Advancements in Non-Thermal Processing Technologies for Enhancing Safety and Quality of Infant and Baby Food Products: A Review

Ci a ion: Pasda , N.; Mos asha i, P.; G eine , R.; Khel a, A.; Rashidinejad, A.; Eshpa i, H.; Vale, J.M.; Gha ibzahedi, S.M.T.; Roohinejad, S. Ad ancemen s in Non-The mal P ocessing Technologies o Enhancing Sa e y and Quali y o In an and Baby Food P oduc s: A Re iew. Foods 2024,13, 2659. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ oods13172659 Academic Edi o s: Diego A. Mo eno and Nie es Baenas Recei ed: 19 July 2024 Re ised: 20 Augus 2024 Accep ed: 21 Augus 2024 Published: 23 Augus 2024 Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). oods Re iew Ad ancemen s in Non-The mal P ocessing Technologies o Enhancing Sa e y and Quali y o In an and Baby Food P oduc s: A Re iew Nasim Pasda 1, Pa isa Mos asha i 2, Ral G eine 3, Anissa Khel a 4, Ali Rashidinejad 5, Hadi Eshpa i 6, Jim M. Vale 7, Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gha ibzahedi 8,* and Shahin Roohinejad 7,* 1Depa men o Ag icul u al Enginee ing and Technology, Payame Noo Uni e si y (PNU), Teh an 19395-4697, I an; [email p o ec ed] 2Depa men o Food Science and Technology, Facul y o Pha macy, Teh an Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad Uni e si y, Teh an 19419-33111, I an; [email p o ec ed] 3Max Rubne -Ins i u , Fede al Resea ch Ins i u e o Nu i ion and Food, 76131 Ka ls uhe, Ge many; [email p o ec ed] 4École Supé ieu e de Chimie O ganique e Miné ale (ESCOM), Uni e si éde Technologie de Compiègne (UTC), EA 4297 TIMR, 1 Allée du Réseau Jean-Ma ie Buckmas e , 60200 Compiègne, F ance; [email p o ec ed] 5Ridde Ins i u e, Massey Uni e si y, P i a e Bag 11 222, Palme s on No h 4442, New Zealand; a. [email protected] 6Depa men o Food Science and Technology, O egon S a e Uni e si y, Co allis, OR 97331, USA; [email p o ec ed] 7Depa men o Food, Nu i ion and Packaging Sciences, Clemson Uni e si y, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; [email p o ec ed] 8Ins i u e o Ma e ials Science, Facul y o Enginee ing, Kiel Uni e si y, 24143 Kiel, Ge many *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (S.M.T.G.); [email p o ec ed] (S.R.) Abs ac : B eas milk is he main sou ce o nu i ion du ing ea ly li e, bu bo h in an o mulas (I s; up o 12 mon hs) and baby oods (BFs; up o 3 yea s) a e also impo an o p o iding essen ial nu ien s. The in an ood indus y igo ously con ols o po en ial physical, biological, and chemical haza ds. Al hough he mal ea men s a e commonly used o ensu e ood sa e y in IFs and BFs, hey can nega i ely a ec senso y quali ies, educe he mosensi i e nu ien s, and lead o chemical con aminan o ma ion. To add ess hese challenges, non- he mal p ocessing echnologies such as high-p essu e p ocessing, pulsed elec ic ields, adio equency, and ul asound o e e icien pa hogen des uc ion simila o adi ional he mal me hods, while educing he p oduc ion o key p ocess-induced oxican s such as u an and 5-hyd oxyme hyl-2- u u al (HMF). These al e na i e he mal p ocesses aim o o e come he d awbacks o adi ional me hods while e aining hei ad an ages. This e iew pape highligh s he g owing global demand o heal hy, sus ainable oods, d i ing ood manu ac u e s o adop inno a i e and e icien p ocessing echniques o bo h IFs and BFs. Based on a ious s udies e iewed o his wo k, he applica ion o hese no el echnologies appea s o educe he mal p ocessing in ensi y, esul ing in p oduc s wi h enhanced senso y p ope ies, compa able shel li e, and imp o ed isual appeal compa ed o con en ionally p ocessed p oduc s. Keywo ds: in an o mulas; baby oods; ood sa e y; quali y con ol; unc ional oods; nu i ion; p obio ics; non- he mal p ocessing 1. In oduc ion The i s days o li e, om be o e bi h o a child’s second bi hday, a e a pi o al pe iod o human de elopmen [ 1 , 2 ]. In ancy is a pe iod o apid g ow h, second only o e al li e, and main aining op imal nu i ion is necessa y du ing his ime [ 3 ]. This c i ical pe iod o g ow h is ma ked by nume ous psychological, physical, and men al changes, including Foods 2024,13, 2659. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ oods13172659 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ oods Foods 2024,13, 2659 2 o 29 he de elopmen o diges i e and immune unc ions, as well as he composi ion o he gu mic obio a [4,5]. Nu i ion du ing in ancy plays a i al ole in p e en ing non-communicable diseases [ 6 , 7 ]. Insu icien nu ien in ake is a p ima y cause o pos na al g ow h es ic ion in neona es and he pos -neona al pe iod [ 5 ]. Se e al s udies ha e epo ed ha unde - nu i ion is esponsible o 45% o all dea hs among child en unde 5 yea s o age [ 8 ]. B eas eeding is widely ecognized as he nu i ional gold s anda d o in an s. The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) ecommends b eas eeding o a leas six mon hs ollowing bi h. Se e al s udies ha e shown ha b eas milk p o ec s agains nume ous diseases and enhances he in ellec ual de elopmen o child en [ 8 , 9 ]. Howe e , in si ua ions whe e b eas eeding is una ailable, inapp op ia e, o inadequa e, milk-based in an o mulas (IFs) a e used as a subs i u e o b eas milk [1]. IFs, o mula ed o mimic ma u e human milk, a e designed o p o ide in an s wi h op imal nu i ion o hei de elopmen and g ow h [ 10 ]. Baby oods (BFs) a e a ype o so , easily diges ible ood specially o mula ed o in an s up o 12 mon hs and young child en om 1 o 3 yea s old. They a e designed o p o ide essen ial nu ien s equi ed o g ow h and de elopmen du ing he c i ical pe iod when in an s ansi ion om b eas milk o o mula o solid oods [ 11 ]. The global ma ke alue o BF and IF p oduc s exceeded USD 88 billion in 2022 and is expec ed o each USD 150 billion by 2032, wi h a CAGR o o e 5.3% [ 12 ]. Howe e , despi e he inc easing demand o comme cial IFs and BFs wo ldwide, conce ns emain ega ding hei sa e y and e icacy. Comme cial IFs and BFs may become con amina ed wi h a ious mic obes a di e en s ages o p ocessing. In many ins ances, IFs a e in insically con amina ed due o he addi ion o he mally sensi i e mic onu ien s wi hou p io hea ea men , which is necessa y o mee egula o y s anda ds. Consequen ly, hese aw ing edien s se e as po en ial pa hways o bac e ial ansmission [ 8 ]. Fu he mo e, wi h ega d o liquid in an p oduc s, he d ying zone as well as he con aine s used o illing ac as ec o s o biological ansmission. Gene ally, hea s e iliza ion ensu es mic obiological sa e y and p oduc s abili y [ 13 ]. Howe e , excessi e hea ing can ad e sely a ec he senso y, biophysical, and nu i ional cha ac e is ics o in an p oduc s. The main i e e sible changes ha occu du ing con- en ional he mal ea men o mac onu ien s in in an ood include p o ein dena u a ion and agg ega ion, lipid–p o ein in e ac ions, suga isome iza ion, and a ious chemical eac ions [ 14 ]. The Mailla d eac ion is pa icula ly c i ical, p oducing oxican s such as ac ylamide, he e ocyclic amines, and ce ain polycyclic a oma ic hyd oca bons, which a e associa ed wi h he deg ada ion o nu i ional alues and a ios [ 15 , 16 ]. Balancing ood sa e y wi h minimizing hea ea men losses emains a signi ican challenge o IF and BF manu ac u e s. The limi a ions o adi ional ood p ocessing echnologies ha e led he ood indus y o seek al e na i e p ocessing me hods. Non- he mal ood p ocessing echnologies o e p omising app oaches o balancing mic obiological and chemical sa e y, as well as senso y and nu i ional p ope ies in IF and BF p oduc ion. Pionee ing echnologies such as high-p essu e p ocessing (HPP), ul asound (US), pulsed elec ic ield (PEF), and adio equency (RF) a e leading esea ch in ood p ocessing o newbo ns and child en. This e iew aims o assess he isk associa ed wi h c i ical chemical and mic obial con aminan s in ood in ended o in an s and young child en. I also highligh s he applica ion o non- he mal echnologies as al e na i es o con en ional hea p ocessing, ensu ing he sa e y, quali y, and nu i ional con en o in an and baby p oduc s a bo h pilo - and indus ial-scale p oduc ion le els (Figu e 1). Foods 2024,13, 2659 3 o 29 Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 30 Figu e 1. Compa ison o con en ional and eme ging p ocessing echnologies in in luencing senso y a ibu es, nu ien con en , and eshness o in an and young child oods. 2. In an and Young Child en’s Food Ca ego ies The consume popula ion o in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age is ypically di ided in o h ee s ages: s age one (0–6 mon hs, in an s), s age wo (7–12 mon hs, ollow-up in an s), and s age h ee (13–36 mon hs, young child en) [17]. In an p oduc s a e speci ically o mula ed o mee he dis inc de elopmen al s ages o in an s, each s age ha ing unique nu i ional equi emen s as de ined by he ecommended die- a y allowance (RDA). Figu e 2 illus a es a ious s ages o IFs and BFs in acco dance wi h child g ow h. The main oods consumed by in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age include in an o mula, complemen a y oods, and wa e a e discussed as ollows: Figu e 2. Examples o ood p oduc s o di e en s ages o in an and baby g ow h. Figu e 1. Compa ison o con en ional and eme ging p ocessing echnologies in in luencing senso y a ibu es, nu ien con en , and eshness o in an and young child oods. 2. In an and Young Child en’s Food Ca ego ies The consume popula ion o in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age is ypically di ided in o h ee s ages: s age one (0–6 mon hs, in an s), s age wo (7–12 mon hs, ollow-up in an s), and s age h ee (13–36 mon hs, young child en) [ 17 ]. In an p oduc s a e speci ically o mula ed o mee he dis inc de elopmen al s ages o in an s, each s age ha ing unique nu i ional equi emen s as de ined by he ecommended die a y allowance (RDA). Figu e 2illus a es a ious s ages o IFs and BFs in acco dance wi h child g ow h. The main oods consumed by in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age include in an o mula, complemen a y oods, and wa e a e discussed as ollows: Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 30 Figu e 1. Compa ison o con en ional and eme ging p ocessing echnologies in in luencing senso y a ibu es, nu ien con en , and eshness o in an and young child oods. 2. In an and Young Child en’s Food Ca ego ies The consume popula ion o in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age is ypically di ided in o h ee s ages: s age one (0–6 mon hs, in an s), s age wo (7–12 mon hs, ollow-up in an s), and s age h ee (13–36 mon hs, young child en) [17]. In an p oduc s a e speci ically o mula ed o mee he dis inc de elopmen al s ages o in an s, each s age ha ing unique nu i ional equi emen s as de ined by he ecommended die- a y allowance (RDA). Figu e 2 illus a es a ious s ages o IFs and BFs in acco dance wi h child g ow h. The main oods consumed by in an s and young child en unde 36 mon hs o age include in an o mula, complemen a y oods, and wa e a e discussed as ollows: Figu e 2. Examples o ood p oduc s o di e en s ages o in an and baby g ow h. Figu e 2. Examples o ood p oduc s o di e en s ages o in an and baby g ow h. 2.1. In an Fo mula The Eu opean Socie y o Pedia ic Gas oen e ology, Hepa ology, and Nu i ion (ESPGHAN) Commi ee on Nu i ion, along wi h he Scien i ic Commi ee on Food o he Foods 2024,13, 2659 4 o 29 Eu opean Commission, p o ides ecommenda ions and egula ions go e ning he nu ien composi ion o in an