Jou nal o Human Kine ics olume 45/2015, 189-198 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2015-0047 189
Sec ion IV – Beha iou al Sciences in Spo
1 - Uni e si y o O iedo; Facul y o Teache T aining and Educa ion; Depa men o Educa ional Sciences, Spain.
.
Au ho s submi ed hei con ibu ion o he a icle o he edi o ial boa d.
Accep ed o p in ing in he Jou nal o Human Kine ics ol. 45/2015 in Ma ch 2015.
Connec ing A hle es’ Sel -Pe cep ions and Me ape cep ions o
Compe ence: a S uc u al Equa ion Modeling App oach
by
Jose A. Cecchini1, Ja ie Fe nández-Rio1, An onio Méndez-Giménez1
This s udy explo ed he ela ionships be ween a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions. Two
hund ed and i y one s uden -a hle es (14.26 ± 1.89 yea s), membe s o wen y di e en eams (baske ball, socce )
comple ed a ques ionnai e which included he Pe cep ion o Success Ques ionnai e, he Compe ence subscale o he
In insic Mo i a ion In en o y, and modi ied e sions o bo h ques ionnai es o assess a hle es’ me ape cep ions.
S uc u al equa ion modelling analysis e ealed ha a hle es’ ask and ego me ape cep ions posi i ely p edic ed ask
and ego sel -pe cep ions, espec i ely. Compe ence me ape cep ions we e s ong p edic o s o compe ence sel -
pe cep ions, con i ming he a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion in ou come-dependen con ex s such as spo . Task and
ego me ape cep ions posi i ely p edic ed a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions. How coaches alue hei a hle es’
compe ence is mo e in luen ial on wha he a hle es hink o hemsel es han hei own sel -pe cep ions. A hle es’ ego
and ask me ape cep ions in luenced hei compe ence me ape cep ions (how coaches a e hei compe ence). The e o e,
a hle es build hei compe ence me ape cep ions using all in o ma ion a ailable om hei coaches. Finally, only ask-
sel pe ec ions posi i ely p edic ed a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions.
Key wo ds: pe cei ed compe encies, goal o ien a ions, me ape cep ions.
In oduc ion
The social cogni i e heo y (Bandu a, 1986)
a gues ha indi iduals bo h in luence and a e
in luenced by di e en pe sonal, en i onmen al,
and beha iou al ac o s. Resea che s ha e
s essed he need o dis inguish be ween di ec
pe cep ions o i s -o de expec a ions, and
me ape cep ions o second-o de expec a ions
(T oye and Youn s, 1997). Di ec pe cep ions
ela e o he belie s ha indi iduals hold o
hemsel es o o he s, while me ape cep ions a e
es ima ions o med by people ega ding he
hough s o o he s (Kenny and Aci elli, 2001). In
o he wo ds, me ape cep ions a e pe cep ions o
how o he people iew us (Kaplan e al., 2009)
and hei ole has long been he subjec o
esea ch wi hin social psychology (Kenny and
DePaulo, 1993). In spo con ex s, Adie and Jowe
(2010, p. 2754) highligh ed he impo ance o
me ape cep ions in shaping he quali y o coach-
a hle e in e ac ions: “ he coach’s and he a hle e’s
in e ela ed cogni ions, emo ions, and beha iou s
a e cap u ed h ough he in e pe sonal cons uc s
o commi men , closeness, and complemen a i y”.
Howe e , a hle es’ me ape cep ions ha e no
been widely esea ched.
