Connecting Athletes' Self-Perceptions and Metaperceptions of Competence: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Jou nal o Human Kine ics olume 45/2015, 189-198 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2015-0047 189 Sec ion IV – Beha iou al Sciences in Spo 1 - Uni e si y o O iedo; Facul y o Teache T aining and Educa ion; Depa men o Educa ional Sciences, Spain. . Au ho s submi ed hei con ibu ion o he a icle o he edi o ial boa d. Accep ed o p in ing in he Jou nal o Human Kine ics ol. 45/2015 in Ma ch 2015. Connec ing A hle es’ Sel -Pe cep ions and Me ape cep ions o Compe ence: a S uc u al Equa ion Modeling App oach by Jose A. Cecchini1, Ja ie Fe nández-Rio1, An onio Méndez-Giménez1 This s udy explo ed he ela ionships be ween a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions. Two hund ed and i y one s uden -a hle es (14.26 ± 1.89 yea s), membe s o wen y di e en eams (baske ball, socce ) comple ed a ques ionnai e which included he Pe cep ion o Success Ques ionnai e, he Compe ence subscale o he In insic Mo i a ion In en o y, and modi ied e sions o bo h ques ionnai es o assess a hle es’ me ape cep ions. S uc u al equa ion modelling analysis e ealed ha a hle es’ ask and ego me ape cep ions posi i ely p edic ed ask and ego sel -pe cep ions, espec i ely. Compe ence me ape cep ions we e s ong p edic o s o compe ence sel - pe cep ions, con i ming he a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion in ou come-dependen con ex s such as spo . Task and ego me ape cep ions posi i ely p edic ed a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions. How coaches alue hei a hle es’ compe ence is mo e in luen ial on wha he a hle es hink o hemsel es han hei own sel -pe cep ions. A hle es’ ego and ask me ape cep ions in luenced hei compe ence me ape cep ions (how coaches a e hei compe ence). The e o e, a hle es build hei compe ence me ape cep ions using all in o ma ion a ailable om hei coaches. Finally, only ask- sel pe ec ions posi i ely p edic ed a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions. Key wo ds: pe cei ed compe encies, goal o ien a ions, me ape cep ions. In oduc ion The social cogni i e heo y (Bandu a, 1986) a gues ha indi iduals bo h in luence and a e in luenced by di e en pe sonal, en i onmen al, and beha iou al ac o s. Resea che s ha e s essed he need o dis inguish be ween di ec pe cep ions o i s -o de expec a ions, and me ape cep ions o second-o de expec a ions (T oye and Youn s, 1997). Di ec pe cep ions ela e o he belie s ha indi iduals hold o hemsel es o o he s, while me ape cep ions a e es ima ions o med by people ega ding he hough s o o he s (Kenny and Aci elli, 2001). In o he wo ds, me ape cep ions a e pe cep ions o how o he people iew us (Kaplan e al., 2009) and hei ole has long been he subjec o esea ch wi hin social psychology (Kenny and DePaulo, 1993). In spo con ex s, Adie and Jowe (2010, p. 2754) highligh ed he impo ance o me ape cep ions in shaping he quali y o coach- a hle e in e ac ions: “ he coach’s and he a hle e’s in e ela ed cogni ions, emo ions, and beha iou s a e cap u ed h ough he in e pe sonal cons uc s o commi men , closeness, and complemen a i y”. Howe e , a hle es’ me ape cep ions ha e no been widely esea ched. Spo can be conside ed an ac i i y whe e powe asymme y exis s since “ou comes a e dependen upon someone in a mo e powe ul posi ion” (Kaplan e al., 2009). Acco ding o his idea, a hle es could be conside ed ou come- dependen indi iduals. Coaches and a hle es do no in e ac a he same le el, since he i s ones ha e a s ong in luence o e he second’s spo ca ee . Playing oppo uni ies, pe o mance- ela ed eedback o ewa ds/punishmen s a e impo an elemen s in an a hle e’s global de elopmen in spo , and hey s ongly depend on his/he coach’s ac ions. In his ype o con ex , B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM 190 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence Jou nal o Human Kine ics - olume 45/2015 h p://www.johk.pl he e seems o be a hie a chical na u e o me ape cep ion o ma ion since indi iduals a e mo e conce ned abou he e alua ions o hose mo e powe ul, knowledgeable o expe (Kaplan e al., 2009). T adi ional iews on me ape cep ion o ma ion conside ha indi iduals ely on hei own de aul sel -pe cep ions. They look inwa d, no ou wa d, and in e ha hei in e ac ion pa ne s iew hem as hey iew hemsel es (Kenny and DePaulo, 1993). Howe e , ou come- dependen con ex s, such as spo , a e mo e likely o p omo e g ea e mo i a ion o know how o he s iew us (Kaplan e al., 2009), bu subo dina es a e mo e esponsi e o leade s’ iews han he opposi e (Snodg ass, 1992). In hese ypes o se ings, Kaplan e al. (2009) belie e ha he e is an a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion since i de i es no om de aul sel -pe cep ions, bu om in luen ial o he s’ pe cep ions. They conside ha me ape cep ions in luence sel - pe cep ion when indi iduals a e dependen on hei powe ul in e ac ion pa ne s (Kenny and DePaulo, 1993). In o de o educe unce ain y and inc ease p edic abili y, indi iduals y o e alua e o he s’ hough s and beha iou s o adjus o hei expec a ions (Hall e al., 2006). They end o adop a “bo om-up p ocessing s a egy” (Kaplan e al., 2009), o ob ain mo e in o ma ion om hei mo e impo an coun e pa s o be e unde s and hei beha iou s. Howe e , hese ideas ha e no been esea ched in ou come- dependen se ings such as spo . Mo i a ion has been widely esea ched as one o he key elemen s ha can in luence ou comes in spo . The achie emen goal heo y (AGT; Nicholls, 1984) has been undamen al o be able o unde s and he meaning ha a hle es a ach o achie emen (success o ailu e). Basically, achie emen goals a e di ided in wo majo g oups: ask and ego (Nicholls, 1984). Task- o ien ed indi iduals desi e o imp o e hei skills and ocus on he de elopmen o compe ence compa ing hei pe o mance wi h hei own p e ious pe o mances ( hei pe cep ion o compe ence is sel - e e enced). Ego-o ien ed indi iduals desi e o be be e han o he s and ocus on he demons a ion o supe io compe ence compa ing hei pe o mance wi h o he indi iduals’ pe o mance ( hei pe cep ion o compe ence is no ma i e). Acco ding o Duda and Nicholls (1992, p. 291) “one migh expec a mode a e associa ion be ween pe cei ed abili y and ego o ien a ion” in spo se ings. Ano he majo amewo k used o s udy mo i a ion in achie emen con ex s such as spo is Ha e ’s compe ence mo i a ion heo y (1981). I p oposes ha youngs e s become mo i a ed o engage in spo o demons a e compe ence. The e o e, indi iduals’ pe cep ions o compe ence seem o be undamen al o enjoy in ol emen in spo ac i i ies, and hose wi h posi i e pe cep ions end o show highe mo i a ion le els (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Ha e (1978) included coaches as hose signi ican ones (besides pa en s, iends o eamma es) who a e in luen ial on a hle es’ pe cep ions o compe ence. Ho n (1985) ound ha coaching beha iou s we e s onge media o s han skill imp o emen on a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions. Black and Weiss (1992) ound simila esul s in a g oup o young swimme s. Coaches’ p aise, in o ma ion and encou agemen in luenced hei a hle es’ pe cei ed compe ence. Besides coaches, a hle es’ own pe cep ions o compe ence a e in luenced by hei abili y le el (Ha e , 1981). In a g oup o emale a hle es Ho n (1985) ound ha abili y signi ican ly in luenced pe cei ed compe ence. Simila ly, Allen and Howe (1998) ound ha highe abili y, as well as p aise and in o ma ion om coaches, we e linked o g ea e sa is ac ion in a g oup o emale adolescen a hle es. Resea ch ells us ha a hle es’ pe cep ions o compe ence will s ongly a ec hei engagemen