o mula p oduc s. Acco ding o hei guidelines, “in an o mula” is designed as a sui able subs i u e o b eas eeding du ing he i s 4–6 mon hs (s age one). “Follow-on o mula” (FOF) is in ended o in an s aged 6–12 mon hs (s age wo), while “ oddle o mula” o “ ollow-up o mula” (FUF) is app op ia e o child en be ween 12 and 36 mon hs (s age h ee) [ 18 , 19 ]. To mee he nu i ional needs o in an s aged 3 o 36 mon hs as an al e na i e o b eas eeding, IFs mus adhe e o he nu i ional equi emen s ou lined by he WHO and he Uni ed Na ions In e na ional Child en’s Eme gency Fund (UNICEF). In an o mulas a e o mula ed using bo ine milk, milk om o he sou ces, o a com- bina ion he eo , wi h o wi hou addi ional ing edien s, o ul ill he nu i ional needs o in an s. These o mulas a e a ailable in a ious o mula ions, including skimmed e sions; hose dilu ed wi h ege able oils; o i ied wi h i amins, mine als, and i on; and hose con aining ice, ca ob, o soy o speci ic medical equi emen s [ 9 , 20 ]. Gene ally, IFs a e a ailable in h ee o ms: powde , liquid concen a e, and eady- o- eed. While eady- o- eed bo les con ain p e-dilu ed liquid o mula, concen a ed liquids and powde o ms need o be mixed wi h wa e , which can include mine al wa e , bo led wa e , o ap wa- e [ 21 ]. While a wide ange o o mula b ands and ypes a e a ailable on he ma ke (Table 1, [ 22 – 41 ]), he e is no uni e sally app op ia e o mula o all babies. The ype o powde ed milk ecommended by pedia icians depends on a child’s nu i ional needs o speci ic in an isks. Se e al leading manu ac u e s in he global in an nu i ion ma ke include Abbo (Chicago, IL, USA), Baby Gou me (Calga y, AB, Canada), Danone (Whi e Plains, NY, USA), Recki Benckise G oup PLC (Slough, UK), Nes lé(Ve ey, Swi ze - land) [ 11 ], SMA ® Nu i ion (Ga wick, UK), F iesl (Ame s oo , The Ne he lands), K a Heinz (Sha psbu gh, PA, USA), HiPP GmbH & Co. (P a enho en an de Ilm, Ge many), Ve ieb KG (P a enho en, Ge many), and A la Food (Viby, Denma k). Table 1. A selec ion o di e en comme cial in an o mula and baby oods cu en ly a ailable on he ma ke . Type o In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re . Fi s in an o mula milk (IFM) powde /liquid Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 30 2.1. In an Fo mula The Eu opean Socie y o Pedia ic Gas oen e ology, Hepa ology, and Nu i ion (ES- PGHAN) Commi ee on Nu i ion, along wi h he Scien i ic Commi ee on Food o he Eu opean Commission, p o ides ecommenda ions and egula ions go e ning he nu i- en composi ion o in an o mula p oduc s. Acco ding o hei guidelines, “in an o - mula” is designed as a sui able subs i u e o b eas eeding du ing he i s 4–6 mon hs (s age one). “Follow-on o mula” (FOF) is in ended o in an s aged 6–12 mon hs (s age wo), while “ oddle o mula” o “ ollow-up o mula” (FUF) is app op ia e o child en be ween 12 and 36 mon hs (s age h ee) [18,19]. To mee he nu i ional needs o in an s aged 3 o 36 mon hs as an al e na i e o b eas eeding, IFs mus adhe e o he nu i ional equi emen s ou lined by he WHO and he Uni ed Na ions In e na ional Child en’s Eme gency Fund (UNICEF). In an o mulas a e o mula ed using bo ine milk, milk om o he sou ces, o a com- bina ion he eo , wi h o wi hou addi ional ing edien s, o ul ill he nu i ional needs o in an s. These o mulas a e a ailable in a ious o mula ions, including skimmed e - sions; hose dilu ed wi h ege able oils; o i ied wi h i amins, mine als, and i on; and hose con aining ice, ca ob, o soy o speci ic medical equi emen s [9,20]. Gene ally, IFs a e a ailable in h ee o ms: powde , liquid concen a e, and eady- o- eed. While eady- o- eed bo les con ain p e-dilu ed liquid o mula, concen a ed liquids and powde o ms need o be mixed wi h wa e , which can include mine al wa e , bo led wa e , o ap wa e [21]. While a wide ange o o mula b ands and ypes a e a ailable on he ma ke (Table 1, [22–41]), he e is no uni e sally app op ia e o mula o all babies. The ype o pow- de ed milk ecommended by pedia icians depends on a child’s nu i ional needs o spe- ci ic in an isks. Se e al leading manu ac u e s in he global in an nu i ion ma ke in- clude Abbo (Chicago, IL, USA), Baby Gou me (Calga y, AB, Canada), Danone (Whi e Plains, NY, USA), Recki Benckise G oup PLC (Slough, UK), Nes lé (Ve ey, Swi ze land) [11], SMA® Nu i ion (Ga wick, UK), F iesl (Ame s oo , The Ne he lands), K a Heinz (Sha psbu gh, PA, USA), HiPP GmbH & Co. (P a enho en an de Ilm, Ge many), Ve ieb KG (P a enho en, Ge many), and A la Food (Viby, Denma k). Table 1. A selec ion o di e en comme cial in an o mula and baby oods cu en ly a ailable on he ma ke . Type o In- an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re . Fi s in an o mula milk (IFM) powde /liquid - Sui able om bi h - Based on whey p o ein o easie diges- ion - Whey/casein a io o 60:40 - Ca bohyd a e: lac ose is he main sou ce - Fa : polyunsa u a ed a y acids and phospholipid con ibu es o cogni i e unc ions, memo y and concen a ion, cellula memb ane composi ion, and gen- e al well-being S age 1 [22] - Sui able om bi h - Based on whey p o ein o easie diges ion - Whey/casein a io o 60:40 - Ca bohyd a e: lac ose is he main sou ce - Fa : polyunsa u a ed a y acids and phospholipid con ibu es o cogni i e unc ions, memo y and concen a ion, cellula memb ane composi ion, and gene al well-being S age 1 [22] Follow-on o mula (s age 2) Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 30 Follow-on o - mula (s age 2) - Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs old as a complemen a y o weaning - Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s milk han b eas milk - In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s milk, hese p oduc s should con ain less p o ein, a highe a con en simi- la o human milk a , and mo e ca bo- hyd a es. - Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin A and C le els han s anda d o mulas, al hough hese a e less bioa ailable - A majo diffe ence be ween IF and FOF ( ollow-on o mula) is he highe minimum and maximum i on con en o IF - Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o g ow h as well as p ebio ics (GOS/FOS) and p obio ics S age 2 [23,24] G owing up milk GUM ( oddle milk)/ ollow-up o mula (FUF) - Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3 yea s - An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk ha compensa es o nu i ional de i- ciencies du ing a child’s ansi ion o amily nu i ion - A GUM made om cow’s milk should p ese e calcium, B 2 , and A while ha - ing a lowe p o ein and a con en and ene gy alue - I con ains ARA and DH since he cen- al ne ous sys em con inues o de- pose hese compounds in high concen- a ions un il he second yea o li e S age 3 [25] Hung y baby o - mulas - Sui able o “hung ie babies” - In an milk o hung ie babies is a nu i ionally comple e b eas milk subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o milk p o ein - Based on casein con en o slow diges- ion and being less hung y soon a e eeding - Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80 - Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed by he legisla ion o all in an o - mula S age 1, 2 [26] - Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs old as a complemen a y o weaning - Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s milk han b eas milk - In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s milk, hese p oduc s should con ain less p o ein, a highe a con en simila o human milk a , and mo e ca bohyd a es. - Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin A and C le els han s anda d o mulas, al hough hese a e less bioa ailable - A majo di e ence be ween IF and FOF ( ollow-on o mula) is he highe minimum and maximum i on con en o IF - Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o g ow h as well as p ebio ics (GOS/FOS) and p obio ics S age 2 [23,24] Foods 2024,13, 2659 5 o 29 Table 1. Con . Type o In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re . G owing up milk GUM ( oddle milk)/ ollow-up o mula (FUF) Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 30 Follow-on o - mula (s age 2) - Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs old as a complemen a y o weaning - Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s milk han b eas milk - In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s milk, hese p oduc s should con ain less p o ein, a highe a con en simi- la o human milk a , and mo e ca bo- hyd a es. - Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin A and C le els han s anda d o mulas, al hough hese a e less bioa ailable - A majo diffe ence be ween IF and FOF ( ollow-on o mula) is he highe minimum and maximum i on con en o IF - Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o g ow h as well as p ebio ics (GOS/FOS) and p obio ics S age 2 [23,24] G owing up milk GUM ( oddle milk)/ ollow-up o mula (FUF) - Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3 yea s - An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk ha compensa es o nu i ional de i- ciencies du ing a child’s ansi ion o amily nu i ion - A GUM made om cow’s milk should p ese e calcium, B 2 , and A while ha - ing a lowe p o ein and a con en and ene gy alue - I con ains ARA and DH since he cen- al ne ous sys em con inues o de- pose hese compounds in high concen- a ions un il he second yea o li e S age 3 [25] Hung y baby o - mulas - Sui able o “hung ie babies” - In an milk o hung ie babies is a nu i ionally comple e b eas milk subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o milk p o ein - Based on casein con en o slow diges- ion and being less hung y soon a e eeding - Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80 - Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed by he legisla ion o all in an o - mula S age 1, 2 [26] - Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3 yea s - An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk ha compensa es o nu i ional de iciencies du ing a child’s ansi ion o amily nu i ion - A GUM made om cow’s milk should p ese e calcium, B 2 , and A while ha ing a lowe p o ein and a con en and ene gy alue - I con ains ARA and DH since he cen al ne ous sys em con inues o depose hese compounds in high concen a ions un il he second yea o li e S age 3 [25] Hung y baby o mulas Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 30 Follow-on o - mula (s age 2) - Only sui able o babies o e 6 mon hs old as a complemen a y o weaning - Casein-based, hey a e mo e like cow’s milk han b eas milk - In compa ison o unmodi ied cow’s milk, hese p oduc s should con ain less p o ein, a highe a con en simi- la o human milk a , and mo e ca bo- hyd a es. - Highe i on, calcium, zinc, and i amin A and C le els han s anda d o mulas, al hough hese a e less bioa ailable - A majo diffe ence be ween IF and FOF ( ollow-on o mula) is he highe minimum and maximum i on con en o IF - Con ain omega 3 and 6 and iodine o g ow h as well as p ebio ics (GOS/FOS) and p obio ics S age 2 [23,24] G owing up milk GUM ( oddle milk)/ ollow-up o mula (FUF) - Sui able o child en be ween 1 and 3 yea s - An al e na i e o whole cow’s milk ha compensa es o nu i ional de i- ciencies du ing a child’s ansi ion o amily nu i ion - A GUM made om cow’s milk should p ese e calcium, B 2 , and A while ha - ing a lowe p o ein and a con en and ene gy alue - I con ains ARA and DH since he cen- al ne ous sys em con inues o de- pose hese compounds in