac ion. In ano he s udy, Zhong e al. [
109
] e alua ed he
impac o adio equency hea ing (RFH; 90
◦
C, 5 and 10 min) on he mic os uc u e, compo-
si ion ( a dis ibu ion, p o ein oxida ion), ehyd a ion cha ac e is ics, and low p ope ies
o PIFM. RFH ea men inc eased p o ein di y osine concen a ion, ee a on powde
su aces, and powde po osi y. Addi ionally, RFH imp o ed low abili y and comp essibil-
i y compa ed o he aw sample, al hough longe du a ions dec eased ehyd a ion abili y,
indica ing lowe solubili y and smalle con ac angles. The Guggenheim–Ande son–de
Boe (GAB) model cha ac e ized wa e apo so p ion iso he ms, showing ha p olonged
RFH du a ion inc eased C alues (63% a 10 min).
Recen ly, Lin e al. [
103
] in es iga ed he dielec ic p ope ies o PIFM, ocusing on
dipole loss ( a , lac ose, and whey p o ein) and ionic loss a empe a u es and equencies
anging om 20–80
◦
C and 10 o 3000 MHz, espec i ely. They obse ed ha he dielec ic
loss ac o o PIFM inc eased wi h highe lac ose and whey p o ein con en bu dec eased
wi h highe a con en . The ionic loss in PIFM inc eased wi h empe a u e bu emained
cons an wi h equency. Mo eo e , lac ose, a , and whey p o ein dipole loss ollowed he
Debye equa ion, showing an inc ease wi h equency up o app oxima ely 1, 1, and 1.2 GHz,
espec i ely, be o e declining. Inc easing he whey p o ein con en in econs i u ed PIFM
led o highe hea ing a es in RF ields and educed lipid oxida ion in p ocessed PIFM.
PIFM can become s icky unde un a o able p ocessing condi ions, leading o neg-
a i e impac s on i s physicochemical and unc ional p ope ies [
134
]. Zhang e al. [
111
]
in es iga ed he e ec o RF d y hea ea men on PIFM s ickiness. Sp ay-d ied PIFM
wi h a wa e ac i i y o 0.28 was ea ed a 70
◦
C o 0–5 log inac i a ion o C. sakazakii o
a ying du a ions. The RF ea men s signi ican ly educed wa e ac i i y compa ed o un-
ea ed samples, wi h minimal changes in su ace- ee a con en
(0.005–0.006 g/g powde )
and lac ose c ys allini y (2–3%). The pa icle size o PIFM inc eased signi ican ly ini ially
and hen s abilized a e 23.3 min, indica ing pa icle s icking occu ed du ing he i s
pas eu iza ion s ep. While a isible adhesion and low o ho su ace a we e obse ed
Foods 2024,13, 2659 20 o 29
du ing he 23.3 min pas eu iza ion, he a co e age dec eased wi h longe ea men imes.
Addi ionally, he inc eased su ace lac ose co e age in ea ed PIFM educed hei wa e
ac i i y, a ec ing he glass ansi ion. The s udy concluded ha he enhancemen in pa icle
size a e RF p ocessing was due o ee a b idges on he pa icle su ace, sugges ing ha
RF echnology can imp o e pa icle quali y pos -p ocessing.
5.3. Ul asound (US) Technology
Ul asound echnology (US), a non-in asi e and non-des uc i e echnique, has gained
signi ican a en ion in he ood indus y o i s di e se applica ions. US p ocessing employs
high- equency sound wa es, ypically abo e 20 kHz, o de elop ca i a ion in liquid oods.
This p ocess gene a es localized high empe a u es and p essu es ha dis up mic obial
cell walls and enhance mass ans e . Key ope a ional pa ame e s include equency
(20 kHz–1 MHz), in ensi y (W/L), and du a ion ( anging om seconds o minu es). Lowe
equencies a e gene ally used o mic obial con ol, while highe equencies a e applied
o homogeniza ion and emulsi ica ion [
135
,
136
]. This echnology can modi y he chemical,
physical, and unc ional p ope ies o ood, he eby impac ing i s o e all quali y [
137
].
This phenomenon is a ibu ed o ca i a ion in liquids, p essu e changes in gases, and
mo emen o liquids in solids [
138
]. In ood p ocessing, he US inds u ili y in p ocess
con ol, de ec de ec ion, p ope y analysis, ex ac ion e iciency imp o emen , d ying,
il a ion, p ese a ion, and mea ende iza ion [136,137].
