INVESTIGACION
=
EXPERIENCIAS
DIDACTICAS
VARIETIES
OF
SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH:
THEIR APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM
LUCAS,
A.M.
Cen e o Educa ional S udies. King's College. Uni e si y o London. London.
SUMMARY
To aid in he ask o demons a ing ha a a ie y o esea ch ques ions needs o be add essed, his pape gi es a ske ch o
he unc ions o modem science educa ion, hen uses ha ske ch o iden i y opics abou which we need esea ch da a, and
sugges s possible implica ions o p ac ice.
INTRODUCTION
I is easy o be seduced by ashionable a eas o esea ch wo k in he pas decade, especially in Eu ope, Aus alia
and o hink ha he esul s o ha wo k mus be he mos and New Zealand, has been in he a ea o 'al e na i e
impo an ideas o inco po a e in o he class ooms. The- amewo ks', in es iga ing he a ie y o ideas ha lea -
e is no doub ha he ashionable science educa ion ne s ha e abou physical and biologicalphenomena. We
ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS,
1990,8
(3),
205-214
205
INVESTIGACIÓN
Y
EXPERIENCIAS DIDÁCTICAS
now know a g ea deal abou he ange o ideas ha
lea ne s ha e abou ene gy, ligh , elec ici y, pho osyn-
hesis, inhe i ance, o ce and mo ion, and he pa icula e
na u e o ma e . (See o e iews and summa ies, D i-
e , Guesne
&
Tibe ghein 1985, Osbo ne
&
F eybe g
1985). Mo e and mo e esea ch on hese and o he opics
is being published, and he e a e some published sche-
mes o inco po a ing hese ideas in o class oom ac i i ies
(Child en's Lea ning in Science 1987). Mos eache s o
science who ead he jou nals add essed o he class oom
eache mus ha e seen a leas some discussion o hese
esul s and hei implica ions o he class oom. The
wo k has been so in luen ial ha he new science cu i-
culum p oposals in bo h Spain and England and Wales
con ain explici e e ences o pupil lea ning ha owe
much o he iews unde lying he 'al e na i e amewo -
ks' esea ch (See Na ional Cu iculum Council, 1989, p.
A7, and [Spanish MEC] 1989, p. 11 1).
In his pape
1
will y o coun e ac an o e -emphasis on
ha a ea o esea ch.
Do no misunde s and me: 1 do belie e ha esea ch on
'spon aneous easoning', 'al e na i e amewo ks' o
'child en's explana ions' is alid and impo an . This
ashionable a ea has gi en us a spa e o e y in e es ing
pape s ha ha e shown science educa ion esea che s
ha he assump ions o he anglophone cu iculum de e-
lopmen p ojec s o he 1960's we e oo simplis ic. I is
now clea ha in es ing a g ea deal o money, ime and
expe ise in he de elopmen o lea ning ac i i ies is no
su icien , unless hese lea ning ac i i ies ake in o ac-
coun he way ha pupils gi e meaning o he concep s
ha a e 'ob ious' o he eache and cu iculum de elo-
pe . 'Al e na i e pe cep ions' esea ch has also been o
alue o class oom eache s who, i hey ha e ead i
sensi i ely, can ne e again ake o g an ed he possibi-
li y ha al1 child en will sha e he same iews a e
exposu e o he eache 's e sion o phenomena. Fo
some eache s, his esea ch has legi ima ed hei p o es-
sional expe ience, con i ming ha he ideas ha hey
ha e seen some pupils exp ess a e common; ha i is no
jus hei own eaching ha p oduces hese 'abe a ions'.
To aid in my ask o demons a ing ha a a ie y o
esea ch ques ions needs o be add essed,
1
will ske ch
he unc ions o mode n science educa ion, hen use ha
ske ch o iden i y opics abou which
1
belie e we need
esea ch da a, and sugges possible implica ions o
p ac ice.
The impo an poin abou in ense e-examina ions o
he place o science educa ion is no jus ha changes
esul om hem, bu ha he ques ions a e being asked.