in spo , hei goals and beha iou s (i.e., ime spend in an ac i i y), e o exe ed, and pe sis ence (Duda and Hall, 2001). The e o e, unde s anding how indi iduals build hei sel -compe ence pe cep ions seems undamen al o achie e posi i e esul s in ou come-based se ings such as spo . On he o he hand, coaches could be conside ed esponsible o he mo i a ional clima e de eloped in spo con ex s (o he impo an ac o s in ol ed a e pee s, pa en s o spec a o s). Resea ch has dis inguished wo main achie emen en i onmen s: mas e y o ask- in ol ing and pe o mance o ego-in ol ing (Ames, 1984). In mas e y clima es, success and ailu e a e de ined in e ms o skill mas e y and indi idual imp o emen . They a e ask-in ol ing se ings ha emphasize he p ocess o skill de elopmen , e o , and pe sonal imp o emen . They p omo e mas e y-o ien ed indi iduals ha B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM by Jose A. Cecchini e al. 191 © Edi o ial Commi ee o Jou nal o Human Kine ics y ha d e en when acing di icul ies, show in insic in e es in he di e en asks, and pe sis o e ime (Robe s, T easu e, and Balagué, 1998). In pe o mance clima es, success and ailu e a e de ined in no ma i e e ms wi h an emphasis on ou pe o ming eamma es and opponen s. They a e ego-in ol ing en i onmen s ha ocus on he ou comes and doing be e han o he s. They p omo e pe o mance-o ien ed indi iduals ha a e wo ied abou being judged as be e han hei pa ne s. Coaches’ g ea e emphasis on mas e y clima es has been ela ed o highe a hle es’ abili y pe cep ions (Weiss e al., 2009). P e ious esea ch has explo ed he a ypical me ape cep i e o ma ion in ou come-dependen educa ional con ex s (Kaplan e al., 2009). Howe e , no s udies ha e add essed his issue in spo se ings, whe e coaches a e in a powe ul posi ion. Mo eo e , he e has been a call o s udy he coach-a hle e ela ionship o unde s and mo i a ion in spo (Adie and Jowe , 2010). Based on he a o emen ioned, he p ima y goal o his s udy was o explo e, h ough a pa h analysis, he ela ionships be ween a hle es’ compe ence sel - pe cep ion and me ape cep ion. The i s hypo hesis was ha ask me ape cep ions will posi i ely in luence ask sel -pe cep ions (Cz1x1 +), while ego me ape cep ions will posi i ely in luence ego sel -pe cep ions (Cz2x2 +). The second hypo hesis was ha a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions will be linked o ask (Cy1x1 +) and ego me ape cep ions (Cy1x2 +). Finally, he hi d hypo hesis was ha a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions will be dependen upon ask sel - pe cep ions (Cy2z1 +) bu , mo e impo an , upon compe ence me ape cep ions (Cy2y1 +). We belie ed ha how o he s iew us is mo e in luen ial on how we see ou sel es han ou sel - pe cep ions (Figu e 1). Ma e ial and Me hods Pa icipan s Two hund ed and i y one s uden -a hle es (116 women, 135 men, age = 14.26 ± 1.89, age ange: 11-17 yea s) ag eed o pa icipa e in he p esen s udy. They we e membe s o a o al o 20 di e en eams (10 baske ball, 10 socce ) loca ed in he no he n pa o Spain. Measu es Sel -pe cep ion o success. The Pe cep ion o Success Ques ionnai e (POSQ; Robe s e al., 1998) was used o measu e each pa icipan ’s ask o ego o ien a ion. I is a 12-i em assessmen ins umen g ouped in wo subscales (six i ems each). Each i em is headed by he s em: “When playing my spo , I eel mos success ul when...”. I ems in he ask subscale include: ”I pe o m o he bes o my abili y”, while i ems on he ego subscale include: “I ou pe o m my opponen s”. Ce elló e al. (1999) assessed he alidi y o his ins umen o Spanish con ex s. The ask sel -pe cep ion (α = .75) and ego sel -pe cep ion (α = .85) scales we e in e nally consis en in his s udy. Me ape cep ion o success. In o de o assess a hle es’ success me ape cep ions, he Pe cep ion o Success Ques ionnai e (POSQ; Robe s e al., 1998) was used again. The s em o each i em was changed o: “When playing my spo , my coach eels ha I am success ul when...”