Se e al s udies ha e in es iga ed he use o US echnology in IFs and BFs. Fo example,
Adekun e e al. [
112
] s udied he quan i a i e impac o US as an al e na i e hea ing me hod
o moni o ing he inac i a ion kine ics o C. sakazakii in RPIFM. The op imiza ion in ol ed
a ying he ampli ude (24.4, 30.5, 42.7, 54.9, and 61 m) and empe a u e (25
◦
C, 35
◦
C, and
50
◦
C), and he kine ics we e analyzed using a modi ied Bigelow- ype model. The combined
use o US and empe a u e led o a signi ican educ ion in he popula ion o
C. sakazakii.
In ano he s udy, he e ec i eness o US and con en ional pas eu iza ion me hods in
inac i a ing enzymes and mic obes in pea juice o use in BFs was compa ed [
22
]. US
was mos e ec i e a 25, 45, and 65
◦
C wi h 750 W powe , a 20 kHz equency, and
70% ampli ude o 10 min. In con as , con en ional pas eu iza ion equi ed 95
◦
C o
2 min and 65
◦
C o 10 min. US pas eu iza ion esul ed in g ea e inac i a ion o mic obes
(yeas , mold, and o al pla e coun ) and enzymes a a lowe empe a u e (65
◦
C o 10 min).
Addi ionally, compa ed o con en ional me hods (95
◦
C o 2 min), he use o US e ained
mo e phenolic compounds.
Using sonica ion has been epo ed o ende ize mea by educing myo ib illa p o eins
in muscle issue and imp o ing cohesion and wa e -holding capaci y [
139
]. In a s udy by
Luo e al. [
113
], US was in es iga ed as a p e ea men me hod o aw mea o p epa e
in an mea pu ee a di e en powe le els (200 W, 400 W, and 600 W, and 20 kHz) and
du a ions (15, 30, and 45 min). Compa ed o he con ol, using US powe a 400 W and
600 W esul ed in dec eased iscosi y and ha dness, and imp o ed ex u e ( i me ex u e
and highe wa e con en ) o he mea pu ee. Mo eo e , no signi ican di e ence in he
diges ibili y o he mea pu ee in he gas ic phase was obse ed, while he diges ibili y in
he in es inal phase inc eased (80.85%) using US (600 W o 15 min).
5.4. Pulsed Elec ic Field (PEF) Technology
Pulsed elec ic ield (PEF) is a non- he mal ood p ese a ion echnology ha in-
ol es applying sho , high- ol age pulses o ood p oduc s placed be ween wo elec odes.
These pulses induce an elec ic ield ha dis up s cell memb anes h ough elec opo a-
ion, leading o mic obial inac i a ion. Ope a ional pa ame e s include ol age ( ypically
1 o 100 kV/cm), pulse du a ion ( om mic oseconds o milliseconds), and he numbe
o pulses ( om hund eds o housands). These pa ame e s can be adjus ed o op imize
mic obial inac i a ion while p ese ing ood quali y and nu ien s [
140
]. Re e sible pe me-
abiliza ion e e s o he empo a y opening o cell memb anes, allowing o he ex ac ion
o in acellula compounds such as pigmen s, la o s, and nu ien s. This p ocess is o en
Foods 2024,13, 2659 21 o 29
used in he ood indus y o imp o e he ex ac ion e iciency o aluable componen s om
plan and mic obial cells [
141
]. I e e sible pe meabiliza ion, on he o he hand, in ol es
he pe manen dis up ion o cell memb anes, leading o cell dea h. This aspec o PEF is
u ilized o mic obial inac i a ion in oods, ex ending hei shel li e while main aining
hei nu i ional and senso y quali ies [
142
]. Mic obial cells a e des oyed by c ea ing
i e e sible po es in he memb ane, inducing pe meabiliza ion and s uc u al changes in
he memb ane, which may enhance he mass ans e p ocess h ough he memb ane and
esul in he elease o in acellula con en s and he deac i a ion o mic oo ganisms [
143
].
Se e al s udies ha e e alua ed he possibili y o using PEF p ocessing o imp o e he
shel li e s abili y o IFs and BFs. In a s udy conduc ed by Pina-Pé ez e al. [
101
], he e ec
o PEF p ocessing a di e en ea men imes (60 o 3895
µ
s) and ield s eng hs (10 o
40 kV/cm) on he inac i a ion o C. sakazakii suspended in bu e ed pep one wa e (BPW)
and PIFM was in es iga ed. They obse ed a 2.7 log
10
(CFU/mL) educ ion in C. sakazakii
inocula ed in BPW a e PEF ea men o 360
µ
s (2.5
µ
s pulse wid h) a 40 kV/cm. In
PIFM, PEF p ocessing unde he same condi ions esul ed in a 1.2 log (CFU/mL) educ ion
o C. sakazakii. Highe bac e ia inac i a ion was obse ed in bo h subs a es wi h g ea e
ield s eng h and ea men ime. PEF p ocessing was sugges ed as a p omising echnique
o imp o e he sa e y o econs i u ed IFs be o e s o age in he e ige a o in hospi als.