I is essen ial ha hey be asked, because as socie ies
change, as social assump ions change, as science i sel
changes, hen new answe s eme ge o he ques ions 'why
each science?', 'wha science should we each?', 'how
can we each ha science mos e ec i ely?' Unless we
ha e pe iodic e-examina ions o he place o science in
he school cu iculum, hen we may jus ly be accused o
pe pe ua ing he 'Sab e Too h Cu iculum', [inse e-
e ence] aluing he schooling ha was ele an a he
ime he cu iculum was c ea ed, bu aluing i me ely
because o adi ion.
One consequence o e-e alua ing he basic pu poses o
science educa ion is ha new needs may a ise, and ha
new combina ions o needs may c ea e new class oom
condi ions. 'Bes me hods' o he old pa e ns may no
longe be app op ia e o adequa e. Pe e Fensham (1988)
poin s ou ha he cu iculum de elopmen s o he 1960's
in he Uni ed S a es and B i ain we e in ended o induc
he ela i ely able pupils in o he wo ld o science o
poli ical, economic and subjec main enance easons.
He a gues ha p esen ends include mo e emphasis
being gi en o cul u al, social and indi idual pu poses o
a science educa ion, and he emphasis is mo e on lea -
ning om science. Robe s (1988) akes his analysis
u he and a gues ha e e y science cu iculum, unique
in ime and place, esul s om nego ia ion be ween
di e en cu iculum emphases held by di e en 's ake-
holde s'
:
pa en s, eache s, poli icians, o icials, employe s,
and pe haps pupils. Such nego ia ions will usually p o-
duce di e en cunicula a di e en imes. I Fensham
and Robe s a e co ec , hen we canno expec esea ch
di ec ed owa ds hose old pu poses o be su icien o
guide eache s mee ing he new aims, he new popula ions,
and he new cu iculum o he p esen and immedia e
u u e.
In his pape , 1 use mainly he new equi emen s o
science educa ion in England and Wales (Uni ed King-
dom, Depa men o Educa ion and Science 1989, Na-
ional Cumculum Council 1989) as a s a ing poin .
Simila analyses can be done o he science p oposals
o 'La Re o ma' in Spain, and he gene al conclusions
ha will eme ge will be simila in p incipal, al hough
hey may di e in de ail. Fo my pu poses he English
and Welsh equi emen s a e mo e sui able: hey a e now
in hei inal o m, a e being changed as a esul o a
h ee-s age consul a ion p ocess; he equi emen s a e
p esen ed in a mo e p esc ip i e way han in he Spanish
consul a i e e sion; and he in ended in e - ela ionships
be ween a ious aspec s a e much mo e p esc ip i e.
CONCERNS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
A a ime o majo educa ion eno a ion in many coun-
SCIENCE
CURRICULUM
DEMANDS
ies, including bo h Spain and England and Wales, he
pu pose and alue o science educa ion is being add es-
sed by he eaching p o ession, academic educa o s,
Basic scien i ic concep s
scien is s, and poli icians. Wha place does science ha e
in he communi y? Wha place does science ha e in he The e wiíl aiways be a need o each basic scien i ic
cu iculum o schools? concep s, e en i he balance be ween he aims o scien-
206
ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS,
1990,8
(3)
ce cou ses change. The c i e ia o selec ion o he
concep s may change, he dep h o which hey mus be
augh may a y, and he desi ed in e ac ion be ween he
a ious concep s may di e , bu science concep s will
always be included in science cou ses. Thus in hese
a eas he e will always be a need o esea ch ha
in o ms us how pupils cope wi h and make sense o he
concep s being augh . Bu he p esen balance wi hin
science cou ses equi es us o conside mo e han 'con en
'
aims ep esen ed by such s a emen s as 'Pupils should
know ha when sound wa es a el om one poin o
ano he hey ans e ene gy h ough he medium' (Uni ed
Kingdom, Depa men o Educa ion and Science 1989,
p. 30), o 'Aspec os ene gé icos de la co ien e eléc ica:
unción del gene ado y e ec o calo í ico de la co ien e
eléc ica' (MEC 1989, p. 153).
Beyond scien i ic concep s
The new science cu iculum in England and Wales is
de ined in e ms o 17 'A ainmen Ta ge s', wi h up o
10 le els in each. Examples o some a ainmen a ge s
and associa ed le els a e gi en in he appendix. I is
in ended ha le els 1-3 be app op ia e o pupils aged 5-
7; le els 2-5 o pupils aged 8-1 1; 3-7 o pupils 12-14;
4-10 o pupils 15-16. No e ha some assump ions abou
pupils' abili ies a e buil in o he legal speci ica ion: i is
assumed ha pupils will a y in hei abili y o achie e
speci ied le els, and also ha he ange o achie emen
is g ea e in olde pupils.