. This ins umen had been alida ed o Spanish con ex s by Cecchini e al. (2014). The in e nal eliabili y o his ins umen was ound o be accep able in his s udy (α = .84 o ask me a-pe cep ion, and α = .87 o ego me a- pe cep ion scales, espec i ely). Compe ence sel -pe cep ion. The 5-i em Compe ence subscale o he In insic Mo i a ion In en o y (IMI; McAuley e al., 1989) was used o assess a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions. The gene ic label “ac i i y” was ewo ded o e lec he na u e o he cu en ac i i y: baske ball and socce . Pa icipan s we e asked o a e hei ag eemen /disag eemen wi h se e al s a emen s (e.g. “I am p e y skilled a baske ball”). Balague e al. (2008) p o ed he alidi y o his ins umen o Spanish con ex s. The C onbach’s alpha coe icien was accep able in his s udy (α = .85). Compe ence me ape cep ion. In o de o assess a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions, he compe ence subscale o he In insic Mo i a ion In en o y (IMI; McAuley e al., 1989) was used again. The s em “My coach belie es ha …” was added o he subscale. This ins umen had been alida ed o Spanish con ex s by Cecchini e al. (2014). I s in e nal eliabili y in his s udy was ound adequa e (α = .83). P ocedu es The implemen a ion o he esea ch p ojec in ol ed h ee s eps: i s , pe mission om B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM 192 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence Jou nal o Human Kine ics - olume 45/2015 h p://www.johk.pl he E hics Commi ee o he esea che s’ Uni e si y and he s uden -a hle es’ club was ob ained. Second, all he pa icipan s’ pa en s signed an in o med consen o m (all o hem we e unde 18 yea s o age). Thi d, a speci ically designed ques ionnai e, which included all he subscales desc ibed ea lie , was adminis e ed by one o he esea che s p io o egula ly scheduled aining sessions. Pa icipan s we e asked o espond o all ques ions on a 5-poin Like scale anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5 (s ongly ag ee). P io o ques ionnai e adminis a ion, a hle es we e old ha hei esponses would be kep con iden ial. They we e also in o med ha hei coaches would no ha e access o hei answe s. Resea che s encou aged s uden s o answe u h ully, and in o med hem ha hey could wi hd aw om he p ocess a any ime. S a is ical Analysis Analyses we e conduc ed using he SPSS 18.0 and he EQS 6.2 p og ams. Be o e p oceeding wi h hypo hesis es ing, he s a is ical assump ions we e es ed (i.e. no mali y, linea i y, and mul icollinea i y). In addi ion, desc ip i e s a is ics and bi a ia e co ela ions we e conduc ed o explo e he ends and ela ionships among a iables. The hypo hesized model was es ed h ough a Pa h analysis (EQS 6.2). This is he mos widely used echnique o es he ela ionship among a iables. Gi en ha p eanalyses e ealed subs an ial mul i a ia e ku osis (4.84), analysis we e based on he Sa o a-Ben le scaled chi- squa e s a is ic (S-B χ2; Sa o a and Ben le , 1994), since i se es as a co ec ion o χ2 when dis ibu ional assump ions a e iola ed. P e ious esea ch had shown ha ku osis se e ely a ec s es s o a iance and co a iance (DeCa lo, 1997). In es ing he ini ial model, e alua ion o goodness-o - i o he sample da a was de e mined on he basis o mul iple c i e ia (By ne, 2008): he Compa a i e Fi Index (*CFI), he Roo Mean-Squa e E o o App oxima ion (*RMSEA), and he S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e Residual (SRMR). The *CFI ep esen s he obus e sion o he CFI in ha i s compu a ion is based on he S-Bχ2 s a is ic. I anges in alue om 0 o 1.00. The *RMSEA is a obus e sion o he RMSEA, and i akes in o accoun he e o o app oxima ion in he popula ion. Values less han .05 indica e good i , and alues as high as .08 ep esen easonable e o s o app oxima ion in he popula ion. To comple e he analysis, he 90% con idence in e al p o ided o *RMSEA was conside ed. Las ly, he SRMR is he a e age s anda dized esidual alue de i ed om i ing he hypo hesized a iance co a iance ma ix o ha o he sample da a. I s alue anges om 0 o 1.00, wi h a alue less han .08 being indica i e o a well- i ing model. To examine which pa ame e s o he hypo hesized model we e in a ian ac oss he wo samples (baske ball and socce ), a mul is ep analysis o in a iance was employed. Acco ding o By ne (1998), he i s s ep in ol es es ablishing an app op ia e baseline model, which is es ed ac oss he samples. This is a non-in a ian s ep, and i p o ides a c i ical base o subsequen model compa isons. Nex , s uc u al weigh s a e cons ained o be in a ian ac oss g oups. The subsequen s ep in ol es cons aining he co a iance ma ix o equi alence ac oss g oups, wi h he s uc u al weigh s ill cons ained. Finally, he uniqueness (e o ) is se o equi alence ac oss g oups, wi h he s uc u al weigh and co a iances s ill cons ained. Resul s Desc ip i e S a is ics and Bi a ia e Co ela ions Table 1 shows C onbach’s alpha coe icien s o he di e en subscales, means, and s anda d de ia ions, as well as bi a ia e co ela ions among all a iables. C onbach’s alphas we e abo e .70 in all subscales, which indica ed ha he in e nal consis ency o all o hem was accep able in his s udy (Nunnally and Be ns ein, 1994). The highes mean sco es we e ob ained in ask me ape cep ions and he lowes in ego sel -pe cep ions. Co ela ion analysis showed ha all a iables we e posi i ely co ela ed. As expec ed, he highes co ela ion sco es we e measu ed be ween coaches and a hle es’ ask sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions and a hle es’ ego sel - pe cep ions and me ape cep ions. PATH Analysis The ini ial es ing o he hypo hesized model yielded a good i o he da a: S-Bχ2 (7)= 9.44. p = .222; χ²; *CFI= 1.00; SRMR= .03; *RMSEA= .037; 90% CI= .037 (.000-.092). Figu e 2 shows he es ed model wi h he p edic ed ela ionships B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM by Jose A. Cecchini e al. 193 © Edi o ial Commi ee o Jou nal o Human Kine ics among a iables. Task and ego me ape cep ions posi i ely in luenced compe ence me ape cep ions. Task and ego me ape cep ions posi i ely in luenced ask and ego sel - pe cep ions, espec i ely. Finally, he di ec e ec o compe ence me ape cep ions was a s onge p edic o o compe ence sel -pe cep ions when compa ed o ask sel -pe cep ions. Mul is ep Analysis o In a iance Resul s p esen ed in Table 2 show ha he es ed models had accep able i indexes. Besides Δχ2, Δ*CFI was also used. Acco ding o Cheung and Rens old (2002), when Δ*CFI is equal o o lowe han -.01, he in a iance null hypo hesis canno be ejec ed. The e o e, hese esul s ein o ce he hypo hesized model. Figu e 1 Hypo hesized model con aining he pa ame e s o he Pa h analysis. x1 = Task Me ape cep ion; x2 = Ego Me ape cep ion; z1 = Task Sel -pe cep ion; z2 = Ego Sel -pe cep ion; y1 = Compe ence Me ape cep ion; y2 = Compe ence Sel -pe cep ion. Figu e 2 Tes ed model depic ing he p edic ed ela ionships among a iables. *p< .05; ***p< .001 B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM 194 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence Jou nal o Human Kine ics - olume 45/2015 h p://www.johk.pl Table 1 C onbach’s alphas, means, s anda d de ia ions, and bi a ia e co ela ions in all a iables α M SD 1 2 3 4 5 1. Task Me ape cep ions .84 4.19 .72 2. Ego Me ape cep ions .87 2.91 .94 .16* 3. Task Sel -pe cep ions .75 4.09 .62 .60** .14* 4. Ego Sel -pe cep ions .85 2.82 .95 .19** .64** .25** 5. Compe ence Me ape cep ions .83 3.56 .77 .41** .38** .28** .32** 6. Compe ence Sel -pe cep ions .85 3.71 .79 .44** .22** .41** .24** .72** *p < .01; ** p <.05 Table 