high concen- a ions un il he second yea o li e S age 3 [25] Hung y baby o - mulas - Sui able o “hung ie babies” - In an milk o hung ie babies is a nu i ionally comple e b eas milk subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o milk p o ein - Based on casein con en o slow diges- ion and being less hung y soon a e eeding - Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80 - Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed by he legisla ion o all in an o - mula S age 1, 2 [26] - Sui able o “hung ie babies” - In an milk o hung ie babies is a nu i ionally comple e b eas milk subs i u e wi h a di e en balance o milk p o ein - Based on casein con en o slow diges ion and being less hung y soon a e eeding - Casein based, whey/casein a io 20:80 - Con ains DHA (omega 3) as equi ed by he legisla ion o all in an o mula S age 1, 2 [26] P e e m o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30 P e e m o mula - Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion, g ow h ailu e - Designed o low-weigh p ema u e in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s o con inue he p ope de elopmen o he ne ous sys em - Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein) S age 1 [22] Lac ose- ee o - mula - Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies: De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e- en s lac ose diges ion - I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac- osemia - Reduces symp oms including nausea, abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness, and gas - I con ains all he necessa y i amins, mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids, and DHA - Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add- ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk - Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug- a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e han egula milk S age 1, 2, 3 [27] Com o o mula - Sui able o babies wi h delica e um- mies - In an diges i e discom o is he esul o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y, wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic, and cons ipa ion). - Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o diges - Whey-based (100%) - Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o suppo he baby’s immune sys em - A combina ion o supplemen s can e- lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha- ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en- zymes) S age 1, 2, 3 [28,29] Ex ensi ely hy- d olyzed o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed - Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly- sa es o casein o whey) S age 1, 2, 3 [30] - Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion, g ow h ailu e - Designed o low-weigh p ema u e in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s o con inue he p ope de elopmen o he ne ous sys em - Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein) S age 1 [22] Lac ose- ee o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30 P e e m o mula - Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion, g ow h ailu e - Designed o low-weigh p ema u e in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s o con inue he p ope de elopmen o he ne ous sys em - Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein) S age 1 [22] Lac ose- ee o - mula - Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies: De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e- en s lac ose diges ion - I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac- osemia - Reduces symp oms including nausea, abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness, and gas - I con ains all he necessa y i amins, mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids, and DHA - Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add- ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk - Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug- a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e han egula milk S age 1, 2, 3 [27] Com o o mula - Sui able o babies wi h delica e um- mies - In an diges i e discom o is he esul o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y, wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic, and cons ipa ion). - Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o diges - Whey-based (100%) - Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o suppo he baby’s immune sys em - A combina ion o supplemen s can e- lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha- ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en- zymes) S age 1, 2, 3 [28,29] Ex ensi ely hy- d olyzed o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed - Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly- sa es o casein o whey) S age 1, 2, 3 [30] - Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies: De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e en s lac ose diges ion - I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac osemia - Reduces symp oms including nausea, abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness, and gas - I con ains all he necessa y i amins, mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids, and DHA - Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by adding lac ase o egula cow’s milk - Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o glucose and galac ose, wo simple suga s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e han egula milk S age 1, 2, 3 [27] Foods 2024,13, 2659 6 o 29 Table 1. Con . Type o In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re . Com o o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30 P e e m o mula - Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion, g ow h ailu e - Designed o low-weigh p ema u e in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s o con inue he p ope de elopmen o he ne ous sys em - Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein) S age 1 [22] Lac ose- ee o - mula - Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies: De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e- en s lac ose diges ion - I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac- osemia - Reduces symp oms including nausea, abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness, and gas - I con ains all he necessa y i amins, mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids, and DHA - Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add- ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk - Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug- a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e han egula milk S age 1, 2, 3 [27] Com o o mula - Sui able o babies wi h delica e um- mies - In an diges i e discom o is he esul o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y, wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic, and cons ipa ion). - Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o diges - Whey-based (100%) - Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o suppo he baby’s immune sys em - A combina ion o supplemen s can e- lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha- ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en- zymes) S age 1, 2, 3 [28,29] Ex ensi ely hy- d olyzed o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed - Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly- sa es o casein o whey) S age 1, 2, 3 [30] - Sui able o babies wi h delica e ummies - In an diges i e discom o is he esul o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y, wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic, and cons ipa ion). - Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o diges - Whey-based (100%) - Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o suppo he baby’s immune sys em - A combina ion o supplemen s can elie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha ides, p obio ics, and diges i e enzymes) S age 1, 2, 3 [28,29] Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 30 P e e m o mula - Sui able o babies wi h malnu i ion, g ow h ailu e - Designed o low-weigh p ema u e in an s, mainly en iched wi h elemen s o con inue he p ope de elopmen o he ne ous sys em - Nu ien -dense o mula o suppo ca ch-up g ow h (100% whey p o ein) S age 1 [22] Lac ose- ee o - mula - Sui able o lac ose-in ole an babies: De iciency o he lac ase enzyme p e- en s lac ose diges ion - I is no sui able o in an s wi h galac- osemia - Reduces symp oms including nausea, abdominal pain, bloa ing, ussiness, and gas - I con ains all he necessa y i amins, mine als, ace elemen s, a y acids, and DHA - Lac ose- ee milk is p oduced by add- ing lac ase o egula cow’s milk - Lac ose enzymes con e lac ose in o glucose and galac ose, wo simple sug- a s ha make lac ose- ee milk swee e han egula milk S age 1, 2, 3 [27] Com o o mula - Sui able o babies wi h delica e um- mies - In an diges i e discom o is he esul o gas oin es inal ac imma u i y, wi h mino diges ion issues (e.g., colic, and cons ipa ion). - Pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein, easy o diges - Whey-based (100%) - Wi h 2′-FL-HMO and nucleo ides o suppo he baby’s immune sys em - A combina ion o supplemen s can e- lie e colic in in an s (e.g., oligosaccha- ides, p obio ics, and diges i e en- zymes) S age 1, 2, 3 [28,29] Ex ensi ely hy- d olyzed o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed - Pep ide-based (con aining hyd oly- sa es o casein o whey) S age 1, 2, 3 [30] - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Ex ensi ely hyd olyzed - Pep ide-based (con aining hyd olysa es o casein o whey) S age 1, 2, 3 [30] Hypoalle genic o elemen al o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30 Hypoalle genic o elemen al o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Fully hyd olyzed p o ein - Amino acid-based o mula - No esidual p o ein S age 1, 2, 3 [30] SOYA al e na i e milk o mula - Sui able o babies wi h CMPA - Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed- based o mulas - I is no ad ised o babies unde 6 mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig- ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s ed soy o mula - I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1 yea - The e a e some heo e ical conce ns o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes- ogens, which ad e sely affec human de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo- c ine unc ion S age 3 [31] MCT o mula - Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p- ion p oblems - Wi h a high in ake o medium chain iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a ) - The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s, such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do- cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi- donic acid (ARA)) S age 1, 2 [32] An i- e lux o p e- hickened o mulas - Sui able o babies wi h e lux and GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis- ease) - The main gelling o hickening agen is ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum) - Feed hickene educes GERD by in- c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o he liquid con en , enabling he eed o be e ained in he s omach - Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy- d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing up) S age 1, 2 [33] - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Fully hyd olyzed p o ein - Amino acid-based o mula - No esidual p o ein S age 1, 2, 3 [30] SOYA al e na i e milk o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30 Hypoalle genic o elemen al o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Fully hyd olyzed p o ein - Amino acid-based o mula - No esidual p o ein S age 1, 2, 3 [30] SOYA al e na i e milk o mula - Sui able o babies wi h CMPA - Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed- based o mulas - I is no ad ised o babies unde 6 mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig- ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s ed soy o mula - I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1 yea - The e a e some heo e ical conce ns o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes- ogens, which ad e sely affec human de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo- c ine unc ion S age 3 [31] MCT o mula - Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p- ion p oblems - Wi h a high in ake o medium chain iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a ) - The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s, such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do- cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi- donic acid (ARA)) S age 1, 2 [32] An i- e lux o p e- hickened o mulas - Sui able o babies wi h e lux and GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis- ease) - The main gelling o hickening agen is ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum) - Feed hickene educes GERD by in- c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o he liquid con en , enabling he eed o be e ained in he s omach - Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy- d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing up) S age 1, 2 [33] - Sui able o babies wi h CMPA - Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed-based o mulas - I is no ad ised o babies unde 6 mon hs due o he de elopmen o signi ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s ed soy o mula - I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1 yea - The e a e some heo e ical conce ns o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes ogens, which ad e sely a ec human de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endoc ine unc ion S age 3 [31] Foods 2024,13, 2659 7 o 29 Table 1. Con . Type o In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re . MCT o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30 Hypoalle genic o elemen al o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Fully hyd olyzed p o ein - Amino acid-based o mula - No esidual p o ein S age 1, 2, 3 [30] SOYA al e na i e milk o mula - Sui able o babies wi h CMPA - Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed- based o mulas - I is no ad ised o babies unde 6 mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig- ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s ed soy o mula - I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1 yea - The e a e some heo e ical conce ns o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes- ogens, which ad e sely affec human de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo- c ine unc ion S age 3 [31] MCT o mula - Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p- ion p oblems - Wi h a high in ake o medium chain iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a ) - The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s, such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do- cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi- donic acid (ARA)) S age 1, 2 [32] An i- e lux o p e- hickened o mulas - Sui able o babies wi h e lux and GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis- ease) - The main gelling o hickening agen is ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum) - Feed hickene educes GERD by in- c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o he liquid con en , enabling he eed o be e ained in he s omach - Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy- d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing up) S age 1, 2 [33] - Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p ion p oblems - Wi h a high in ake o medium chain iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a ) - The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s, such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achidonic acid (ARA)) S age 1, 2 [32] An i- e lux o p e- hickened o mulas Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 30 Hypoalle genic o elemen al o mula - Sui able o babies wi h cow’s milk p o ein alle gy (CMPA) - Fully hyd olyzed p o ein - Amino acid-based o mula - No esidual p o ein S age 1, 2, 3 [30] SOYA al e na i e milk o mula - Sui able o babies wi h CMPA - Al e na i e o ex ensi ely hyd olyzed- based o mulas - I is no ad ised o babies unde 6 mon hs due o he de elopmen o sig- ni ican os eopenia in p e e m in an s ed soy o mula - I is no gene ally ecommended un il 1 yea - The e a e some heo e ical conce ns o e soya milk as i con ains phy oes- ogens, which ad e sely affec human de elopmen , ep oduc ion, o endo- c ine unc ion S age 3 [31] MCT o mula - Sui able o babies wi h a malabso p- ion p oblems - Wi h a high in ake o medium chain iglyce ides (MCT, 55% o a ) - The addi ion o unc ional ing edien s, such as omega 3 and 6 a y acids (do- cosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and a achi- donic acid (ARA)) S age 1, 2 [32] An i- e lux o p e- hickened o mulas - Sui able o babies wi h e lux and GERD (gas oesophageal e lux dis- ease) - The main gelling o hickening agen is ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum) - Feed hickene educes GERD by in- c easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o he liquid con en , enabling he eed o be e ained in he s omach - Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hy- d olyzed p o ein o educe e lux symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing up) S age 1, 2 [33] - Sui able o babies wi h e lux and GERD (gas oesophageal e lux disease) - The main gelling o hickening agen is ca obel (e.g., ca ob bean gum) - Feed hickene educes GERD by inc easing he iscosi y o “s ickiness” o he liquid con en , enabling he eed o be e ained in he s omach - Fo mulas con ain s a ch, ege able a s, and 100% whey, wi h pa ially hyd olyzed p o ein o educe e lux symp oms (e.g., egu gi a ion/spi ing up) S age 1, 2 [33] P obio ic in an o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 30 P obio ic in an o mula - Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domi- na ed by Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacil- lus - P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es i- nal diseases, enhance immuni y, e- duce cance isks, imp o e nu ien syn hesis and bioa ailabili y, p e en alle gies, p o ec he mucosa om pa hogen coloniza ion, and balance he in es inal mic obio a - PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a le els o 102 o 105 CFU/g modula es hei immune sys ems in a simila manne o b eas milk S age 1, 2, 3 [34,35] PKU o mula - Sui able o in an s wi h phenylke- onu ia (PKU) - PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o- ein die and a oid aspa ame - PKU o mula should be used along wi h b eas milk o in an o mula o p o ide he in an wi h phenylalanine, luid, and gene al nu i ion needs - F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylala- nine - Con aining o he essen ial and non-es- sen ial amino acids, a s, ca bohy- d a es, i amins, mine als, ARA, and DHA. - Se e al o mulas con ain gly- comac opep ides - The le els o B i amins o co ac o p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine in an o mulas S age 1, 2, 3 [36] Pu ee meal (ani- mal oods) - A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle sʹ eeding includes cheese and o he dai y p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as he main sou ces o a y acids - High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be offe ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such as ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs S age 2, 3 [37] - Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domina ed by Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacillus - P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es inal diseases, enhance immuni y, educe cance isks, imp o e nu ien syn hesis and bioa ailabili y, p e en alle gies, p o ec he mucosa om pa hogen coloniza ion, and balance he in es inal mic obio a - PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a le els o 102 o 105CFU/g modula es hei immune sys ems in a simila manne o b eas milk S age 1, 2, 3 [34,35] PKU o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 30 P obio ic in an o mula - Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domi- na ed by Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacil- lus - P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es i- nal diseases, enhance immuni y, e- duce cance isks, imp o e nu ien syn hesis and bioa ailabili y, p e en alle gies, p o ec he mucosa om pa hogen coloniza ion, and balance he in es inal mic obio a - PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a le els o 102 o 105 CFU/g modula es hei immune sys ems in a simila manne o b eas milk S age 1, 2, 3 [34,35] PKU o mula - Sui able o in an s wi h phenylke- onu ia (PKU) - PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o- ein die and a oid aspa ame - PKU o mula should be used along wi h b eas milk o in an o mula o p o ide he in an wi h phenylalanine, luid, and gene al nu i ion needs - F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylala- nine - Con aining o he essen ial and non-es- sen ial amino acids, a s, ca bohy- d a es, i amins, mine als, ARA, and DHA. - Se e al o mulas con ain gly- comac opep ides - The le els o B i amins o co ac o p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine in an o mulas S age 1, 2, 3 [36] Pu ee meal (ani- mal oods) - A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle sʹ eeding includes cheese and o he dai y p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as he main sou ces o a y acids - High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be offe ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such as ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs S age 2, 3 [37] - Sui able o in an s wi h phenylke onu ia (PKU) - PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o ein die and a oid aspa ame - PKU o mula should be used along wi h b eas milk o in an o mula o p o ide he in an wi h phenylalanine, luid, and gene al nu i ion needs - F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylalanine - Con aining o he essen ial and non-essen ial amino acids, a s, ca bohyd a es, i amins, mine als, ARA, and DHA. - Se e al o mulas con ain glycomac opep ides - The le els o B i amins o co ac o p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine in an o mulas S age 1, 2, 3 [36] Foods 2024,13, 2659 8 o 29 Table 1. Con . Type o In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re . Pu ee meal (animal oods) Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 30 P obio ic in an o mula - Newbo ns’ gu mic obio a is domi- na ed by Bi idobac e ium and Lac obacil- lus - P obio ics imp o e diges ion, inc ease