Spo can be conside ed an ac i i y whe e
powe asymme y exis s since “ou comes a e
dependen upon someone in a mo e powe ul
posi ion” (Kaplan e al., 2009). Acco ding o his
idea, a hle es could be conside ed ou come-
dependen indi iduals. Coaches and a hle es do
no in e ac a he same le el, since he i s ones
ha e a s ong in luence o e he second’s spo
ca ee . Playing oppo uni ies, pe o mance-
ela ed eedback o ewa ds/punishmen s a e
impo an elemen s in an a hle e’s global
de elopmen in spo , and hey s ongly depend
on his/he coach’s ac ions. In his ype o con ex ,
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190 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence
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he e seems o be a hie a chical na u e o
me ape cep ion o ma ion since indi iduals a e
mo e conce ned abou he e alua ions o hose
mo e powe ul, knowledgeable o expe (Kaplan
e al., 2009). T adi ional iews on me ape cep ion
o ma ion conside ha indi iduals ely on hei
own de aul sel -pe cep ions. They look inwa d,
no ou wa d, and in e ha hei in e ac ion
pa ne s iew hem as hey iew hemsel es
(Kenny and DePaulo, 1993). Howe e , ou come-
dependen con ex s, such as spo , a e mo e likely
o p omo e g ea e mo i a ion o know how
o he s iew us (Kaplan e al., 2009), bu
subo dina es a e mo e esponsi e o leade s’
iews han he opposi e (Snodg ass, 1992). In
hese ypes o se ings, Kaplan e al. (2009) belie e
ha he e is an a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion
since i de i es no om de aul sel -pe cep ions,
bu om in luen ial o he s’ pe cep ions. They
conside ha me ape cep ions in luence sel -
pe cep ion when indi iduals a e dependen on
hei powe ul in e ac ion pa ne s (Kenny and
DePaulo, 1993). In o de o educe unce ain y
and inc ease p edic abili y, indi iduals y o
e alua e o he s’ hough s and beha iou s o
adjus o hei expec a ions (Hall e al., 2006). They
end o adop a “bo om-up p ocessing s a egy”
(Kaplan e al., 2009), o ob ain mo e in o ma ion
om hei mo e impo an coun e pa s o be e
unde s and hei beha iou s. Howe e , hese
ideas ha e no been esea ched in ou come-
dependen se ings such as spo .
Mo i a ion has been widely esea ched as
one o he key elemen s ha can in luence
ou comes in spo . The achie emen goal heo y
(AGT; Nicholls, 1984) has been undamen al o be
able o unde s and he meaning ha a hle es
a ach o achie emen (success o ailu e).
Basically, achie emen goals a e di ided in wo
majo g oups: ask and ego (Nicholls, 1984). Task-
o ien ed indi iduals desi e o imp o e hei skills
and ocus on he de elopmen o compe ence
compa ing hei pe o mance wi h hei own
p e ious pe o mances ( hei pe cep ion o
compe ence is sel - e e enced). Ego-o ien ed
indi iduals desi e o be be e han o he s and
ocus on he demons a ion o supe io
compe ence compa ing hei pe o mance wi h
o he indi iduals’ pe o mance ( hei pe cep ion
o compe ence is no ma i e). Acco ding o Duda
and Nicholls (1992, p. 291) “one migh expec a
mode a e associa ion be ween pe cei ed abili y
and ego o ien a ion” in spo se ings.
Ano he majo amewo k used o s udy
mo i a ion in achie emen con ex s such as spo
is Ha e ’s compe ence mo i a ion heo y (1981).
I p oposes ha youngs e s become mo i a ed o
engage in spo o demons a e compe ence.
The e o e, indi iduals’ pe cep ions o compe ence
seem o be undamen al o enjoy in ol emen in
spo ac i i ies, and hose wi h posi i e
pe cep ions end o show highe mo i a ion le els
(Ryan and Deci, 2000). Ha e (1978) included
coaches as hose signi ican ones (besides pa en s,
iends o eamma es) who a e in luen ial on
a hle es’ pe cep ions o compe ence. Ho n (1985)
ound ha coaching beha iou s we e s onge
media o s han skill imp o emen on a hle es’
sel -pe cep ions. Black and Weiss (1992) ound
simila esul s in a g oup o young swimme s.
Coaches’ p aise, in o ma ion and encou agemen
in luenced hei a hle es’ pe cei ed compe ence.
Besides coaches, a hle es’ own pe cep ions o
compe ence a e in luenced by hei abili y le el
(Ha e , 1981). In a g oup o emale a hle es Ho n
(1985) ound ha abili y signi ican ly in luenced
pe cei ed compe ence. Simila ly, Allen and Howe
(1998) ound ha highe abili y, as well as p aise
and in o ma ion om coaches, we e linked o
g ea e sa is ac ion in a g oup o emale
adolescen a hle es. Resea ch ells us ha a hle es’
pe cep ions o compe ence will s ongly a ec
hei engagemen in spo , hei goals and
beha iou s (i.e., ime spend in an ac i i y), e o
exe ed, and pe sis ence (Duda and Hall, 2001).