Table 1
Con en o Na ional Cu iculum Science, o ages 5-16 in England
and Wales.
A ainmen Ti le
Ta ge Numbe
AT 1
AT2*
AT3
AT4
AT5*
AT6
AT7*
AT8
AT9
ATlO
ATl 1
AT12*
AT13
AT14
AT15*
AT16*
AT17*
Explo a ion o science
The a ie y o li e
P ocesses o li e
Gene ics and e olu ion
Human in luences on he Ea h
Types and uses o ma e ials
Making new ma e ials
Explaining how ma e ials beha e
Ea h and a mosphe e
Fo ces
Elec ici y and magne ism
The scien i ic aspec s o
in o ma ion echnology including elec onics
Ene gy
Sound and music
Using ligh and elec omagne ic adia ion
The Ea h in space
The na u e o science
A ainmen Ta ge s ma ked
*
a e no included in he 'Model
B'
p og am ha may be o e ed a ages 15 and 16. I is expec ed ha his
sho e p og amme will be only o e ed o able pupils, who wish o
concen a e on languages, o example.
Table 1 shows ha he a ainmen a ge s include many
amilia opic a eas, bu also ha 'Explo a ion o Scien-
ce' and he 'Na u e o Science' mus be augh . I is now
a equi emen o help pupils de elop he in ellec ual and
p ac ica1 skills ha allow hem o explo e he wo ld o
science and o de elop a ulle unde s anding o scien i-
ic phenomena and he p ocedu es o scien i ic explo a-
ion and in es iga ion. The ac i i ies should encou age
he abili y o:
i Plan, hypo hesize and p edic
ii Design and ca y ou in es iga ions
iii In e p e esul s and indings
i D aw in e ences
Communica e explo a o y asks and expe imen s.
(A ainmen Ta ge 1: 'Explo a ion o science', DES
1989: 3).
[The s a emen o he equi alen Spanish posi ion is
sp ead h oughou he p oposal, bu simila ideas can be
ex ac ed om explici commen s made unde he hea-
ding 'P ocedimien os' in many o he con en blocks, as
well as he elabo a ion in sec ions 42- 49, pp. 179-183,
and om he s a emen unde 'Objec i os Gene ales' (p.
119):
Desa olla y aplica es a egias pe sonales en la
esolución de p oblemas y en la explo ación de si ua-
ciones y enómenos desconocidos u lizando las
es a egias y pau as de acción p opias de la in es i-
gación cien í ica de la ealidad (iden i ica el p oblema,
analiza sus elemen os pncipales, ecaba la in o mación
disponible, o mula hipó esis plausibles pa a solu-
ciona lo, ecoge da os ele an es pa a con as a las
hipó esis o muladas, analiza los da os de o ma
ap opiada, o mula conclusiones, explo a solucio-
nes al e na i as, e c.)]
A ainmen Ta ge 17 ('The na u e o Science') con ains
con en ha has no been common in s anda d English
science cou ses:
Pupils should de elop hei knowledge and
unde s anding o he ways in which scien i ic ideas
change h ough ime and how he na u e o hese
ideas and he uses o which hey a e pu a e a ec ed
by he social, mo al, spi i ual and cul u al con ex s in
which hey a e de eloped; in doing so, hey should
begin o ecognize ha while science is an impo an
way o hinking abou expe ience, i is no he only
way. (DES 1989, p. 36)
The wo English s a emen s show ha he ashionable
esea ch a ea o al e na i e amewo ks does no p o ide
e idence on al1 a eas ha will conce n class oom ea-
che s. A ainmen a ge s 1 and 17 do no in ol e phe-
nomena ha can be add essed by scien i ic p ocedu es.