na u al esis ance o in ec ious in es i- nal diseases, enhance immuni y, e- duce cance isks, imp o e nu ien syn hesis and bioa ailabili y, p e en alle gies, p o ec he mucosa om pa hogen coloniza ion, and balance he in es inal mic obio a - PIFM supplemen ed wi h p obio ics a le els o 102 o 105 CFU/g modula es hei immune sys ems in a simila manne o b eas milk S age 1, 2, 3 [34,35] PKU o mula - Sui able o in an s wi h phenylke- onu ia (PKU) - PKU child en mus ollow a low-p o- ein die and a oid aspa ame - PKU o mula should be used along wi h b eas milk o in an o mula o p o ide he in an wi h phenylalanine, luid, and gene al nu i ion needs - F ee o essen ial amino acid phenylala- nine - Con aining o he essen ial and non-es- sen ial amino acids, a s, ca bohy- d a es, i amins, mine als, ARA, and DHA. - Se e al o mulas con ain gly- comac opep ides - The le els o B i amins o co ac o p oduc ion a e highe han in ou ine in an o mulas S age 1, 2, 3 [36] Pu ee meal (ani- mal oods) - A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle sʹ eeding includes cheese and o he dai y p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as he main sou ces o a y acids - High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be offe ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such as ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs S age 2, 3 [37] - A e he i s s ages o li e, oddle s’ eeding includes cheese and o he dai y p oduc s, egg yolks, and mea as he main sou ces o a y acids - High-quali y p o ein sou ces should be o e ed o in an s om 6 mon hs, such as ish, yogu , pu eed mea , and eggs S age 2, 3 [37] O ganic in an o mula Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 30 O ganic in an o mula - Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g., palm oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan, DHA, and ARA ex ac ed using hex- ane), syn he ic p ese a i es, and a i- icially syn hesized o chemically ex- ac ed nu ien s (e.g., lycopene, lu ein, nucleo ides, au ine, L-me hionine, and L-ca ni ine) S age 1, 2, 3 [38] Complemen a y oods: ce eal/ po idge - The ange o p oduc s includes ehy- d a ion- eady powde s, RTS ( he - mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas, and biscui s, as well as o ganic ui and ce eals. - By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien ab- so p ion by adap ing ce eal composi- ion o in an diges ion - The i s s age o semisolids begins wi h diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice - A pu ee made om whole g ains (whea , ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good sou ce o ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, o- la e, and B i amins - A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals (whea , mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba - ley, and ye) o deli e high nu i ional alue, high in ibe , calcium, and i on, and high in dex iniza ion (88% o 90%) - High biological alue p o eins, includ- ing a mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and ui s ich in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B 1 , B 2 , B 6 , bio in, olic acid, and B 12 S age 2, 3 [39] Complemen a y oods: ui / ege able pu ee - By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e in- oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege a- bles, and g ains - The mos popula ege able pu ee in- cludes (e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , o- ma o swee po a o, co n, pumpkin, b occoli pu ee) - F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles (e.g., apple, banana, s awbe y, mango, passion ui , bluebe y, peach) - The WHO bans added suga s in hese p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs o age S age 2,3 [40] - Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g., palm oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan, DHA, and ARA ex ac ed using hexane), syn he ic p ese a i es, and a i icially syn hesized o chemically ex ac ed nu ien s (e.g., lycopene, lu ein, nucleo ides, au ine, L-me hionine, and L-ca ni ine) S age 1, 2, 3 [38] Complemen a y oods: ce eal/ po idge Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 30 O ganic in an o mula - Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g., palm oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan, DHA, and ARA ex ac ed using hex- ane), syn he ic p ese a i es, and a i- icially syn hesized o chemically ex- ac ed nu ien s (e.g., lycopene, lu ein, nucleo ides, au ine, L-me hionine, and L-ca ni ine) S age 1, 2, 3 [38] Complemen a y oods: ce eal/ po idge - The ange o p oduc s includes ehy- d a ion- eady powde s, RTS ( he - mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas, and biscui s, as well as o ganic ui and ce eals. - By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien ab- so p ion by adap ing ce eal composi- ion o in an diges ion - The i s s age o semisolids begins wi h diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice - A pu ee made om whole g ains (whea , ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good sou ce o ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, o- la e, and B i amins - A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals (whea , mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba - ley, and ye) o deli e high nu i ional alue, high in ibe , calcium, and i on, and high in dex iniza ion (88% o 90%) - High biological alue p o eins, includ- ing a mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and ui s ich in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B 1 , B 2 , B 6 , bio in, olic acid, and B 12 S age 2, 3 [39] Complemen a y oods: ui / ege able pu ee - By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e in- oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege a- bles, and g ains - The mos popula ege able pu ee in- cludes (e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , o- ma o swee po a o, co n, pumpkin, b occoli pu ee) - F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles (e.g., apple, banana, s awbe y, mango, passion ui , bluebe y, peach) - The WHO bans added suga s in hese p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs o age S age 2,3 [40] - The ange o p oduc s includes ehyd a ion- eady powde s, RTS ( he mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas, and biscui s, as well as o ganic ui and ce eals. - By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien abso p ion by adap ing ce eal composi ion o in an diges ion - The i s s age o semisolids begins wi h diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice - A pu ee made om whole g ains (whea , ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good sou ce o ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, ola e, and B i amins - A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals (whea , mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba ley, and ye) o deli e high nu i ional alue, high in ibe , calcium, and i on, and high in dex iniza ion (88% o 90%) - High biological alue p o eins, including a mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and ui s ich in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B1, B2, B6, bio in, olic acid, and B12 S age 2, 3 [39] Foods 2024,13, 2659 9 o 29 Table 1. Con . Type o In an /Baby Foods In an s’ Foods A ailable Fea u es S age Re . Complemen a y oods: ui / ege able pu ee Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 30 O ganic in an o mula - Remo ing ce ain ing edien s (e.g., palm oil, e ined suga s, ca ageenan, DHA, and ARA ex ac ed using hex- ane), syn he ic p ese a i es, and a i- icially syn hesized o chemically ex- ac ed nu ien s (e.g., lycopene, lu ein, nucleo ides, au ine, L-me hionine, and L-ca ni ine) S age 1, 2, 3 [38] Complemen a y oods: ce eal/ po idge - The ange o p oduc s includes ehy- d a ion- eady powde s, RTS ( he - mally s e ilized) pu ees o mula ed wi h ce eals, da es, honey, bananas, and biscui s, as well as o ganic ui and ce eals. - By enzyma ic dex iniza ion, hese p oduc s p omo e be e nu ien ab- so p ion by adap ing ce eal composi- ion o in an diges ion - The i s s age o semisolids begins wi h diges ible ce eals, p ima ily ice - A pu ee made om whole g ains (whea , ice, ba ley, oa s) is a good sou ce o ca bohyd a es, ibe , i on, o- la e, and B i amins - A po idge con ains 5–8 ce eals (whea , mille , so ghum, ice, oa s, ba - ley, and ye) o deli e high nu i ional alue, high in ibe , calcium, and i on, and high in dex iniza ion (88% o 90%) - High biological alue p o eins, includ- ing a mix u e o quinoa, ce eals, and ui s ich in i amins A, K, D, E, C, B 1 , B 2 , B 6 , bio in, olic acid, and B 12 S age 2, 3 [39] Complemen a y oods: ui / ege able pu ee - By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e in- oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege a- bles, and g ains - The mos popula ege able pu ee in- cludes (e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , o- ma o swee po a o, co n, pumpkin, b occoli pu ee) - F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles (e.g., apple, banana, s awbe y, mango, passion ui , bluebe y, peach) - The WHO bans added suga s in hese p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs o age S age 2,3 [40] - By he age o 6 mon hs, child en a e in oduced o addi ional ca bohyd a e sou ces ia pulses, ui s and ege ables, and g ains - The mos popula ege able pu ee includes (e.g., spinach, peas, ca o , oma o swee po a o, co n, pumpkin, b occoli pu ee) - F ui pu ees wi h o whi ou pa icles (e.g., apple, banana, s awbe y, mango, passion ui , bluebe y, peach) - The WHO bans added suga s in hese p oduc s o child en unde 36 mon hs o age S age 2,3 [40] Baby wa e Foods 2024, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 30 Baby wa e - Pu i ied wa e : il e ed wa e , wi h im- pu i ies emo ed - Sui able wa e o d inking when ba- bies ge olde - Dis illed wa e : made by boiling pu i- ied wa e and collec ing s eam - Dis illed wa e is he cleanes and pu - es wa e a ailable - This wa e is comple ely ee o e e y- hing, e en na u al mine als such as calcium and magnesium a e also e- mo ed du ing he p ocess - Mine al and sp ing wa e : wa e de- i ed om a sp ing o unde g ound sou ce con ains na u ally dissol ed mine als (a leas 250 ppm), including po assium, calcium, and i on S age 1, 2, 3 [41] 2.2. Complemen a y Foods Complemen a y eeding, as de ined by he WHO, is “a p ocess s a ing when b eas milk alone is no longe su icien o mee he nu i ional equi emen s o in an s, and he e o e o he oods and liquids a e needed, along wi h b eas milk” [42]. This p ocess, which includes con inued b eas eeding, ypically occu s be ween 6 o 23 mon hs o age [43]. Comme cial complemen a y ood p oduc s a e o mula ed o p o ide essen ial mi- c onu ien s and mac onu ien s needed du ing his s age. These p oduc s can be manu- ac u ed using simple echniques such as mal ing, popping, and e men a ion, as well as mode n ood-p ocessing echnologies like olle d ying, ex usion cooking, and non- he - mal p ocessing. Some o he mos common comme cially p epa ed IFs include i on- o i- ied ce eals in a ie ies such as ice, oa s, ba ley, whea , mixed-g ain, and g ain wi h ui . Addi ionally, he e a e juices, including hose speci ically o in an s, ci us juice, canned juice, ege able o ui pu ee, and specially p epa ed mea s o in an consump ion [44]. 