The e o e, unde s anding how indi iduals build
hei sel -compe ence pe cep ions seems
undamen al o achie e posi i e esul s in
ou come-based se ings such as spo .
On he o he hand, coaches could be
conside ed esponsible o he mo i a ional
clima e de eloped in spo con ex s (o he
impo an ac o s in ol ed a e pee s, pa en s o
spec a o s). Resea ch has dis inguished wo main
achie emen en i onmen s: mas e y o ask-
in ol ing and pe o mance o ego-in ol ing
(Ames, 1984). In mas e y clima es, success and
ailu e a e de ined in e ms o skill mas e y and
indi idual imp o emen . They a e ask-in ol ing
se ings ha emphasize he p ocess o skill
de elopmen , e o , and pe sonal imp o emen .
They p omo e mas e y-o ien ed indi iduals ha
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y ha d e en when acing di icul ies, show
in insic in e es in he di e en asks, and pe sis
o e ime (Robe s, T easu e, and Balagué, 1998).
In pe o mance clima es, success and ailu e a e
de ined in no ma i e e ms wi h an emphasis on
ou pe o ming eamma es and opponen s. They
a e ego-in ol ing en i onmen s ha ocus on he
ou comes and doing be e han o he s. They
p omo e pe o mance-o ien ed indi iduals ha
a e wo ied abou being judged as be e han
hei pa ne s. Coaches’ g ea e emphasis on
mas e y clima es has been ela ed o highe
a hle es’ abili y pe cep ions (Weiss e al., 2009).
P e ious esea ch has explo ed he a ypical
me ape cep i e o ma ion in ou come-dependen
educa ional con ex s (Kaplan e al., 2009).
Howe e , no s udies ha e add essed his issue in
spo se ings, whe e coaches a e in a powe ul
posi ion. Mo eo e , he e has been a call o s udy
he coach-a hle e ela ionship o unde s and
mo i a ion in spo (Adie and Jowe , 2010). Based
on he a o emen ioned, he p ima y goal o his
s udy was o explo e, h ough a pa h analysis, he
ela ionships be ween a hle es’ compe ence sel -
pe cep ion and me ape cep ion. The i s
hypo hesis was ha ask me ape cep ions will
posi i ely in luence ask sel -pe cep ions (Cz1x1
+), while ego me ape cep ions will posi i ely
in luence ego sel -pe cep ions (Cz2x2 +). The
second hypo hesis was ha a hle es’ compe ence
me ape cep ions will be linked o ask (Cy1x1 +)
and ego me ape cep ions (Cy1x2 +). Finally, he
hi d hypo hesis was ha a hle es’ compe ence
sel -pe cep ions will be dependen upon ask sel -
pe cep ions (Cy2z1 +) bu , mo e impo an , upon
compe ence me ape cep ions (Cy2y1 +). We
belie ed ha how o he s iew us is mo e
in luen ial on how we see ou sel es han ou sel -
pe cep ions (Figu e 1).
Ma e ial and Me hods
Pa icipan s
Two hund ed and i y one s uden -a hle es
(116 women, 135 men, age = 14.26 ± 1.89, age
ange: 11-17 yea s) ag eed o pa icipa e in he
p esen s udy. They we e membe s o a o al o 20
di e en eams (10 baske ball, 10 socce ) loca ed
in he no he n pa o Spain.
Measu es
Sel -pe cep ion o success.
The Pe cep ion o Success Ques ionnai e
(POSQ; Robe s e al., 1998) was used o measu e
each pa icipan ’s ask o ego o ien a ion. I is a
12-i em assessmen ins umen g ouped in wo
subscales (six i ems each). Each i em is headed by
he s em: “When playing my spo , I eel mos
success ul when...”. I ems in he ask subscale
include: ”I pe o m o he bes o my abili y”,
while i ems on he ego subscale include: “I
ou pe o m my opponen s”. Ce elló e al. (1999)
assessed he alidi y o his ins umen o
Spanish con ex s. The ask sel -pe cep ion (α = .75)
and ego sel -pe cep ion (α = .85) scales we e
in e nally consis en in his s udy.