The second also in ol es alue judgemen s, and a a
ma u e le e1 in he school will equi e pupils o hink
abou he di e ences be ween his o ical and scien i ic
ENSEÑANZA
DE
LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3)
e idence, and may also in ol e hem in mo al and class oom eaching: you canno mee he needs o al1 o
e hical deba e. he pupils al1 o he ime o al1 objec i es. Fo example,
Theobald (1977) showed ha o memo y o biological
p inciples, class-cen ed eaching is be e o s uden s
who a e bo h 'open-minded' and ha e a 'cogni i e p e e ence
Science educa ion as a ehicle 0 eaching gene al
o
e e
lea ning', while indi idual cen ed eaching is
skills
be e o 'dogma ic' s uden s and o hose wi h a
'cogni i e
p e e en e
o p inciples' (Theobald's sum-
Teache s in England and Wales ha e been oid ha
is
quo ed
in
Lucas
1986,
p.
193).
'lea ning in science con ibu es o pe sonal de elop-
men '
:
Th oughou hei science educa ion pupils should be
Table 11
encou aged o de elop hei powe s o easoning by
Class oom concems and esea ch a eas.
e lec ing on hei own unde s anding, by e lec ing
and hinking abou e idence in a disciplined way,
AimS
Examples Resea ch a eas
and by app ecia ing ha lea ning may in ol e changes
Cu iculum
Issues
in he way hey hink abou , explain and do hings. In
his way science helps pupils o become independen
science Concep s o ce al ema i e amewo ks
lea ne s. (Na ional Cu iculum Council 1989, p.
A5)
espi a ion cogni i e p ocessing
chemical bonds syn he ic heo ies
This is no an aim unique o science educa ion, bu i is
a s ong pa o he jus i ica ion o eaching science.
Simila ly, i is asse ed ha :
...
scien i ic me hods a e use ully applied o enqui y
in many con ex s, o exwple in design and echnology
.
Wo k in hese a eas will bene i di ec ly om he
inc eased ele ance and inspi a ion ha he applica ion
o scien i ic skills and s a egies will b ing. (Na ional
Cu iculum Council 1989, p. A5)
Ye his claim is con a y o he expe ience o many
eache s and esea che s ha skills and knowledge a e
o en no ans e ed om he con ex o lea ning o a
con ex o use.
INSTRUCTIONAL DEMANDS
The h ee a eas ou lined abo e a e conce ned wi h he
aims o science educa ion in he English and Welsh
Na ional Cu iculum o science. The aims a e, a leas
heo e ically, independen o he me hods eache s cho-
ose o use o each hem. Bu he e is a g ea a ie y o
eaching me hods a ailable o eache s, anging om he
didac ic p esen a ion o concep s, o he use o open
ended in es iga ions whe e he pupils and he eache s
may no ha e a clea end poin in mind, bu whe e he
p ocedu es used in eaching a solu ion a e he impo an
eaching goals.
The e has been in he pas a g ea deal o esea ch in o
class oom p ocesses, examining he in e ac ion be ween
a iables such as eache s yles, pupil pe sonali y and
cogni i e p e e ences, when di e en educa ional ou -
comes we e conside ed. Gene al esea ch on such 'Ap-
i ude-T ea men In e ac ions' in class ooms is e iewed
b ie ly by Tobias (1976). Resul s om science class o-
oms show ha he e is a se ious p oblem o eache s
who a emp o inco po a e he esul s o he s udies in o
e osion
Science P ocesses con olling a iables
obse ing
expe imen ing
measu emen
mic oscopy
Science Applica ions design
&
echnology
en i onmen al issues
p oblem sol ing
Science and Socie y e ec s on socie y
e ec s o socie y
his oncal con ex
philosophic con ex
Science con ibu ing o a i ude de elopmen
pe sonal de elopmen pe sonal hygiene
e lec on hinking
cogni i e skills
desc ip i e accoun s
expe imen al s udies
e alua i e s udies
analy ic s udies
desc ip i e accoun s
expe imen al s udies
e alua i e s udies
in e en ion s udies
e alua ion s udies
descnp i e accoun s
analy ic s udies
expenmen al s udies
in e en ion s udies
descnp i e accoun s
me acogni ion s udies
Ins uc ional Issues
Class oom p ocesses eache s yles ATI s udies
class oom clima e obse a ional s udies
open-ended wo k in e en ion s udies
New ools mic ocompu e s in e en ion s udies
in o ma ion echnology obse a ion s udies
e alua ion s udies
O he a eas o esea ch dealing wi h class oom p ocedu-
es and science educa ion ha e been summa ized by
F ase (1986), and he e is an inc easing need o e-
sea ch in o he e ec s o using new ins uc ional s a-
egies, such as manipula ing mic o-compu e model-
building sys ems (e.g., Wong 1987a, 1987b), da aanalysis
packages (e.g., McCo mick
&
Squi es 1988) in e na ionally
sha ed collec ion o da a on en i onmen al hemes (e.g.,
Na ional En i onmen al Da abase P ojec 1989), he
e ec o language s uc u es on ex book usage (e.g.,
Kulka ni 1988), he uses o g oup wo k, and in es iga-
i e labo a o y classes (Milla 1987).