2 M1 = Model 1: wi hou es ic ions; M2 = Model 2: s uc u al weigh in a iance; M3 = Model 3: s uc u al co a iance in a ian ; M4 = Model 4: s uc u al esidual in a iance Model S- Bχ2 d Δχ2 Δd *CFI SRMR *RMSEA (90% CI) M1 23.29 14 - - .98 .04 .052 (.000 – .087) M2 28.42 20 5.13 6 .98 .04 .041 (.000 – .073) M3 32.72 23 4.3 3 .98 .06 .041 (.000 – .071) M4 45.16 28 12.44 5 .97 .07 .050 (.019 – .075) S-Bχ2: Sa o a-Ben le Scaled Chi-Squa e; d : Deg ees o F eedom; Δχ2: S anda dized Chi-Aqua e; Δd : S anda dized Deg ees o F eedom; *CFI: Compa a i e Fi Index; SRMR: S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e Residual; *RMSEA: Roo Mean-Squa e E o o App oxima ion; CI: Con idence In e al. Discussion The pu pose o his s udy was o explo e a mo i a ional sequence hypo hesizing ela ionships be ween a hle es’ compe ence sel - pe cep ions and me ape cep ions (coaches’ iews on hei compe ence) es ing he a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion in spo se ings. The esul s o he s udy p o ided s ong suppo o ou hypo heses and he a ypical me ape cep i e p ocessing. A hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions we e he s onges p edic o s o hei compe ence sel -pe cep ions. Task and ego me ape cep ions posi i ely p edic ed a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions, while ask me a and sel - pe cep ions and ego me a and sel -pe cep ions we e also linked, espec i ely. Finally, we also ound ha bo h ask and ego me ape cep ions in luenced compe ence me ape cep ions (how coaches iew hem), while only ask sel - pe cep ions we e linked o compe ence sel - pe cep ions. Ou i s hypo hesis was ha ask me ape cep ions would posi i ely in luence ask sel -pe cep ions, while ego me ape cep ions would posi i ely in luence ego sel -pe cep ions. Ou esul s suppo his idea. This inding is in line wi h he a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion heo y (Kaplan e al., 2009) which conside s ha me ape cep ions d i e sel -pe cep ions in ou come-dependen con ex s, and spo is one o B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM by Jose A. Cecchini e al. 195 © Edi o ial Commi ee o Jou nal o Human Kine ics hem. Indi iduals y o decode he signi icance o he beha iou s displayed by he mo e powe ul pe sons in he con ex , which is usually he coach in spo se ings, o o m hei sel -pe cep ions. P e ious esea ch has linked con ex ual and si ua ional a iables wi hin he AGT (Cecchini e al., 2005), which ein o ces ou esul s. Ce ainly, a hle es’ iews on how hei coaches see hem can be e y in luen ial on how hey see hemsel es. Coaches’ commen s, beha iou s, decisions o eedback a e sc u inized by hei a hle es ying o unde s and wha hei hough s a e on hem, because coaches play an impo an ole in he a hle e’s spo ca ee . Ou hi d hypo hesis was di ec ly linked o he i s one. We hypo hesized ha a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions would be dependen upon hei ask sel -pe cep ions, bu mo e impo an , upon hei compe ence me ape cep ions. Resul s showed ha compe ence me ape cep ions we e a s onge p edic o han ask sel -pe cep ions on he a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions. Pa icipan s belie ed ha how o he s iew hem (coaches) was mo e in luen ial on how hey saw hemsel es han hei own sel - pe cep ions. Once again, his inding suppo s he a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion heo y in spo , an ou come-dependen se ing whe e indi iduals do no ely on de aul sel - pe cep ions, bu engage in a bo om-up s a egy o e alua e hei coaches’ beha iou s (Kaplan e al., 2009). In hese con ex s, in o de o educe unce ain y and inc ease p edic abili y, a hle es y o e alua e hei coaches’ hough s and beha iou s o adjus o hei expec a ions (Hall e al., 2006). The e o e, hei pe cei ed compe ence sel -pe cep ion elies hea ily on wha hey