3. Assessmen o Haza ds and Sa e y Measu es in In an and Baby Foods The sa e y and quali y o in an ood a e majo conce ns o pa en s and public heal h au ho i ies [8]. Child en a e pa icula ly ulne able o oodbo ne illnesses, making he sa e y o ood du ing p ocessing, p epa a ion, and handling c i ical o hei heal h. The e a e h ee main ypes o haza ds in oods ha con ibu e o ou b eaks: biological, physical, and chemical. These haza ds a e discussed in de ail below: 3.1. Mic obial Haza ds The nu ien con en o in an and child oods makes hem excellen g ow h media o bac e ia. The e o e, any pa hogen ha emains a e p ocessing o con amina ion can apidly mul iply unde op imal condi ions [10]. Du ing 2004–2006, he FAO/WHO con- sul a ion g oup iden i ied he mos common mic oo ganisms associa ed wi h con amina- ion in in an ood. These include Salmonella en e i idis, C onobac e sp., En e obac e agglom- e ans, En e obac e cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxy oca, Ci obac e eundii, Ci obac e kose i, Esche ichia coli, Ha nia al ei, Acine obac e sp., Se a ia sp., Bacillus ce eus, Clos idium bo ulinum, Clos idium pe ingens, Clos idium di icile, Lis e ia monocy ogenes, and S aphylococcus sp. Among hese, Salmonella en e ica and C onobac e sp. we e iden i ied as he mos conce ning pa hogens, alling unde haza d ca ego y A [45,46]. - Pu i ied wa e : il e ed wa e , wi h impu i ies emo ed - Sui able wa e o d inking when babies ge olde - Dis illed wa e : made by boiling pu i ied wa e and collec ing s eam - Dis illed wa e is he cleanes and pu es wa e a ailable - This wa e is comple ely ee o e e y hing, e en na u al mine als such as calcium and magnesium a e also emo ed du ing he p ocess - Mine al and sp ing wa e : wa e de i ed om a sp ing o unde g ound sou ce con ains na u ally dissol ed mine als (a leas 250 ppm), including po assium, calcium, and i on S age 1, 2, 3 [41] 2.2. Complemen a y Foods Complemen a y eeding, as de ined by he WHO, is “a p ocess s a ing when b eas milk alone is no longe su icien o mee he nu i ional equi emen s o in an s, and he e- o e o he oods and liquids a e needed, along wi h b eas milk” [ 42 ]. This p ocess, which includes con inued b eas eeding, ypically occu s be ween 6 o 23 mon hs o age [ 43 ]. Comme cial complemen a y ood p oduc s a e o mula ed o p o ide essen ial mic onu i- en s and mac onu ien s needed du ing his s age. These p oduc s can be manu ac u ed using simple echniques such as mal ing, popping, and e men a ion, as well as mode n ood-p ocessing echnologies like olle d ying, ex usion cooking, and non- he mal p o- cessing. Some o he mos common comme cially p epa ed IFs include i on- o i ied ce eals in a ie ies such as ice, oa s, ba ley, whea , mixed-g ain, and g ain wi h ui . Addi ionally, he e a e juices, including hose speci ically o in an s, ci us juice, canned juice, ege able o ui pu ee, and specially p epa ed mea s o in an consump ion [44]. 3. Assessmen o Haza ds and Sa e y Measu es in In an and Baby Foods The sa e y and quali y o in an ood a e majo conce ns o pa en s and public heal h au ho i ies [ 8 ]. Child en a e pa icula ly ulne able o oodbo ne illnesses, making he Foods 2024,13, 2659 16 o 29 s a ic p inciple. Le Cha elie ’s heo y s a es ha p essu e-induced olume educ ion al e s s uc u al cha ac e is ics, while he isos a ic p inciple main ains ha p essu e is uni o mly dis ibu ed and p opo ional in all luid oods [ 117 , 118 ]. Indus ially, his me hod is p e- dominan ly used o p ocessing liquids and solids bu is unsui able o d ied milk powde o ce eals due o hei low mois u e con en [119]. An HHP echnology sys em in ol es injec ing wa e in o a high-pe o mance cylin- de , whe e oods o be ea ed a e p e-packaged in a lexible ma e ial ha ansmi s he wa e p essu e. Solid ood p oduc s a e acuum-sealed, while liquid ood p oduc s use a headspace- ee seal [ 116 ]. HHP p ocessing echnology allows o simul aneous con ol o h ee p ocessing pa ame e s—p essu e, empe a u e, and ime—o e ing signi ican p ocess design lexibili y [ 120 , 121 ]. This ypically en ails subjec ing a ge ood p oduc s o p essu es o 400–600 MPa a empe a u e anges o 45 ◦ C o e ige a ion, wi h holding imes o 1.5–6 min [48,122]. Unlike hea ea men , p essu e ea men is no in luenced by p oduc size o geom- e y, leading o educed p ocessing imes. P e ious epo s indica e ha one o he key ad an ages o HHP o he IFs/BBF indus y is a dec ease in unwan ed ood p ocessing con aminan s and mic obial popula ions [ 115 , 123 ]. A majo mechanism o mic obial inac i- a ion in ol es he dis up ion o non-co alen bonds and damage o cy oplasmic ibosomes and cell memb anes. HHP can induce se e al phenomena simul aneously (e.g., dis up ion o cell walls and memb anes, chemical eac ions, enzyme ac i a ion o inac i a ion, and p o ein modi ica ion, such as dena u a ion and gel o ma ion), he eby in luencing he o e all mic obial load [124,125]. High-p essu e pas eu iza ion e ec i ely elimina es spoilage bac e ia, yeas s, and molds bu is ine ec i e agains spo es [ 25 ]. To enhance he s e iliza ion and pas eu iza- ion p ocesses, high p essu es (600 MPa) combined wi h high empe a u es (90–121 ◦ C) a e used o inac i a e spo es, a me hod known as “high-p essu e he mal s e iliza ion” (HPTS) [ 126 , 127 ]. The combina ion o high p essu e and high empe a u e p oduces a syne gis ic e ec ha educes p ocessing ime, minimizes undesi ed ood p ocessing con- aminan s, imp o es ood quali y, and elimina es mic oo ganisms [ 128 ]. In 2015, he FDA app o ed p essu e-enhanced s e iliza ion, allowing o s e iliza ion empe a u es below 121.1 ◦C a 600 MPa [129]. Nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed he e ec i eness o HPP, ei he alone o in com- bina ion wi h o he echnologies, o p ocessing a ious BFs. Fo ins ance, Kul u e al. [ 90 ] used HHP o he pas eu iza ion o ui pu ees o babies, achie ing pa hogen inac i a ion wi hou gene a ing chemical con aminan s such as u an. HPP ea men s we e conduc ed a 25, 35, and 45 ◦ C, and p essu es o 200, 300, and 400 MPa, o ea men du a ions o 5, 10, and 15 min. Signi ican educ ions (a ound 6 log 10 ) in mesophilic ae ophiles and yeas s/molds we e achie ed a 400 MPa and 45 ◦ C o 15 min wi hou u an o ma ion. Kul u e al. [ 91 ] also in es iga ed he po en ial o HPP o in- ac i a ing o al mesophilic ae obic bac e ia, o al yeas s and molds, and educing u an o ma ion in ege able-based IFs. They highligh ed he syne gis ic e ec s o p ocessing pa ame e s such as ime, empe a u e, and p essu e in mic obial inac i a ion. The e ec- i eness o mic obial educ ion depended on he speci ic mic oo ganism and he HPP condi ions. Fo example, ea men a 400 MPa and 45 ◦ C o 15 min led o comple e inac i a ion o all mic oo ganisms, wi h no u an de ec ed in any sample. The use o low empe a u es in p ocessing ui and ege able baby p oduc s helps p ese e hei senso y cha ac e is ics. Li e al. [92] e alua ed he nu i ional and unc ional p ope ies o soy p o ein isola e o IFs using HHP ea men . They ound ha a ious unc ional a ibu es, such as solubili y, wa e holding capaci y, oaming capaci y, and emulsi ica ion ac i i y index, we e enhanced a lowe p essu e and ime le els bu diminished a highe le els. Foaming s abili y dec eased wi h inc easing p essu e and ime, while he emulsi ica ion s abili y index dec eased wi h highe p essu e. Soy p o ein isola e gels exhibi ed imp o emen s in sp inginess, ha dness, and adhesi e o ce wi h longe ea men imes and inc eased Foods 2024,13, 2659 17 o 29 p essu e, al hough hese imp o emen s we e less p onounced han hose obse ed in he con ol g oup. Fu he mo e, HHP induced con o ma ional changes in he e ia y and/o qua e na y s uc u e o soy p o ein isola e [93]. Bu and Li [ 130 ] epo ed ha he HHP- ea ed sample exhibi ed a highe swallowing esponse and g ea e in i o diges ibili y compa ed o he con ol. Gel elec opho esis indica ed ha glycinin was mo e s able unde p essu e han β -conglycinin, and high molecula weigh subuni s we e o med h ough disul ide in e ac ions a highe ea men le els. In ano he s udy, Ce in-Ka aca e al. [ 131 ] combined high p essu e wi h ans- cinnamaldehyde o assess he e ec i eness o HPP in deac i a ing B. ce eus spo es in econs i u ed powde ed in an o mula milk (RPIFM) unde op imal condi ions (5 min a 600 MPa). The p oduc s we e hen s o ed a 23 ◦ C and 7 ◦ C o 4 and 6 weeks, espec i ely. The combined me hod demons a ed signi ican an imic obial ac i i y by elimina ing ege a i e cells and B. ce eus spo es in in an oods s o ed a oom empe a u e and unde e ige a ion. HPP a 600 MPa educed pa hogen popula ions by wo logs and combining HPP wi h 0.1% ans-cinnamaldehyde esul ed in a h ee-log educ ion. Long- e m s o age o RPIFM a oom empe a u e led o dec eased pH and inc eased mic obial g ow h. The combina ion o HPP and ans-cinnamaldehyde was conside ed a obus an imic obial al e na i e o he mal ea men s and a i icial p ese a i es. Ce in-Ka aca e al. [ 94 ] ound ha a combina ion o HPP a 600 MPa o 5 min, 0.05% ans-cinnamaldehyde, and 1% chi osan, wi h s o age empe a u es o 7, 23, and 45 ◦C, led o he comple e elimina ion o C onobac e sakazakii a e 4, 6, and 2 weeks, espec i ely. In all HPP ea men s, he colony- o ming uni s pe millili e (CFU/mL) dec eased by a leas 5.5 logs CFU/mL, compa ed o maximum educ ions o 2.1, 1.1, and 3.7 logs CFU/mL wi hou HPP ea men s a 7, 23, and 45 ◦ C. Mo eo e , senso y es ing did no e eal a signi ican di e ence be ween he ea men g oup and he con ol g oup. I has been documen ed ha he mal p ocessing and high-p essu e he mal p ocessing (HPTP) o pea pu ees, wi h o wi hou ci ic acid, can inhibi oxida i e enzymes such as pe oxidase (POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO), while also imp o ing hei senso y p ope ies [ 95 ]. Following HPTP ea men (600 MPa, 90 ◦ C, 5 min) and he mal p ocessing ea men (90 ◦ C, 7 min) in acidi ied pu ee, POD was comple ely deac i a ed, whe eas PPO was deac i a ed o a maximum o 60%. The e o e, pea pu ee ea ed wi h HP and HPTP was conside ed a sui able candida e o use in baby o mulas due o i s low pH, high an ioxidan capaci y, and educed ac i i y o oxida i e enzymes. Se enich e al. [ 97 ] in es iga ed he po en ial bene i s o HPTS in he ood indus y, emphasizing i s capaci y o enhance ood quali y, diminish he mal impac , and lowe he p esence o undesi ed ood p ocessing con aminan s such as u an. The s udy conduc ed labo a o y-scale ials on speci ic ood i ems o es ablish empe a u e– ime combina ions o achie ing a 12 log 10 inac i a ion o Bacillus amylolique aciens. These combina ions we e hen applied in a scale-up p ocess using a 55 L essel equipped wi h a high-p essu e, high- empe a u e sys em. The esul s demons a ed a signi ican dec ease in u an le els, anging om 41 o 98% compa ed o con en ional e o ing me hods. Pilo -scale expe imen s con i med hese indings, wi h only one ood p oduc exhibi ing ins abili y a e ea men . Addi ionally, s o age ials (s anda dized me hod NF V 08-408) e ealed ha only wo selec ed ea men condi ions (107.5 ◦ C, 9.8 min and 115 ◦ C, 0.45 min a 600 MPa) esul ed in an uns able p oduc , speci ically in he case o baby ood pu ee. In conclusion, he s udy sugges ed ha HPTS holds p omise as a iable op ion o adop ion wi hin he ood indus y. G a z e al. [ 98 ] e alua ed he e ec s o p essu e-enhanced s e iliza ion (PES) and ohmic (OH) echnologies as al e na i es o he mal e o ing. Thei goal was o enhance he quali y o ca o pu ee o in an consump