Me ape cep ion o success.
In o de o assess a hle es’ success
me ape cep ions, he Pe cep ion o Success
Ques ionnai e (POSQ; Robe s e al., 1998) was
used again. The s em o each i em was changed
o: “When playing my spo , my coach eels ha I
am success ul when...”. This ins umen had been
alida ed o Spanish con ex s by Cecchini e al.
(2014). The in e nal eliabili y o his ins umen
was ound o be accep able in his s udy (α = .84
o ask me a-pe cep ion, and α = .87 o ego me a-
pe cep ion scales, espec i ely).
Compe ence sel -pe cep ion.
The 5-i em Compe ence subscale o he
In insic Mo i a ion In en o y (IMI; McAuley e
al., 1989) was used o assess a hle es’ compe ence
sel -pe cep ions. The gene ic label “ac i i y” was
ewo ded o e lec he na u e o he cu en
ac i i y: baske ball and socce . Pa icipan s we e
asked o a e hei ag eemen /disag eemen wi h
se e al s a emen s (e.g. “I am p e y skilled a
baske ball”). Balague e al. (2008) p o ed he
alidi y o his ins umen o Spanish con ex s.
The C onbach’s alpha coe icien was accep able
in his s udy (α = .85).
Compe ence me ape cep ion.
In o de o assess a hle es’ compe ence
me ape cep ions, he compe ence subscale o he
In insic Mo i a ion In en o y (IMI; McAuley e
al., 1989) was used again. The s em “My coach
belie es ha …” was added o he subscale. This
ins umen had been alida ed o Spanish
con ex s by Cecchini e al. (2014). I s in e nal
eliabili y in his s udy was ound adequa e (α =
.83).
P ocedu es
The implemen a ion o he esea ch
p ojec in ol ed h ee s eps: i s , pe mission om
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192 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence
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he E hics Commi ee o he esea che s’
Uni e si y and he s uden -a hle es’ club was
ob ained. Second, all he pa icipan s’ pa en s
signed an in o med consen o m (all o hem
we e unde 18 yea s o age). Thi d, a speci ically
designed ques ionnai e, which included all he
subscales desc ibed ea lie , was adminis e ed by
one o he esea che s p io o egula ly scheduled
aining sessions. Pa icipan s we e asked o
espond o all ques ions on a 5-poin Like scale
anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5 (s ongly
ag ee). P io o ques ionnai e adminis a ion,
a hle es we e old ha hei esponses would be
kep con iden ial. They we e also in o med ha
hei coaches would no ha e access o hei
answe s. Resea che s encou aged s uden s o
answe u h ully, and in o med hem ha hey
could wi hd aw om he p ocess a any ime.
S a is ical Analysis
Analyses we e conduc ed using he SPSS
18.0 and he EQS 6.2 p og ams. Be o e p oceeding
wi h hypo hesis es ing, he s a is ical
assump ions we e es ed (i.e. no mali y, linea i y,
and mul icollinea i y). In addi ion, desc ip i e
s a is ics and bi a ia e co ela ions we e
conduc ed o explo e he ends and ela ionships
among a iables.
The hypo hesized model was es ed
h ough a Pa h analysis (EQS 6.2). This is he mos
widely used echnique o es he ela ionship
among a iables. Gi en ha p eanalyses e ealed
subs an ial mul i a ia e ku osis (4.84), analysis
we e based on he Sa o a-Ben le scaled chi-
squa e s a is ic (S-B χ2; Sa o a and Ben le , 1994),
since i se es as a co ec ion o χ2 when
dis ibu ional assump ions a e iola ed. P e ious
esea ch had shown ha ku osis se e ely a ec s
es s o a iance and co a iance (DeCa lo, 1997).