Table
2
summa izes he a eas o conce n and includes an
accoun o he ype o esea ch ha is equi ed o unde s-
208 ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8
(3)
INVESTIGACION Y EXPERIENCIAS DIDACTICAS
and each o he a eas o conce n. The e a e, o cou se
many esea ch s udies ha con ain mo e han one s yle o
esea ch wi hin and be ween a eas o conce n. The able
does no mean ha he esea ch s udies mus be disc e e,
di ec ed o only one a ea o conce n, and based on single
me hodologies. Some o he bes s udies a e long e m
(al hough he e a e ew o hem, see A zi 1988), and
conce n hemsel es wi h a a ie y o issues. The epo
o he Assessmen o Pe o mance Uni on he s udies o
science a age 13 in England and Wales (Scho ield e al.
1989) looks a many o he a eas o conce n in he able,
and ela es, as a as possible in he su ey design, a
numbe o analyses. Fo example, he epo conside s
pupil's in e es s and pe cep ions ela ing o science,
hei use o g aphical and symbolic ep esen a ions,
hei obse a ion skills, hei applica ion o science
concep s o no el si ua ions, and he planning and pe -
o mance o in es iga ions. E en his ex ensi e and
expensi e s udy, howe e , does no look a all issues o
cu en conce n: he e is no assessmen o concep s
ela ed o he in e ac ion o science and socie y, no o an
his o ical awa eness.
APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM
How should he eache app oach class oom science?
The simples answe o he ques ion is bo h he mos
help ul and he mos obscu e: he eache needs o each
so ha he aims o he o al science cu iculum a e aken
in o accoun in e e y lesson.
I is he mos help ul answe because i emphasises he
need o be in eg a i e; o a oid ocussing only on he
ashion o he momen . When we look a he inco po-
a ion o ideas om he al e na i e concep ion mo e-
men , do we s op o conside whe he implemen ing he
ecommenda ions o he cu iculum planne s who ha e
been in luence by hese ideas will inhibi o enhance he
achie emen o he wide aims? Wha message abou he
na u e o science will be gained, pe haps unconsciously,
by he pupils who ollow he me hod o explica ion o
hei exis ing ideas, ollowed by con on ing hese ideas
wi h phenomena? (D i e 1989, p. 88 o a diag amma ic
schema o his mode o eaching.) Wha will i ell he
pupil abou he his o ical s a us o scien i ic ideas? Will
i enable he pupil o ha e mo e han a simplis ic idea o
he ela ionship be ween da a and in e p e a ion? Be -
ween hypo hesis and esea ch design? Be ween iden i-
ica ion o a iables and he ype o in es iga ion unde aken?
(Lucas & Tobin 1987). Be ween concep ual amewo k,
ecei ed wisdom, and he in e p e a ion o simple clas-
s oom exe cises? (Lucas & Ga cia-Rodeja Gayoso 1989).
In addi ion, ocusing solely on he esul s o he 'al e na-
i e concep ion' mo emen will ein o ce he isk o
` alking abou pupils lea ning science as i hey we e
science lea ning machines, de oid o eelings and o he
demands on hei a en ion' (Head 1989:153).