hink coaches hink o hem (me ape cep ion) mo e han wha hey hink o hemsel es. Si ua ions such as hose o he spo ing ield, whe e an indi idual’s ou comes depend on wha signi ican o he s (e.g., coaches) hink o him/he , seem o p omo e conce n abou how hose o he s see him/he (Hinde, 1995). Acco ding o Felson (1993), a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions o compe ence a e hea ily in luenced by how o he s iew and e alua e hem, and coaches seem o play an impo an ole, since hey a e likely o communica e hei eelings abou he a hle es’ s eng hs and weaknesses, and beha e acco dingly. The ole o signi ican o he s in spo (e.g., eamma es, coaches o pa en s) has been highligh ed as e y in luen ial in p e ious esea ch (Amo ose, 2003). I has been sugges ed ha indi iduals end o see hemsel es as hey belie e o he s see hem, and ou esul s suppo his idea. To ga he comple e unde s anding o ela ional p ocesses, esea che s should accoun o “one's own expec a ions ega ding sel and o he and one's belie s abou he expec a ions o he holds o sel and o he ” (T oye and Youn s, 1997, p. 696), and coaches a e signi ican o he s in he wo ld o spo . Mo eo e , hey a e powe ul indi iduals in hei a hle es’ spo ing li es, and hei beha iou s a e ca e ully conside ed by a hle es. This equa ion leads o powe asymme y. When powe asymme y exis s, indi iduals closely dissec he impo an pe son’s mo i es and beha iou s (S e ens and Fiske, 2000). Pe cei ed compe ence can play a main ole in p edic ing mo i a ion and beha iou in spo and exe cise (Robe s e al., 2007), and ou esul s show ha coaches’ in luence on s uden s’ sel -pe cep ions o compe ence is signi ican . The e o e, i seems c ucial o examine he coach– a hle e ela ionship, hei in e ela ed cogni ions, emo ions o beha iou s (Adie and Jowe , 2010), and ou esul s show ha a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions (how coaches iew hem) supply aluable in o ma ion ega ding a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ion o ma ion. Ou second hypo hesis was ha ask and ego me ape cep ions would posi i ely p edic a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions. P e ious esea ch has showed ha g ea e emphasis placed by coaches on a mas e y clima e is ela ed o highe a hle es’ abili y pe cep ions (Weiss e al., 2009). Howe e , ou esul s indica ed ha no only ask, bu also pe cep ions o a coaching ego clima e posi i ely in luenced, al hough mode a ely, a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions. These esul s can be explained by he asymme ical me ape cep ion o ma ion heo y (Kaplan e al., 2009). Pa icipan s decided i hey we e compe en o incompe en based on bo h, ask and ego me ape cep ions. Ego me ape cep ions a e no ma i e and hey seemed o in luence how indi iduals belie ed signi ican o he s (e.g. hei coaches) alued hei compe ence. Ce ainly, a hle es end o in eg a e all ypes o commen s and beha iou s o hei B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM 196 Connec ing a hle es’ sel -pe cep ions and me ape cep ions o compe ence Jou nal o Human Kine ics - olume 45/2015 h p://www.johk.pl coaches, no ma e i hey a e ask o ien ed (sel - e e enced) o ego o ien ed (no ma i e). A hle es use bo h ypes o inpu s o build hei compe ence me ape cep ions (how hey hink hei coaches iew hem) o adjus and build hei compe ence sel -pe cep ions. Ou esul s also showed ha only ask sel - pe cep ions we e linked o a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions. This inding indica es ha pa icipan s we e ask-o ien ed indi iduals. They we e a hle es wi h he desi e o imp o e hei skills ocusing on he de elopmen o compe ence, and compa ing hei pe o mance wi h hei own p e ious pe o mance (Ryan and Deci, 2000). The es ed model showed ha his o ien a ion posi i ely in luenced he a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions, along