ion by iden i ying op imal ood sa e y p ocess pa ame e s. Bo h me hods we e ound o educe he he mal load on he p oduc wi hou comp omising ood sa e y o quali y. This echnology was obse ed o hea pu ee samples mo e apidly and uni o mly compa ed o con en ional e o s, leading o lowe C alues. Addi ionally, PES ea men s, besides hei syne gis ic inac i a ion e ec o empe a u e Foods 2024,13, 2659 18 o 29 and high p essu e, esul ed in lowe C alues by lowe ing he p ocessing empe a u e. As a esul , colo , bioac i e compounds like ca o enoids, and ex u e we e be e p ese ed, while ood p ocessing con aminan s, pa icula ly u an and i s de i a i es, we e educed. Wang e al. [ 99 ] in es iga ed he applica ion o p essu e-assis ed he mal s e iliza ion (PATS) o s e ilize BFs, which o e highe nu i ional alue compa ed o p oduc s p ocessed using con en ional he mal me hods. Thei s udy ocused on s e ilizing BFs inocula ed wi h B. sub ilis spo es using he PATS echnique. The esul s indica ed ha he combina ion o empe a u e and he mal expansion p essu e had a syne gis ic e ec on mic obial elimina ion, leading o signi ican educ ions in B. sub ilis le els and imp o ed e en ion o asco bic acid. 5.2. Radio F equency (RF) Technology Radio F equency (RF) echnology u ilizes elec omagne ic wa es in he equency ange o 1 o 300 MHz. In RF hea ing, elec omagne ic wa es pene a e he ood p oduc , causing pola molecules (such as wa e ) o oscilla e and gene a e hea h ough molecula ic ion. The apid and olume ic hea ing ensu es uni o m empe a u e dis ibu ion, which is pa icula ly bene icial o oods wi h high mois u e con en . Key ope a ional pa ame e s include equency ( ypically 13.56 o 27.12 MHz o ood applica ions), powe (adjus able depending on he ood’s dielec ic p ope ies), and ea men ime ( om seconds o minu es). RF hea ing is p ima ily used o pas eu iza ion, s e iliza ion, d ying, and hawing, p o iding apid and uni o m hea ing wi h minimal quali y deg ada ion [ 105 , 132 ]. In RF hea ing uni s (RF-H), elec odes do no di ec ly con ac he ood o p e en Joule hea ing (OH hea ing). This echnology is sui able o bo h solids and liquids due o i s deep pene a ion capaci y and apid hea ing speed [ 133 ]. Nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed he success ul use o RF hea ing o pas eu izing/s e ilizing liquid o semi-liquid IFs. A ecen expe imen al s udy by Lin e al. [ 103 ] con i med he e ec i eness o RF-enhanced adi ional he mal p ocessing (RF-assis ed TTP) o pas eu izing PIFM. In his s udy, RF ene gy was applied o a ay con aining PIFM, esul ing in a cold spo obse ed in he cen e o he op laye . The RF ea men was used a e inocula ing he sample wi h C. sakazakii o hea i un il he cold spo eached 65 ◦ C a 27.12 MHz and 6 kW. Subsequen ly, he samples we e held a 65 ◦ C in a ho ai o en o a ying imes. Following RF-assis ed TTP a 65 ◦ C o 21 h, C. sakazakii was educed by app oxima ely 5 logs. Quali a i e analysis e ealed no signi ican di e ences in solubili y, we abili y, diges ibili y, and colo pa ame e s be ween RF-assis ed TTP and TTP. Howe e , bo h ea men s led o signi ican changes in mois u e con en , wa e ac i i y, TBARS, and pe oxide alue. Ano he s udy aimed o de elop adio equency dielec ic hea ing (RFDH) p ocesses o elimina e Salmonella spp. and C. sakazakii in con amina ed non a d y milk (NDM) in- ended o in an s [ 104 ]. They used a he mal dea h ime (TDT) disk p ocess o es ima e he D- alues ( ime equi ed o a one-log educ ion) o Salmonella spp. and C. sakazakii in NDM (low-hea : LH; high-hea : HH) a empe a u es o 75, 80, 85, o 90 ◦ C, and calcula ed he z- alues ( empe a u e inc ease equi ed o a en old educ ion in D- alue). Fo C. sakazakii, D- alues anged om 5.37 o 24.86 min a di e en empe a u es, while o Salmonella spp., D- alues anged om 4.55 o 24.94 min. The s udy ound ha bo h pa hogens we e inac i- a ed simila ly ega dless o he ea men me hod (RFDH s. con en ional). This sugges s ha RFDH ea men could be used o achie e a ge empe a u es o pos - ea men le hali y in NDM be o e packaging, in a high-speed and uni o m manne , he eby educing he isk o ood sa e y issues. Zhang, Zhu e al. [ 105 ] compa ed he e ec s o combined adio equency and ho ai ea men (RF-HA) wi h ho wa e ea men (HW) on he quali y o PIFM o inac i- a ing C. sakazakii by 5 log. Bo h hea ea men me hods showed no signi ican di e - ences in solubili y o c ude p o ein con en . Howe e , he inc ease in mois u e con en o 2.70 g/100 g (aw: 0.4) esul ed in a signi ican dec ease in he glass ansi ion empe a u e o amo phous lac ose, comp omising he quali y o PIFM. Lowe ing he mois u e con- en in PIFM subjec ed o RF-HA ea men inc eased p o ein dena u a ion empe a u es, Foods 2024,13, 2659 19 o 29 leading o mo e s able p o ein s uc u es. Addi ionally, RF-HA ea men induced less non-enzyma ic b owning compa ed o HW- ea ed samples. This was u he suppo ed by FTIR spec a, which indica ed a lowe a e o he Mailla d eac ion in samples ea ed wi h RF-HA. Mo eo e , RF had a signi ican e ec on pa icle agglome a ion in PIFM compa ed o con en ional HW ea men . In a s udy by Zhang, Xie e al. [ 106 ] a he mos a ic RF sys em was used o deac i a e C. sakazakii in PIFM. A p opo ional–in eg al–de i a i e con olle was employed o main- ain cons an ma e ial empe a u e du ing holding. Simila o p e ious s udies, dielec ic ma e ial assis ance and ho ai we e u ilized o enhance RF hea ing uni o mi y. Resul s showed ha he he mal esis ance o C. sakazakii dec eased wi h inc easing wa e ac i i y (0.2–0.4 a 25 ◦ C) and empe a u e (55–70 ◦ C). Combining RF wi h ho ai pas eu iza ion imp o ed mic obial inac i a ion compa ed o RF o ma e ial assis ance alone, a ibu ed o be e empe a u e uni o mi y. T ansmission elec on mic oscopy (TEM) analyses and low cy ome y con i med ha RF ea men did no signi ican ly a ec he cell wall. RF p ocessing has been shown o achie e signi ican ly highe hea ing a es han adi ional me hods, making i a p omising echnique o pas eu izing PIFM e icien ly. Ano he s udy by Wang e al. [ 107 ] e alua ed he he mal dea h kine ics o C. sakazakii in PIFM using RF and ho wa e ea men . The esea ch demons a ed ha RF echnology e ec i ely disables C. sakazakii in packaged powde ed IFs while main aining p oduc quali y. Lin e al. [ 108 ] s udied he dielec ic p ope ies o packaging ma e ials o PIFM o imp o e in-package pas eu iza ion using RF and mic owa e hea ing (MWH). They in es- iga ed how empe a u e (20–80 ◦ C), equency (10 MHz–3 GHz), and main componen s (mois u e, whey p o ein, a , and lac ose) in luenced hese p ope ies. Resul s indica ed ha he loss ac o and dielec ic cons an dec eased wi h highe equency, while he dielec ic loss ac o dec eased wi h inc eased densi y, empe a u e, and a con en . The dielec ic cons an inc eased wi h densi y and main componen s. Lac ose and whey p o ein exhibi ed posi i e dielec ic p ope ies due o ionic conduc ion, while a had nega i e dielec ic p ope ies due o weak pola a ac ion. In ano he s udy, Zhong e al. [ 109 ] e alua ed he impac o adio equency hea ing (RFH; 90 ◦ C, 5 and 10 min) on he mic os uc u e, compo- si ion ( a dis ibu ion, p o ein oxida ion), ehyd a ion cha ac e is ics, and low p ope ies o PIFM. RFH ea men inc eased p o ein di y osine concen a ion, ee a on powde su aces, and powde po osi y. Addi ionally, RFH imp o ed low abili y and comp essibil- i y compa ed o he aw sample, al hough longe du a ions dec eased ehyd a ion abili y, indica ing lowe solubili y and smalle con ac angles. The Guggenheim–Ande son–de Boe (GAB) model cha ac e ized wa e apo so p ion iso he ms, showing ha p olonged RFH du a ion inc eased C alues (63% a 10 min). Recen ly, Lin e al. [ 103 ] in es iga ed he dielec ic p ope ies o PIFM, ocusing on dipole loss ( a , lac ose, and whey p o ein) and ionic loss a empe a u es and equencies anging om 20–80 ◦ C and 10 o 3000 MHz, espec i ely. They obse ed ha he dielec ic loss ac o o PIFM inc eased wi h highe lac ose and whey p o ein con en bu dec eased wi h highe a con en . The ionic loss in PIFM inc eased wi h empe a u e bu emained cons an wi h equency. Mo eo e , lac ose, a , and whey p o ein dipole loss ollowed he Debye equa ion, showing an inc ease wi h equency up o app oxima ely 1, 1, and 1.2 GHz, espec i ely, be o e declining. Inc easing he whey p o ein con en in econs i u ed PIFM led o highe hea ing a es in RF ields and educed lipid oxida ion in p ocessed PIFM. PIFM can become s icky unde un a o able p ocessing condi ions, leading o neg- a i e impac s on i s physicochemical and unc ional p ope ies [ 134 ]. Zhang e al. [ 111 ] in es iga ed he e ec o RF d y hea ea men on PIFM s ickiness. Sp ay-d ied PIFM wi h a wa e ac i i y o 0.28 was ea ed a 70 ◦ C o 0–5 log inac i a ion o C. sakazakii o a ying du a ions. The RF ea men s signi ican ly educed wa e ac i i y compa ed o un- ea ed samples, wi h minimal changes in su ace- ee a con en (0.005–0.006 g/g powde ) and lac ose c ys allini y (2–3%). The pa icle size o PIFM inc eased signi ican ly ini ially and hen s abilized a e 23.3 min, indica ing pa icle s icking occu ed du ing he i s pas eu iza ion s ep. While a isible adhesion and low o ho su ace a we e obse ed Foods 2024,13, 2659 20 o 29 du ing he 23.3 min pas eu iza ion, he a co e age dec eased wi h longe ea men imes. Addi ionally, he inc eased su ace lac ose co e age in ea ed PIFM educed hei wa e ac i i y, a ec ing he glass ansi ion. The s udy concluded ha he enhancemen in pa icle size a e RF p ocessing was due o ee a b idges on he pa icle su ace, sugges ing ha RF echnology can imp o e pa icle quali y pos -p ocessing. 5.3. Ul asound (US) Technology Ul asound echnology (US), a non-in asi e and non-des uc i e echnique, has gained signi ican a en ion in he ood indus y o i s di e se applica ions. US p ocessing employs high- equency sound wa es, ypically abo e 20 kHz, o de elop ca i a ion in liquid oods. This p ocess gene a es localized high empe a u es and p essu es ha dis up mic obial cell walls and enhance mass ans e . Key ope a ional pa ame e s include equency (20 kHz–1 MHz), in ensi y (W/L), and du a ion ( anging om seconds o minu es). Lowe equencies a e gene ally used o mic obial con ol, while highe equencies a e applied o homogeniza ion and emulsi ica ion [ 135 , 136 ]. This echnology can modi y he chemical, physical, and unc ional p ope ies o ood, he eby impac ing i s o e all quali y [ 137 ]. This phenomenon is a ibu ed o ca i a ion in liquids, p essu e changes in gases, and mo emen o liquids in solids [ 138 ]. In ood p ocessing, he US inds u ili y in p ocess con ol, de ec de ec ion, p ope y analysis, ex ac ion e iciency imp o emen , d ying, il a ion, p ese a ion, and mea ende iza ion [136,137]. Se e al s udies ha e in es iga ed he use o US echnology in IFs and BFs. Fo example, Adekun e e al. [ 112 ] s udied he quan i a i e impac o US as an al e na i e hea ing me hod o moni o ing he inac i a ion kine ics o C. sakazakii in RPIFM. The op imiza ion in ol ed a ying he ampli ude (24.4, 30.5, 42.7, 54.9, and 61 m) and empe a u e (25 ◦ C, 35 ◦ C, and 50 ◦ C), and he kine ics we e analyzed using a modi ied Bigelow- ype model. The combined use o US and empe a u e led o a signi ican educ ion in he popula ion o C. sakazakii. In ano he s udy, he e ec i eness o US and con en ional pas eu iza ion me hods in inac i a ing enzymes and mic obes in pea juice o use in BFs was compa ed [ 22 ]. US was mos e ec i e a 25, 45, and 65 ◦ C wi h 750 W powe , a 20 kHz equency, and 70% ampli ude o 10 min. In con as , con en ional pas eu iza ion equi ed 95 ◦ C o 2 min and 65 ◦ C o 10 min. US pas eu iza ion esul ed in g ea e inac i a ion o mic obes (yeas , mold, and o al pla e coun ) and enzymes a a lowe empe a u e (65 ◦ C o 10 min). Addi ionally, compa ed o con en ional me hods (95 ◦ C o 2 min), he use o US e ained mo e phenolic compounds. Using sonica ion has been epo ed o ende ize mea by educing myo ib illa p o eins in muscle issue and imp o ing cohesion and wa e -holding capaci y [ 139 ]. In a s udy by Luo e al. [ 113 ], US was in es iga ed as a p e ea men me hod o aw mea o p epa e in an mea pu ee a di e en powe le els (200 W, 400 W, and 600 W, and 20 kHz) and du a ions (15, 30, and 45 min). Compa ed o he con ol, using US powe a 400 W and 600 W esul ed in dec eased iscosi y and ha dness, and imp o ed ex u e ( i me ex u e and highe wa e con en ) o he mea pu ee. Mo eo e , no signi ican di e ence in he diges ibili y o he mea pu ee in he gas ic phase was obse ed, while he diges ibili y in he in es inal phase inc eased (80.85%) using US (600 W o 15 min). 