The answe is mos obscu e because i ells us li le o
how o in eg a e he indings o he ex ensi e al e na i e
concep ions wo k wi h he compa a i ely small amoun s
ENSEN
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ANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990, 8 (3)
o ac ual class oom esea ch on how pupils app oach he
asks o iden i ica ion o a iables and he design o
expe imen s ( Scho ield e al. 1989, o some discussion
o his a ea), and he ex emely limi ed esea ch in o
pupils' skills in in e p e ing change in scien i ic ideas in
an his o ical con ex . Mos o he li e a u e in he la e
a ea is analy ic, compa ing ex book accoun s wi h his o ical
s udies, usually showing ha he ex book his o ies a e,
a bes , limi ed, and a wo s , se iously dis o ed, accoun s
o he de elopmen o scien i ic ideas (B ush 1974,
A ons 1988, Roo -Be ns ein 1989).
In he absence o good syn heses o ecen esea ch in
a eas o he han class oom clima es and he al e na i e
concep ions mo emen s we a e o ced o use gene al
p inciples, and a gue om ou 'p o essional judgemen '.
This is no necessa ily a majo limi a ion, because he ac
o so a guing can aise ques ions o esea ch.
Pe haps he mos impo an message is o look o he
heo e ical unde pinings o he esea ch, i possible
some syn hesis o heo e ical pe spec i es. C i ics (e.g.
Clax on 1989) ha e a gued ha he in e p e a ion o
`cons uc i ism' implici in he wo k o many o he
cu en science educa ion esea che s is oo na ow, and
o he s sugges ha i is unde - heo ized. Fo example,
he pa e n o lessons sugges ed by D i e (1989) may
no wo k equally well o all ypes o science concep s.
I suspec ha he echnique will wo k well o hose
opics whe e pupils can di ec ly con on phenomena (is
i an acciden ha he examples used in D i e (1989) a e
hose ha appea o be modi ying gene aliza ions ha
a e based ela i ely di ec ly on obse a ion o phenome-
na?), bu ha i will no be so success ul in induc ing
pupils in o explana o y heo ies. Rowell and Dawson
(1989) dis inguish be ween concep s o he i s ype,
such as A chimedes P inciple, which hey e e o as
`induc i e gene aliza ions', and concep s o he second
ype, which hey call 'cons uc i e gene aliza ions',
such as he kine ic heo y o gases, which equi e a
change in knowledge amewo ks ei he by e ising
heo ies o c ea ing new ones. (No e ha Rowell and
Dawson ha e a i ed a hei posi ion by a syn hesis o
Piage ian de elopmen al heo ies, cogni i e p ocess
psychology, and aspec s o heo ies o a i icial in elli-
gence.)
Theo e ical unde pinnings o he o he a eas o conce n
a e less secu e. We can u n o a gumen s om de e-
lopmen al psychology o some guidance abou he pos-
sible le els o sophis ica ion ha pupils can each in he
in e p e a ion o scien i ic p ocesses, such as hypo hesi-
zing, d awing in e ences, and handling a iables, al-
hough i is impo an he e o no e ha ecen wo k by
Adey and Shaye has demons a ed ha i is possible o
ain pupils in he o mal ope a ional skills o con ol
and exclusion o a iables, a io and p opo ionali y,
e c., so ha hei achie emen o hese indica o s o
Piage ian o mal hinking is accele a ed compa ed o
un ea ed g oups. (Adey, Shaye & Ya es 1989, o a
p elimina y epo o he s udy). We know ha he
con ex o es ing and ins uc ion makes a g ea di e en-
ce in pupils appa en abili ies o design expe imen s
(Mu phy 1989), bu a heo e ical explana ion o he
209

complex pa e ns achie ed is lacking, and in he absence
o an adequa e heo y i is di icul o gene alize o
class oom con ex s.
To sum up, 1 belie e ha we need o de elop a pedagogy
ha is sensi i e o he complex demands o science
class ooms ha a e ying o mee mul iple aims. 1
belie e we can do his, by selec ing in es iga ions o use
in he class oom ha will o ce he pupil o con on
e idence (simila o he s a egies de ised by he CLIS
g oup in Leeds), bu which pay due a en ion o he
alidi y o he in e p e a ions made o he da a collec ed
(Lucas
&
Ga cía-Rodeja Gayoso). A judicious use o
classicalexpe imen s in e p e ed wi hp ope his o iog aphy
(A ons), and which e lec s de ensible philosophic mo-
dels o science, will help gi e adequa e a en ion o he
his o ical dimensions.