Ano he s udy examined he po en ial cell damage o PEF p ocessing
(15 and 35 kV/cm wi h minimum, medium, and maximum inpu ene gy) o C. sakazakii
inocula ed in di e en comme cial in an o mula milk p oduc s [
101
]. The g ow h o
su i o s and he po en ial p esence, eco e y, o dea h o suble hally damaged cells we e
assessed du ing a 24-h e ige a ed s o age pe iod a 8
◦
C. The u iliza ion o PEF ea men
esul ed in signi ican damage o a la ge pe cen age (80–90%) o C. sakazakii cells, making
hem suscep ible o subsequen e ige a ed s o age in in an o mula milk. The mos
subs an ial educ ion (2.30 log cycles) in C. sakazakii was obse ed wi h a 15 kV/cm 3000
µ
s
PEF ea men ollowed by s o age a 8
◦
C o 24 h. The educ ion in cell coun was mainly
due o he PEF ea men , along wi h he o ma ion and subsequen dea h o damaged cells
du ing he e ige a ed s o age pe iod.
Pina-Pé ez e al. [
102
] in es iga ed he syne gis ic e ec o polyphenol- ich cocoa
powde (CocoanOX 12%: CCX) and PEF p ocessing on he deac i a ion o C. sakazakii in
IFs. The s udy e alua ed di e en concen a ions o cocoa powde (1%, 2.5%, and 5% w/ )
and he iming o cocoa powde addi ion (0, 2, and 4 h) be o e and a e PEF ea men (a
15, 25, and 35 kV/cm).
The goal was o assess he impac o hese a iables on he deac i-
a ion o C. sakazakii and he subsequen changes in he ea ed cells du ing e ige a ed
condi ions (8
◦
C, 12 h). The esul s indica ed ha he combined applica ion o PEF and
CCX, along wi h he iming o CCX addi ion, signi ican ly in luenced he deac i a ion o
C. sakazakii
and he subsequen changes in he ea ed cells du ing e ige a ed s o age. The
highes le el o deac i a ion (4.41 log
10
cycles) was achie ed when CCX was added 4 h
a e PEF ea men (15 kV/cm o 3000 µs), ollowed by s o age a 8 ◦C o 12 h.
A quali a i e s udy was ca ied ou by Nielsen e al. [
144
] o assess consume s’ a i-
udes owa ds no el p ocessing echnologies like PEF and HPP, and hei impac on BFs.
The indings indica ed ha pa icipan s gene ally held a o able iews o hese echnolo-
gies. They pe cei ed PEF- and HPP- ea ed p oduc s as mo e na u al, nu i ionally ich,
as ie , and en i onmen ally iendly. Howe e , conce ns ega ding insu icien in o ma ion
abou he echnologies, skep icism, heal h conside a ions, and highe p oduc cos s we e
iden i ied as he main d awbacks associa ed wi h PEF- and HPP- ea ed p oduc s.