5.4. Pulsed Elec ic Field (PEF) Technology Pulsed elec ic ield (PEF) is a non- he mal ood p ese a ion echnology ha in- ol es applying sho , high- ol age pulses o ood p oduc s placed be ween wo elec odes. These pulses induce an elec ic ield ha dis up s cell memb anes h ough elec opo a- ion, leading o mic obial inac i a ion. Ope a ional pa ame e s include ol age ( ypically 1 o 100 kV/cm), pulse du a ion ( om mic oseconds o milliseconds), and he numbe o pulses ( om hund eds o housands). These pa ame e s can be adjus ed o op imize mic obial inac i a ion while p ese ing ood quali y and nu ien s [ 140 ]. Re e sible pe me- abiliza ion e e s o he empo a y opening o cell memb anes, allowing o he ex ac ion o in acellula compounds such as pigmen s, la o s, and nu ien s. This p ocess is o en Foods 2024,13, 2659 21 o 29 used in he ood indus y o imp o e he ex ac ion e iciency o aluable componen s om plan and mic obial cells [ 141 ]. I e e sible pe meabiliza ion, on he o he hand, in ol es he pe manen dis up ion o cell memb anes, leading o cell dea h. This aspec o PEF is u ilized o mic obial inac i a ion in oods, ex ending hei shel li e while main aining hei nu i ional and senso y quali ies [ 142 ]. Mic obial cells a e des oyed by c ea ing i e e sible po es in he memb ane, inducing pe meabiliza ion and s uc u al changes in he memb ane, which may enhance he mass ans e p ocess h ough he memb ane and esul in he elease o in acellula con en s and he deac i a ion o mic oo ganisms [ 143 ]. Se e al s udies ha e e alua ed he possibili y o using PEF p ocessing o imp o e he shel li e s abili y o IFs and BFs. In a s udy conduc ed by Pina-Pé ez e al. [ 101 ], he e ec o PEF p ocessing a di e en ea men imes (60 o 3895 µ s) and ield s eng hs (10 o 40 kV/cm) on he inac i a ion o C. sakazakii suspended in bu e ed pep one wa e (BPW) and PIFM was in es iga ed. They obse ed a 2.7 log 10 (CFU/mL) educ ion in C. sakazakii inocula ed in BPW a e PEF ea men o 360 µ s (2.5 µ s pulse wid h) a 40 kV/cm. In PIFM, PEF p ocessing unde he same condi ions esul ed in a 1.2 log (CFU/mL) educ ion o C. sakazakii. Highe bac e ia inac i a ion was obse ed in bo h subs a es wi h g ea e ield s eng h and ea men ime. PEF p ocessing was sugges ed as a p omising echnique o imp o e he sa e y o econs i u ed IFs be o e s o age in he e ige a o in hospi als. Ano he s udy examined he po en ial cell damage o PEF p ocessing (15 and 35 kV/cm wi h minimum, medium, and maximum inpu ene gy) o C. sakazakii inocula ed in di e en comme cial in an o mula milk p oduc s [ 101 ]. The g ow h o su i o s and he po en ial p esence, eco e y, o dea h o suble hally damaged cells we e assessed du ing a 24-h e ige a ed s o age pe iod a 8 ◦ C. The u iliza ion o PEF ea men esul ed in signi ican damage o a la ge pe cen age (80–90%) o C. sakazakii cells, making hem suscep ible o subsequen e ige a ed s o age in in an o mula milk. The mos subs an ial educ ion (2.30 log cycles) in C. sakazakii was obse ed wi h a 15 kV/cm 3000 µ s PEF ea men ollowed by s o age a 8 ◦ C o 24 h. The educ ion in cell coun was mainly due o he PEF ea men , along wi h he o ma ion and subsequen dea h o damaged cells du ing he e ige a ed s o age pe iod. Pina-Pé ez e al. [ 102 ] in es iga ed he syne gis ic e ec o polyphenol- ich cocoa powde (CocoanOX 12%: CCX) and PEF p ocessing on he deac i a ion o C. sakazakii in IFs. The s udy e alua ed di e en concen a ions o cocoa powde (1%, 2.5%, and 5% w/ ) and he iming o cocoa powde addi ion (0, 2, and 4 h) be o e and a e PEF ea men (a 15, 25, and 35 kV/cm). The goal was o assess he impac o hese a iables on he deac i- a ion o C. sakazakii and he subsequen changes in he ea ed cells du ing e ige a ed condi ions (8 ◦ C, 12 h). The esul s indica ed ha he combined applica ion o PEF and CCX, along wi h he iming o CCX addi ion, signi ican ly in luenced he deac i a ion o C. sakazakii and he subsequen changes in he ea ed cells du ing e ige a ed s o age. The highes le el o deac i a ion (4.41 log 10 cycles) was achie ed when CCX was added 4 h a e PEF ea men (15 kV/cm o 3000 µs), ollowed by s o age a 8 ◦C o 12 h. A quali a i e s udy was ca ied ou by Nielsen e al. [ 144 ] o assess consume s’ a i- udes owa ds no el p ocessing echnologies like PEF and HPP, and hei impac on BFs. The indings indica ed ha pa icipan s gene ally held a o able iews o hese echnolo- gies. They pe cei ed PEF- and HPP- ea ed p oduc s as mo e na u al, nu i ionally ich, as ie , and en i onmen ally iendly. Howe e , conce ns ega ding insu icien in o ma ion abou he echnologies, skep icism, heal h conside a ions, and highe p oduc cos s we e iden i ied as he main d awbacks associa ed wi h PEF- and HPP- ea ed p oduc s. 6. Regula o y Landscape o Non-The mal P ocessing Technologies The adop ion o non- he mal p ocessing echnologies like US, PEF, HPP, and RF in ood p oduc ion is ema kably in luenced by egional egula o y amewo ks. These egula ions assess he app o al, implemen a ion, and labeling o oods p ocessed wi h hese eme ging echnologies. In he Uni ed S a es, he FDA plays a cen al ole in egula ing non- he mal echnologies. Fo ins ance, HPP has gained no able ac ion and egula o y accep ance o Foods 2024,13, 2659 22 o 29 u iliza ion in a ious ood ca ego ies, including BFs and IFs. The FDA equi es de ailed e idence o sa e y and e icacy, p edominan ly conce ning mic obial inac i a ion and nu i ional quali y p ese a ion. Any p ocess mus comply wi h he FDA Food Sa e y Mode niza ion Ac (FSMA), ensu ing ha oods p oduced by non- he mal echniques mee s ingen sa e y s anda ds [ 145 , 146 ]. In Eu ope, he EFSA o e sees he egula ion o non- he mal echnologies. This EU- unded agency e alua es new p ocessing me hods unde he No el Foods Regula ion, equi ing comp ehensi e sa e y assessmen s. Some o hese echnologies, like HPP and PEF, a e gene ally ecognized, p o ided ha sa e y and quali y a e main ained wi hou in oducing ha m ul byp oduc s. Howe e , EFSA demands obus scien i ic e idence o demons a e he sa e y o any ood p ocessed using hese me hods, mainly when in ended o ulne able popula ions like in an s [ 145 ]. In egions such as Asia and Sou h Ame ica, he egula o y landscape is mo e a iable. Coun ies like Japan and Sou h Ko ea ha e well-de ined egula ions ha inc easingly accommoda e non- he mal echnologies, d i en by consume demand o minimally p ocessed oods. In con as , in many de eloping coun ies, he egula o y amewo ks a e ei he s ill e ol ing o lack speci ic guidelines o non- he mal me hods. As a esul , he comme cializa ion o hese echnologies in ce ain egions can be hinde ed due o some easons such as including high ini ial in es men equi emen s, es ic ed access o eliable elec ici y and clean wa e , a ia ions in ood egula ions ac oss di e en coun ies, as well as unclea egula o y pa hways and inconsis en en o cemen [ 147 ]. These di e ences in he a ailable egula ions o apply non- he mal echnologies in p ocessing ood p oduc s show he impo ance o es ablishing in e na ionally ha monized s anda ds o p omo e he global accep ance and implemen a ion o non- he mal p ocessing echnologies in he ood indus y. 7. Conclusions and Fu u e T ends Se e al s udies ha e demons a ed he e icacy o non- he mal p ocessing echnolo- gies, such as high hyd os a ic p essu e, adio equency, ul asound, and pulsed elec ic ield, in deac i a ing key pa hogens in in an and baby p oduc s, while also educing he o ma ion o ha m ul compounds like u ans. Some o hese me hods, pa icula ly when combined wi h mild hea ea men s, ha e shown mo e signi ican po en ial han when used indi idually. Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha ce ain non- he mal echnologies, such as pulsed ligh , supe c i ical luid, mic o luidiza ion, and plasma echnology, emain ela i ely unde explo ed in he con ex o IFs and BFs. Addi ionally, mos esea ch in his a ea has been conduc ed a he labo a o y o pilo plan le el, whe e condi ions may di e signi ican ly om indus ial-scale p oduc ion, including a ia ions in empe a u e, ime, p essu e, and he mass o olume o ood p oduc s. Valida ion p ocedu es o legal accep ance and ad ancemen s in packaging echnologies a e also c ucial conside a ions. Fu he mo e, es ablishing s anda dized de ini ions and labeling con en ions o in an oods p ocessed wi h hese echnologies is essen ial o ensu e cla i y and os e consume us . O e all, con inued esea ch and de elopmen in his a ea a e needed o op imize he applica ion o non- he mal p ocessing me hods in he p oduc ion o sa e, nu i ious, and high-quali y IFs and BFs. Au ho Con ibu ions: All au ho s con ibu ed o his pape ’s di e en pa s, including concep ual- iza ion, in es iga ion, me hodology, w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, and w i ing— e iew and edi ing. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : This e iew a icle does no include any o iginal da a. We also acknowledge ha he e a e ca oon aces depic ed in wo images. These ca oon aces a e ic ional and do no ep esen any eal indi iduals. The e o e, no consen o publica ion was equi ed o hese images. Acknowledgmen s: S.M.T.G. would like o acknowledge he suppo o he Alexande on Humbold Founda ion o his Geo g Fo s e Resea ch Fellowship. Foods 2024,13, 2659 23 o 29 Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es . Abb e ia ions BFs Baby oods CAGR Compound annual g ow h a e FAO Food and ag icul u e o ganiza ion FPCs Food p ocessing con aminan s FOF Follow-on o mula FPC Food-p ocessing con aminan s FUF Follow-up o mula HACCP Haza d analysis c i ical con ol poin HHP High hyd os a ic p essu e HMF 5-hyd oxyme hyl-2- u u al HPP High-p essu e p ocessing HPTS High-p essu e he mal s e iliza ion IB In an bo ulism IFs In an o mulas MWH Mic owa e hea ing OH Ohmic hea ing PATS P essu e assis ed he mal s e iliza ion PEF Pulsed elec ic ield PFUF Powde ed ollow-up o mulas PIF Powde ed in an o mula PIFM Powde ed in an o mula milk RDA Recommended die a y Allowance RF Radio equency RPIFM Recons i u ed powde ed in an o mula milk UHT Di ec ul ahigh empe a u e US Ul asound Re e ences 1. F agkou, P.C.; Ka a i i, D.; Zemlin, M.; Ske aki, C. Impac o Ea ly Li e Nu i ion on Child en’s Immune Sys em and Noncommu- nicable Diseases Th ough I s E ec s on he Bac e ial Mic obiome, Vi ome and Mycobiome. F on . 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