To handle hese demands, eache s need o be bo h
sensi i e o he his o y and philosophy o science, and
awa e o he me hods o ensu ing ha pupils a e awa e
o he di e ences be ween scien i ic and o he ypes o
a gumen . They also need ex books ha mee his
challenge.
A amily o echniques ha seem o be able o inco po-
a e mos o hese aims is being de eloped a ound he
wo ld. These echniques which ha e a a ie y o local
a ian s, a e collec i ely known as 'me a-cogni i e
s a egies', and ha e in common an emphasis on helping
pupils become awa e o hei own lea ning. Fo accoun s
wi h an emphasis on science educa ion applica ions see
No ak (1989), and Bai d (1986).
Me hods o helping eache s mee hese goals?
The mos impo an p oblem emains o be add essed.
How do we inco po a e he esul s o esea ch in science
educa ion in o class oom p ac ice?
As Whi e (1988) poin s ou , mos p og ammes o e o m
based on heo ies o ins uc ion ha e no had a g ea
impac on class ooms. He sugges s ha he lack o
success is because o he isola ion o eache s, 'p ac ica1
p oblems o school o ganiza ion', and he ambi alen
iew o academics held by p ac ising school eache s.
He commen s ha ' heo y canno be launched in o p ac ice
like a missile: a he i has o be cul u ed and nu u ed
like a plan ' (p. 130). In he p ojec ha he uses o
illus a e his a gumen , 10 eache s in one Aus alian
school made a de e mined e o o de elop a me acog-
ni i e eaching s a egy
.
The P ojec o Enhancing E ec i e
Lea ning (PEEL) aimed o
imp o e he quali y o school lea ning and ea-
ching. T aining o his imp o emen is cen ed
on ha ing s uden s become mo e willing and able
o accep esponsibili y and con ol o hei own
lea ning. T aining has h ee aspec s: inc easing
s uden s' knowledge o wha lea ning is and how
i wo ks; enhancing s uden s' awa eness o lea -
ning p ocess and ou come; imp o ing s uden s'
con ol; o lea ning h ough mo e pu pose ul de-
cision-making. (Bai d
&
Mi chell 1986)
(Fu he de ails abou he me acogni i e s a egies in-
ol ed can be ound in Bai d 1986).
As a esul o his expe ience Whi e a gues ha i is
essen ial ha he cos s o eache s o an inno a ion a e
ecognized: eache s abandoning well ied echniques
pu hemsel es back in o he posi ion o eache s jus
s a ing hei ca e , and ha e o ake he isk o li ing
wi h he consequences o ailu e. He a ibu es he ap-
pa en success o PEEL o he p esence o wo impo an
linking g oups, (i) o me eache s who ha e become
psychologis s, and (ii) ac i e eache - esea che s.
The PEEL con ex is an unusual one. I does no ep e-
sen he no mal di ision and low o esea ch in o ma ion,
whe e he esea che ca ies ou he wo k, epo s i in a
esea ch jou nal, and, wi h luck, in a jou nal add essed o
eache s. The eache may y o in oduce he ideas in o
he class oom, bu will o en ail, o good easons. The
suppo a ailable may be limi ed; he heo e ical unde -
pinnings ha a e ob ious o he esea che may no be
su icien ly clea ly desc ibed o he eache o adap he
desc ip ion o he p ocedu e o he speci ic ci cums ances
o he school; he p essu es exe ed by pupils and o he
s a o con o m o he adi ional oles may be oo s ong
o he eache o esis ( o examples o p essu es
applied by pupils see Lucas 1980, p. 168,
Mi chell1986,
pp. 50-52); pe o mance on es sco es o en goes down
when eache s begin o use comple ely new s a egies
and hey may abandon he s a egy oo ea ly (No ak
1989, in commen a y, p. 239).
How hen a e esea che s and hose esponsible o
inse ice educa ion o in luence p ac ice by encou aging
eache s o use me hods and echniques ha a e based on
esea ch s udies?
Un o una ely, he e is no simple answe o his p oblem.