In es ing he ini ial model, e alua ion o
goodness-o - i o he sample da a was
de e mined on he basis o mul iple c i e ia
(By ne, 2008): he Compa a i e Fi Index (*CFI),
he Roo Mean-Squa e E o o App oxima ion
(*RMSEA), and he S anda dized Roo Mean
Squa e Residual (SRMR). The *CFI ep esen s he
obus e sion o he CFI in ha i s compu a ion is
based on he S-Bχ2 s a is ic. I anges in alue
om 0 o 1.00. The *RMSEA is a obus e sion o
he RMSEA, and i akes in o accoun he e o o
app oxima ion in he popula ion. Values less han
.05 indica e good i , and alues as high as .08
ep esen easonable e o s o app oxima ion in
he popula ion. To comple e he analysis, he 90%
con idence in e al p o ided o *RMSEA was
conside ed. Las ly, he SRMR is he a e age
s anda dized esidual alue de i ed om i ing
he hypo hesized a iance co a iance ma ix o
ha o he sample da a. I s alue anges om 0 o
1.00, wi h a alue less han .08 being indica i e o
a well- i ing model.
To examine which pa ame e s o he
hypo hesized model we e in a ian ac oss he
wo samples (baske ball and socce ), a mul is ep
analysis o in a iance was employed. Acco ding
o By ne (1998), he i s s ep in ol es es ablishing
an app op ia e baseline model, which is es ed
ac oss he samples. This is a non-in a ian s ep,
and i p o ides a c i ical base o subsequen
model compa isons. Nex , s uc u al weigh s a e
cons ained o be in a ian ac oss g oups. The
subsequen s ep in ol es cons aining he
co a iance ma ix o equi alence ac oss g oups,
wi h he s uc u al weigh s ill cons ained.
Finally, he uniqueness (e o ) is se o
equi alence ac oss g oups, wi h he s uc u al
weigh and co a iances s ill cons ained.
Resul s
Desc ip i e S a is ics and Bi a ia e Co ela ions
Table 1 shows C onbach’s alpha
coe icien s o he di e en subscales, means, and
s anda d de ia ions, as well as bi a ia e
co ela ions among all a iables. C onbach’s
alphas we e abo e .70 in all subscales, which
indica ed ha he in e nal consis ency o all o
hem was accep able in his s udy (Nunnally and
Be ns ein, 1994). The highes mean sco es we e
ob ained in ask me ape cep ions and he lowes
in ego sel -pe cep ions. Co ela ion analysis
showed ha all a iables we e posi i ely
co ela ed. As expec ed, he highes co ela ion
sco es we e measu ed be ween coaches and
a hle es’ ask sel -pe cep ions and
me ape cep ions and a hle es’ ego sel -
pe cep ions and me ape cep ions.
PATH Analysis
The ini ial es ing o he hypo hesized
model yielded a good i o he da a: S-Bχ2 (7)=
9.44. p = .222; χ²; *CFI= 1.00; SRMR= .03; *RMSEA=
.037; 90% CI= .037 (.000-.092). Figu e 2 shows he
es ed model wi h he p edic ed ela ionships
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among a iables. Task and ego me ape cep ions
posi i ely in luenced compe ence
me ape cep ions. Task and ego me ape cep ions
posi i ely in luenced ask and ego sel -
pe cep ions, espec i ely. Finally, he di ec e ec
o compe ence me ape cep ions was a s onge
p edic o o compe ence sel -pe cep ions when
compa ed o ask sel -pe cep ions.
Mul is ep Analysis o In a iance
Resul s p esen ed in Table 2 show ha he es ed
models had accep able i indexes. Besides Δχ2,
Δ*CFI was also used. Acco ding o Cheung and
Rens old (2002), when Δ*CFI is equal o o lowe
han -.01, he in a iance null hypo hesis canno be
ejec ed. The e o e, hese esul s ein o ce he
hypo hesized model.
Figu e 1
Hypo hesized model con aining he pa ame e s o he Pa h analysis.
x1 = Task Me ape cep ion; x2 = Ego Me ape cep ion; z1 = Task Sel -pe cep ion;
z2 = Ego Sel -pe cep ion; y1 = Compe ence Me ape cep ion;
y2 = Compe ence Sel -pe cep ion.
Figu e 2
Tes ed model depic ing he p edic ed ela ionships among a iables.