6. Regula o y Landscape o Non-The mal P ocessing Technologies
The adop ion o non- he mal p ocessing echnologies like US, PEF, HPP, and RF in ood
p oduc ion is ema kably in luenced by egional egula o y amewo ks. These egula ions
assess he app o al, implemen a ion, and labeling o oods p ocessed wi h hese eme ging
echnologies. In he Uni ed S a es, he FDA plays a cen al ole in egula ing non- he mal
echnologies. Fo ins ance, HPP has gained no able ac ion and egula o y accep ance o

Foods 2024,13, 2659 22 o 29
u iliza ion in a ious ood ca ego ies, including BFs and IFs. The FDA equi es de ailed
e idence o sa e y and e icacy, p edominan ly conce ning mic obial inac i a ion and
nu i ional quali y p ese a ion. Any p ocess mus comply wi h he FDA Food Sa e y
Mode niza ion Ac (FSMA), ensu ing ha oods p oduced by non- he mal echniques
mee s ingen sa e y s anda ds [
145
,
146
]. In Eu ope, he EFSA o e sees he egula ion
o non- he mal echnologies. This EU- unded agency e alua es new p ocessing me hods
unde he No el Foods Regula ion, equi ing comp ehensi e sa e y assessmen s. Some o
hese echnologies, like HPP and PEF, a e gene ally ecognized, p o ided ha sa e y and
quali y a e main ained wi hou in oducing ha m ul byp oduc s. Howe e , EFSA demands
obus scien i ic e idence o demons a e he sa e y o any ood p ocessed using hese
me hods, mainly when in ended o ulne able popula ions like in an s [
145
]. In egions
such as Asia and Sou h Ame ica, he egula o y landscape is mo e a iable. Coun ies
like Japan and Sou h Ko ea ha e well-de ined egula ions ha inc easingly accommoda e
non- he mal echnologies, d i en by consume demand o minimally p ocessed oods. In
con as , in many de eloping coun ies, he egula o y amewo ks a e ei he s ill e ol ing
o lack speci ic guidelines o non- he mal me hods. As a esul , he comme cializa ion o
hese echnologies in ce ain egions can be hinde ed due o some easons such as including
high ini ial in es men equi emen s, es ic ed access o eliable elec ici y and clean wa e ,
a ia ions in ood egula ions ac oss di e en coun ies, as well as unclea egula o y
pa hways and inconsis en en o cemen [
147
]. These di e ences in he a ailable egula ions
o apply non- he mal echnologies in p ocessing ood p oduc s show he impo ance o
es ablishing in e na ionally ha monized s anda ds o p omo e he global accep ance and
implemen a ion o non- he mal p ocessing echnologies in he ood indus y.
7. Conclusions and Fu u e T ends
Se e al s udies ha e demons a ed he e icacy o non- he mal p ocessing echnolo-
gies, such as high hyd os a ic p essu e, adio equency, ul asound, and pulsed elec ic
ield, in deac i a ing key pa hogens in in an and baby p oduc s, while also educing he
o ma ion o ha m ul compounds like u ans. Some o hese me hods, pa icula ly when
combined wi h mild hea ea men s, ha e shown mo e signi ican po en ial han when
used indi idually. Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha ce ain non- he mal echnologies,
such as pulsed ligh , supe c i ical luid, mic o luidiza ion, and plasma echnology, emain
ela i ely unde explo ed in he con ex o IFs and BFs. Addi ionally, mos esea ch in
his a ea has been conduc ed a he labo a o y o pilo plan le el, whe e condi ions may
di e signi ican ly om indus ial-scale p oduc ion, including a ia ions in empe a u e,
ime, p essu e, and he mass o olume o ood p oduc s. Valida ion p ocedu es o legal
accep ance and ad ancemen s in packaging echnologies a e also c ucial conside a ions.
Fu he mo e, es ablishing s anda dized de ini ions and labeling con en ions o in an
oods p ocessed wi h hese echnologies is essen ial o ensu e cla i y and os e consume
us . O e all, con inued esea ch and de elopmen in his a ea a e needed o op imize he
applica ion o non- he mal p ocessing me hods in he p oduc ion o sa e, nu i ious, and
high-quali y IFs and BFs.
Au ho Con ibu ions: All au ho s con ibu ed o his pape ’s di e en pa s, including concep ual-
iza ion, in es iga ion, me hodology, w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, and w i ing— e iew and
edi ing. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : This e iew a icle does no include any o iginal da a. We also
acknowledge ha he e a e ca oon aces depic ed in wo images. These ca oon aces a e ic ional
and do no ep esen any eal indi iduals. The e o e, no consen o publica ion was equi ed o
hese images.
Acknowledgmen s: S.M.T.G. would like o acknowledge he suppo o he Alexande on Humbold
Founda ion o his Geo g Fo s e Resea ch Fellowship.
Foods 2024,13, 2659 23 o 29
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Abb e ia ions
BFs Baby oods
CAGR Compound annual g ow h a e
FAO Food and ag icul u e o ganiza ion
FPCs Food p ocessing con aminan s
FOF Follow-on o mula
FPC Food-p ocessing con aminan s
FUF Follow-up o mula
HACCP Haza d analysis c i ical con ol poin
HHP High hyd os a ic p essu e
HMF 5-hyd oxyme hyl-2- u u al
HPP High-p essu e p ocessing
HPTS High-p essu e he mal s e iliza ion
IB In an bo ulism
IFs In an o mulas
MWH Mic owa e hea ing
OH Ohmic hea ing
PATS P essu e assis ed he mal s e iliza ion
PEF Pulsed elec ic ield
PFUF Powde ed ollow-up o mulas
PIF Powde ed in an o mula
PIFM Powde ed in an o mula milk
RDA Recommended die a y Allowance
RF Radio equency
RPIFM Recons i u ed powde ed in an o mula milk
UHT Di ec ul ahigh empe a u e
US Ul asound
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