wi h hei compe ence me ape cep ions, and i con i med he mode a e link be ween pe cei ed abili y and ego o ien a ion (Duda and Nicholls, 1992). Conside ing hese las wo indings, we would like o highligh ha in his g oup o a hle es, ego me ape cep ions signi ican ly in luenced hei compe ence me ape cep ions (al hough mode a ely), while ego sel -pe cep ions did no in luence hei compe ence sel - pe cep ions. Ou esul s suppo he idea ha ou come- dependen con ex s such as spo , whe e powe asymme y exis s, p omo e an a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion o compe ence, since i de i es, mainly, no om de aul sel -pe cep ions, bu om in luen ial pa ne s like coaches. Tha is: me ape cep ions d i e sel -pe cep ions. Bo h ask and ego me ape cep ions in luenced compe ence me ape cep ions (how coaches iew hem), while only ask sel -pe cep ions we e linked o compe ence sel -pe cep ions. Coaches should be awa e o hei in luence o e hei a hle es. Despi e he posi i e esul s ob ained, his s udy also holds some limi a ions. The c oss- sec ional na u e o he s udy does no allow us o discuss possible causal links be ween he obse ed a iables. The homogenei y o he sample is ano he limi a ion. Pa icipan s we e young s uden -a hle es aining and compe ing in he same a ea. The e o e, u u e s udies should es ou indings wi h di e en age g oups. Olde and/o younge a hle es could d aw a di e en pic u e o sel -pe cep ion o ma ion. The skill le el o he a hle es could be ano he issue o conside : p o essionals o high-le el a hle es could gene a e di e en esul s. The ype o spo should also be aken in o accoun . Pa icipan s in ou s udy we e eam spo a hle es, and ou indings should be es ed in indi idual spo a hle es. Finally, o he a iables such as pe cei ed mo i a ional clima e gene a ed by he coach should be examined o ob ain a global model o a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions. This is he i s s udy o assess he a ypical me ape cep ion o ma ion in spo , whe e he me ape cep ion d i es sel -pe ec ion. P e ious esea ch had es ed his heo y in educa ional con ex s, bu ou s udy b oadens and deepens i s scope. The key message o his s udy is ha spo con ex s demand g ea e a en ion owa d signi ican o he s’ p esumed in e p e a ions and eac ions. How coaches alue hei a hle es’ compe ence is mo e in luen ial on wha he a hle es hink o hemsel es han hei own sel - pe cep ions. They do no seem o ely on de aul sel -pe cep ions, bu engage in bo om-up s a egies o e alua e hei coaches’ beha iou s. The e o e, in ou come-dependen con ex s such as spo whe e powe asymme y is e y s ong, a hle es’ compe ence sel -pe cep ions a e s ongly in luenced by hei compe ence me ape cep ions, in pa icula hose coming om hei coaches. A hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions d i e hei compe ence sel -pe cep ions. A second ema kable inding was ha a hle es’ ego and ask me ape cep ions in luenced hei compe ence me ape cep ions (how coaches a e hei compe ence). These a hle es seemed o build hei compe ence me ape cep ions using all in o ma ion a ailable om hei coaches, no ma e i i was ask o ego-o ien ed. The idea is ha any ype o en i onmen c ea ed by he coaches ( ask o ego-in ol ing) will impac he a hle es’ compe ence me ape cep ions and acco dingly, hei compe ence sel -pe cep ions. A inal signi ican inding was ha only ask sel - pe cep ions we e linked o compe ence sel - pe cep ions. When hese a hle es cons uc hei compe ence sel -pe cep ions, hey we e signi ican ly in luenced only by hei ask o ien a ions. B ough o you by | Hospi al Uni e si a io Cen al de As u ias (Huca) Au hen ica ed Download Da e | 2/29/16 10:15 AM by Jose A. Cecchini e al. 197 © Edi o ial Commi ee o Jou nal o Human Kine ics Re e ences Adie JW, Jowe S. 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