*p< .05; ***p< .001
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194 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence
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Table 1
C onbach’s alphas, means, s anda d de ia ions, and bi a ia e co ela ions in all a iables
α M SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. Task Me ape cep ions .84 4.19 .72
2. Ego Me ape cep ions .87 2.91 .94 .16*
3. Task Sel -pe cep ions .75 4.09 .62 .60** .14*
4. Ego Sel -pe cep ions .85 2.82 .95 .19** .64** .25**
5. Compe ence
Me ape cep ions
.83 3.56 .77 .41** .38** .28** .32**
6. Compe ence Sel -pe cep ions .85 3.71 .79 .44** .22** .41** .24** .72**
*p < .01; ** p <.05
Table 2
M1 = Model 1: wi hou es ic ions; M2 = Model 2: s uc u al weigh in a iance;
M3 = Model 3: s uc u al co a iance in a ian ;
M4 = Model 4: s uc u al esidual in a iance
Model S-
Bχ2 d Δχ2 Δd *CFI SRMR *RMSEA (90%
CI)
M1 23.29 14 - - .98 .04 .052 (.000 –
.087)
M2 28.42 20 5.13 6 .98 .04 .041 (.000 –
.073)
M3 32.72 23 4.3 3 .98 .06 .041 (.000 –
.071)
M4 45.16 28 12.44 5 .97 .07 .050 (.019 –
.075)
S-Bχ2: Sa o a-Ben le Scaled Chi-Squa e; d : Deg ees o F eedom;
Δχ2: S anda dized Chi-Aqua e; Δd : S anda dized Deg ees o F eedom;
*CFI: Compa a i e Fi Index; SRMR: S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e Residual;
*RMSEA: Roo Mean-Squa e E o o App oxima ion; CI: Con idence In e al.
Discussion
The pu pose o his s udy was o explo e a
mo i a ional sequence hypo hesizing
ela ionships be ween a hle es’ compe ence sel -
pe cep ions and me ape cep ions (coaches’ iews
on hei compe ence) es ing he a ypical
me ape cep ion o ma ion in spo se ings. The
esul s o he s udy p o ided s ong suppo o
ou hypo heses and he a ypical me ape cep i e
p ocessing. A hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions
we e he s onges p edic o s o hei compe ence
sel -pe cep ions. Task and ego me ape cep ions
posi i ely p edic ed a hle es’ compe ence
me ape cep ions, while ask me a and sel -
pe cep ions and ego me a and sel -pe cep ions
we e also linked, espec i ely. Finally, we also
ound ha bo h ask and ego me ape cep ions
in luenced compe ence me ape cep ions (how
coaches iew hem), while only ask sel -
pe cep ions we e linked o compe ence sel -
pe cep ions.
Ou i s hypo hesis was ha ask
me ape cep ions would posi i ely in luence ask
sel -pe cep ions, while ego me ape cep ions
would posi i ely in luence ego sel -pe cep ions.
Ou esul s suppo his idea. This inding is in
line wi h he a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion
heo y (Kaplan e al., 2009) which conside s ha
me ape cep ions d i e sel -pe cep ions in
ou come-dependen con ex s, and spo is one o
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hem. Indi iduals y o decode he signi icance o
he beha iou s displayed by he mo e powe ul
pe sons in he con ex , which is usually he coach
in spo se ings, o o m hei sel -pe cep ions.
P e ious esea ch has linked con ex ual and
si ua ional a iables wi hin he AGT (Cecchini e
al., 2005), which ein o ces ou esul s. Ce ainly,
a hle es’ iews on how hei coaches see hem can
be e y in luen ial on how hey see hemsel es.
Coaches’ commen s, beha iou s, decisions o
eedback a e sc u inized by hei a hle es ying o
unde s and wha hei hough s a e on hem,
because coaches play an impo an ole in he
a hle e’s spo ca ee .