Much o wha we do in inse ice wo k is based on
'p o essional judgemen ' a he han on es ed and e-
sea ched app oaches o inse ice wo k, and we know
ha ou assump ions a e open o ques ion. Fo example,
some imes p ojec s o cu iculum inno a ion use ea-
che s as he
de elope s/implemen e s,
in he hope ha
his will emo e he gap be ween academic and eache ,
wi h he academics ac ing as consul an s on echnical
issues. Bu he use o eache s is no gua an ee ha
ba ie s o inno a ion ound in many s udies o cu-
iculum di usion will be b idged. Simon (1989), has
shown ha many o he p oblems o communica ion o
in en ha occu ed in he G aded Assessmen o Scien-
ce P ojec (GASP) (Swain 1988) had been demons a ed
in p e ious s udies o inno a ion, including some ca-
ied ou wi hin he depa men whe e GASP was loca-
ed!
O he s udies ha e ound ha majo change in he clas-
s oom can be ini ia ed when he eache s wo k closely
wi h esea che s (Adey, Shaye
&
Ya es 1989, T eagus ,
Legge , Glasson
&
Wilkinson 1989), bu hese a e
expensi e me hods o ini ia ing change. In he T eagus
e al. case, h ee esea che s we e closely in ol ed wi h
one eache ! Wha we need o do is o es ablish be e
me hods o wide-sp ead dissemina ion o ideas, me-
hods ha allow he eache o e ain many o he ad an-
ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8
(3)
ages o wo king closely wi h an ou side who helps him Tha is, eache s should ocus on he ansac ions in he
o become a ' e lec i e p ac i ione ' (Schon
1983).
class ooms, and no me ely he esul s o he eaching.
The exis ence o such clus e s will help o o e come he
1
suspec ha wha will be needed is he de elopmen o main p oblem o inse ice cou ses: he single injec ion
clus e s o schools, whe e eache s suppo each o he , o ideas, wi hou con inued suppo while hese a e
by isi ing each o he 's class ooms, by c i ically obse - being de eloped and ex ended o a a ie y o science
ing he way in which pupils a e'wo king and hinking. concep s in a a ie y o school con ex s.
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ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS,
1990,8
(3)
APPENDIX
Two examples o A ainmen Ta ge s in Na ional Cu iculum o Science in England and Wales
In
hese examples, he wo ds p in ed in i alics a e examples, and do no ha e s a u o y o ce.
A ainmen Ta ge
15
Using ligh and elec omagne ic adia ion
Pupils should de elop hei knowledge and unde s anding o he p ope ies and beha iou o ligh and elec omagne ic wa es.
Le e1 S a emen s o A ainmen
Pupils should:
1
Know ha ligh comes om di e en sou ces.
Be able o disc imina e be ween colou s and ma ch hem o , whe e app op ia e, demons a e an unde s anding o colou in he
en i onmen .
2
Know ha ligh passes h ough some ma e ials and no o he s, and ha when i does no , shadows may be o med.
Be able o d aw pic u es, showing ea u es such as ligh , colou and shade.
3
Know ha ligh can be made o change di ec ion and shiny su aces can o m images.
Be able o gi e an accoun o an in es iga ion wi h mi o s.
4
Know ha we see objec s because ligh is sca e ed o hem and in o ou eyes.
Know ha ligh a els in s aigh lines and use his o explain he shapes and sizes o shadows.
5
Unde s and how ligh is e lec ed.
6
Unde s and how p isms and lenses e ac and dispe se ligh .
Be able o gi e an accoun o he s uc u e and unc ion o he eye.
Unde s and he p inciples o he common de ec s o sigh and hei co ec ion.
7
Be able o desc ibe and use he wa e model o he na u e o elec omagne ic adia ion.
Know ha he e a e many ypes o adioac i e adia ion, ha hey a e impo an in e e yday li e, and be able o desc ibe some
o hei applica ions.
Be able o explain how some op ical de ices wo k, o example, simple came a, p ojec o and op ical ib e.
8
Unde s and e ac ion as an e ec o di e ences o eloci ies in di e en media.
9
Know ha he elec omagne ic spec um o ms a con inuum o adia ion wi h di e en physiological e ec s.
Be able o selec , summa ize and p esen in o ma ion conceming he applica ion o elec o nagne ic wa es in domes ic con ex s,
co nmunica ion and medicine.
10
Unde s and he p ocesses o dispe sion, in e e ence, di ac ion and pola isa ion o ligh .
ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) 213