Ou hi d hypo hesis was di ec ly linked o
he i s one. We hypo hesized ha a hle es’
compe ence sel -pe cep ions would be dependen
upon hei ask sel -pe cep ions, bu mo e
impo an , upon hei compe ence
me ape cep ions. Resul s showed ha compe ence
me ape cep ions we e a s onge p edic o han
ask sel -pe cep ions on he a hle es’ compe ence
sel -pe cep ions. Pa icipan s belie ed ha how
o he s iew hem (coaches) was mo e in luen ial
on how hey saw hemsel es han hei own sel -
pe cep ions. Once again, his inding suppo s he
a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion heo y in
spo , an ou come-dependen se ing whe e
indi iduals do no ely on de aul sel -
pe cep ions, bu engage in a bo om-up s a egy
o e alua e hei coaches’ beha iou s (Kaplan e
al., 2009). In hese con ex s, in o de o educe
unce ain y and inc ease p edic abili y, a hle es
y o e alua e hei coaches’ hough s and
beha iou s o adjus o hei expec a ions (Hall e
al., 2006). The e o e, hei pe cei ed compe ence
sel -pe cep ion elies hea ily on wha hey hink
coaches hink o hem (me ape cep ion) mo e han
wha hey hink o hemsel es. Si ua ions such as
hose o he spo ing ield, whe e an indi idual’s
ou comes depend on wha signi ican o he s (e.g.,
coaches) hink o him/he , seem o p omo e
conce n abou how hose o he s see him/he
(Hinde, 1995). Acco ding o Felson (1993),
a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions o compe ence a e
hea ily in luenced by how o he s iew and
e alua e hem, and coaches seem o play an
impo an ole, since hey a e likely o
communica e hei eelings abou he a hle es’
s eng hs and weaknesses, and beha e
acco dingly.
The ole o signi ican o he s in spo (e.g.,
eamma es, coaches o pa en s) has been
highligh ed as e y in luen ial in p e ious
esea ch (Amo ose, 2003). I has been sugges ed
ha indi iduals end o see hemsel es as hey
belie e o he s see hem, and ou esul s suppo
his idea. To ga he comple e unde s anding o
ela ional p ocesses, esea che s should accoun
o “one's own expec a ions ega ding sel and
o he and one's belie s abou he expec a ions
o he holds o sel and o he ” (T oye and
Youn s, 1997, p. 696), and coaches a e signi ican
o he s in he wo ld o spo . Mo eo e , hey a e
powe ul indi iduals in hei a hle es’ spo ing
li es, and hei beha iou s a e ca e ully
conside ed by a hle es. This equa ion leads o
powe asymme y. When powe asymme y
exis s, indi iduals closely dissec he impo an
pe son’s mo i es and beha iou s (S e ens and
Fiske, 2000). Pe cei ed compe ence can play a
main ole in p edic ing mo i a ion and beha iou
in spo and exe cise (Robe s e al., 2007), and ou
esul s show ha coaches’ in luence on s uden s’
sel -pe cep ions o compe ence is signi ican .
The e o e, i seems c ucial o examine he coach–
a hle e ela ionship, hei in e ela ed cogni ions,
emo ions o beha iou s (Adie and Jowe , 2010),
and ou esul s show ha a hle es’ compe ence
me ape cep ions (how coaches iew hem) supply
aluable in o ma ion ega ding a hle es’
compe ence sel -pe cep ion o ma ion.
Ou second hypo hesis was ha ask and ego
me ape cep ions would posi i ely p edic
a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions. P e ious
esea ch has showed ha g ea e emphasis placed
by coaches on a mas e y clima e is ela ed o
highe a hle es’ abili y pe cep ions (Weiss e al.,
2009). Howe e , ou esul s indica ed ha no
only ask, bu also pe cep ions o a coaching ego
clima e posi i ely in luenced, al hough
mode a ely, a hle es’ compe ence
me ape cep ions. These esul s can be explained
by he asymme ical me ape cep ion o ma ion
heo y (Kaplan e al., 2009). Pa icipan s decided i
hey we e compe en o incompe en based on
bo h, ask and ego me ape cep ions. Ego
me ape cep ions a e no ma i e and hey seemed
o in luence how indi iduals belie ed signi ican
o he s (e.g. hei coaches) alued hei
compe ence. Ce ainly, a hle es end o in eg a e
all ypes o commen s and beha iou s o hei
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196 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence
Jou nal o Human Kine ics - olume 45/2015 h p://www.johk.pl
coaches, no ma e i hey a e ask o ien ed (sel -
e e enced) o ego o ien ed (no ma i e). A hle es
use bo h ypes o inpu s o build hei compe ence
me ape cep ions (how hey hink hei coaches
iew hem) o adjus and build hei compe ence
sel -pe cep ions.
Ou esul s also showed ha only ask sel -
pe cep ions we e linked o a hle es’ compe ence
sel -pe cep ions. This inding indica es ha
pa icipan s we e ask-o ien ed indi iduals. They
we e a hle es wi h he desi e o imp o e hei
skills ocusing on he de elopmen o compe ence,
and compa ing hei pe o mance wi h hei own
p e ious pe o mance (Ryan and Deci, 2000). The
es ed model showed ha his o ien a ion
posi i ely in luenced he a hle es’ compe ence
sel -pe cep ions, along wi h hei compe ence
me ape cep ions, and i con i med he mode a e
link be ween pe cei ed abili y and ego o ien a ion
(Duda and Nicholls, 1992).
Conside ing hese las wo indings, we
would like o highligh ha in his g oup o
a hle es, ego me ape cep ions signi ican ly
in luenced hei compe ence me ape cep ions
(al hough mode a ely), while ego sel -pe cep ions
did no in luence hei compe ence sel -
pe cep ions.
Ou esul s suppo he idea ha ou come-
dependen con ex s such as spo , whe e powe
asymme y exis s, p omo e an a ypical
me ape cep ion o ma ion o compe ence, since i
de i es, mainly, no om de aul sel -pe cep ions,
bu om in luen ial pa ne s like coaches. Tha is:
me ape cep ions d i e sel -pe cep ions. Bo h ask
and ego me ape cep ions in luenced compe ence
me ape cep ions (how coaches iew hem), while
only ask sel -pe cep ions we e linked o
compe ence sel -pe cep ions. Coaches should be
awa e o hei in luence o e hei a hle es.
Despi e he posi i e esul s ob ained, his
s udy also holds some limi a ions. The c oss-
sec ional na u e o he s udy does no allow us o
discuss possible causal links be ween he
obse ed a iables. The homogenei y o he
sample is ano he limi a ion. Pa icipan s we e
young s uden -a hle es aining and compe ing in
he same a ea. The e o e, u u e s udies should
es ou indings wi h di e en age g oups. Olde
and/o younge a hle es could d aw a di e en
pic u e o sel -pe cep ion o ma ion. The skill
le el o he a hle es could be ano he issue o
conside : p o essionals o high-le el a hle es
could gene a e di e en esul s. The ype o spo
should also be aken in o accoun . Pa icipan s in
ou s udy we e eam spo a hle es, and ou
indings should be es ed in indi idual spo
a hle es. Finally, o he a iables such as pe cei ed
mo i a ional clima e gene a ed by he coach
should be examined o ob ain a global model o
a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions.
This is he i s s udy o assess he a ypical
me ape cep ion o ma ion in spo , whe e he
me ape cep ion d i es sel -pe ec ion. P e ious
esea ch had es ed his heo y in educa ional
con ex s, bu ou s udy b oadens and deepens i s
scope. The key message o his s udy is ha spo
con ex s demand g ea e a en ion owa d
signi ican o he s’ p esumed in e p e a ions and
eac ions. How coaches alue hei a hle es’
compe ence is mo e in luen ial on wha he
a hle es hink o hemsel es han hei own sel -
pe cep ions. They do no seem o ely on de aul
sel -pe cep ions, bu engage in bo om-up
s a egies o e alua e hei coaches’ beha iou s.
The e o e, in ou come-dependen con ex s such as
spo whe e powe asymme y is e y s ong,
a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions a e s ongly
in luenced by hei compe ence me ape cep ions,
in pa icula hose coming om hei coaches.
A hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions d i e hei
compe ence sel -pe cep ions. A second
ema kable inding was ha a hle es’ ego and ask
me ape cep ions in luenced hei compe ence
me ape cep ions (how coaches a e hei
compe ence). These a hle es seemed o build hei
compe ence me ape cep ions using all
in o ma ion a ailable om hei coaches, no
ma e i i was ask o ego-o ien ed. The idea is
ha any ype o en i onmen c ea ed by he
coaches ( ask o ego-in ol ing) will impac he
a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions and
acco dingly, hei compe ence sel -pe cep ions. A
inal signi ican inding was ha only ask sel -
pe cep ions we e linked o compe ence sel -
pe cep ions. When hese a hle es cons uc hei
compe ence sel -pe cep ions, hey we e
signi ican ly in luenced only by hei ask
o ien a ions.
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