Varieties of Science Education Research : their applications in the classroom

INVESTIGACION = EXPERIENCIAS DIDACTICAS VARIETIES OF SCIENCE EDUCATION RESEARCH: THEIR APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM LUCAS, A.M. Cen e o Educa ional S udies. King's College. Uni e si y o London. London. SUMMARY To aid in he ask o demons a ing ha a a ie y o esea ch ques ions needs o be add essed, his pape gi es a ske ch o he unc ions o modem science educa ion, hen uses ha ske ch o iden i y opics abou which we need esea ch da a, and sugges s possible implica ions o p ac ice. INTRODUCTION I is easy o be seduced by ashionable a eas o esea ch wo k in he pas decade, especially in Eu ope, Aus alia and o hink ha he esul s o ha wo k mus be he mos and New Zealand, has been in he a ea o 'al e na i e impo an ideas o inco po a e in o he class ooms. The- amewo ks', in es iga ing he a ie y o ideas ha lea - e is no doub ha he ashionable science educa ion ne s ha e abou physical and biologicalphenomena. We ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3), 205-214 205 INVESTIGACIÓN Y EXPERIENCIAS DIDÁCTICAS now know a g ea deal abou he ange o ideas ha lea ne s ha e abou ene gy, ligh , elec ici y, pho osyn- hesis, inhe i ance, o ce and mo ion, and he pa icula e na u e o ma e . (See o e iews and summa ies, D i- e , Guesne & Tibe ghein 1985, Osbo ne & F eybe g 1985). Mo e and mo e esea ch on hese and o he opics is being published, and he e a e some published sche- mes o inco po a ing hese ideas in o class oom ac i i ies (Child en's Lea ning in Science 1987). Mos eache s o science who ead he jou nals add essed o he class oom eache mus ha e seen a leas some discussion o hese esul s and hei implica ions o he class oom. The wo k has been so in luen ial ha he new science cu i- culum p oposals in bo h Spain and England and Wales con ain explici e e ences o pupil lea ning ha owe much o he iews unde lying he 'al e na i e amewo - ks' esea ch (See Na ional Cu iculum Council, 1989, p. A7, and [Spanish MEC] 1989, p. 11 1). In his pape 1 will y o coun e ac an o e -emphasis on ha a ea o esea ch. Do no misunde s and me: 1 do belie e ha esea ch on 'spon aneous easoning', 'al e na i e amewo ks' o 'child en's explana ions' is alid and impo an . This ashionable a ea has gi en us a spa e o e y in e es ing pape s ha ha e shown science educa ion esea che s ha he assump ions o he anglophone cu iculum de e- lopmen p ojec s o he 1960's we e oo simplis ic. I is now clea ha in es ing a g ea deal o money, ime and expe ise in he de elopmen o lea ning ac i i ies is no su icien , unless hese lea ning ac i i ies ake in o ac- coun he way ha pupils gi e meaning o he concep s ha a e 'ob ious' o he eache and cu iculum de elo- pe . 'Al e na i e pe cep ions' esea ch has also been o alue o class oom eache s who, i hey ha e ead i sensi i ely, can ne e again ake o g an ed he possibi- li y ha al1 child en will sha e he same iews a e exposu e o he eache 's e sion o phenomena. Fo some eache s, his esea ch has legi ima ed hei p o es- sional expe ience, con i ming ha he ideas ha hey ha e seen some pupils exp ess a e common; ha i is no jus hei own eaching ha p oduces hese 'abe a ions'. To aid in my ask o demons a ing ha a a ie y o esea ch ques ions needs o be add essed, 1 will ske ch he unc ions o mode n science educa ion, hen use ha ske ch o iden i y opics abou which 1 belie e we need esea ch da a, and sugges possible implica ions o p ac ice. The impo an poin abou in ense e-examina ions o he place o science educa ion is no jus ha changes esul om hem, bu ha he ques ions a e being asked. I is essen ial ha hey be asked, because as socie ies change, as social assump ions change, as science i sel changes, hen new answe s eme ge o he ques ions 'why each science?', 'wha science should we each?', 'how can we each ha science mos e ec i ely?' Unless we ha e pe iodic e-examina ions o he place o science in he school cu iculum, hen we may jus ly be accused o pe pe ua ing he 'Sab e Too h Cu iculum', [inse e- e ence] aluing he schooling ha was ele an a he ime he cu iculum was c ea ed, bu aluing i me ely because o adi ion. One consequence o e-e alua ing he basic pu poses o science educa ion is ha new needs may a ise, and ha new combina ions o needs may c ea e new class oom condi ions. 'Bes me hods' o he old pa e ns may no longe be app op ia e o adequa e. Pe e Fensham (1988) poin s ou ha he cu iculum de elopmen s o he 1960's in he Uni ed S a es and B i ain we e in ended o induc he ela i ely able pupils in o he wo ld o science o poli ical, economic and subjec main enance easons. He a gues ha p esen ends include mo e emphasis being gi en o cul u al, social and indi idual pu poses o a science educa ion, and he emphasis is mo e on lea - ning om science. Robe s (1988) akes his analysis u he and a gues ha e e y science cu iculum, unique in ime and place, esul s om nego ia ion be ween di e en cu iculum emphases held by di e en 's ake- holde s' : pa en s, eache s, poli icians, o icials, employe s, and pe haps pupils. Such nego ia ions will usually p o- duce di e en cunicula a di e en imes. I Fensham and Robe s a e co ec , hen we canno expec esea ch di ec ed owa ds hose old pu poses o be su icien o guide eache s mee ing he new aims, he new popula ions, and he new cu iculum o he p esen and immedia e u u e. In his pape , 1 use mainly he new equi emen s o science educa ion in England and Wales (Uni ed King- dom, Depa men o Educa ion and Science 1989, Na- ional Cumculum Council 1989) as a s a ing poin . Simila analyses can be done o he science p oposals o 'La Re o ma' in Spain, and he gene al conclusions ha will eme ge will be simila in p incipal, al hough hey may di e in de ail. Fo my pu poses he English and Welsh equi emen s a e mo e sui able: hey a e now in hei inal o m, a e being changed as a esul o a h ee-s age consul a ion p ocess; he equi emen s a e p esen ed in a mo e p esc ip i e way han in he Spanish consul a i e e sion; and he in ended in e - ela ionships be ween a ious aspec s a e much mo e p esc ip i e. CONCERNS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION A a ime o majo educa ion eno a ion in many coun- SCIENCE CURRICULUM DEMANDS ies, including bo h Spain and England and Wales, he pu pose and alue o science educa ion is being add es- sed by he eaching p o ession, academic educa o s, Basic scien i ic concep s scien is s, and poli icians. Wha place does science ha e in he communi y? Wha place does science ha e in he The e wiíl aiways be a need o each basic scien i ic cu iculum o schools? concep s, e en i he balance be ween he aims o scien- 206 ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) ce cou ses change. The c i e ia o selec ion o he concep s may change, he dep h o which hey mus be augh may a y, and he desi ed in e ac ion be ween he a ious concep s may di e , bu science concep s will always be included in science cou ses. Thus in hese a eas he e will always be a need o esea ch ha in o ms us how pupils cope wi h and make sense o he concep s being augh . Bu he p esen balance wi hin science cou ses equi es us o conside mo e han 'con en ' aims ep esen ed by such s a emen s as 'Pupils should know ha when sound wa es a el om one poin o ano he hey ans e ene gy h ough he medium' (Uni ed Kingdom, Depa men o Educa ion and Science 1989, p. 30), o 'Aspec os ene gé icos de la co ien e eléc ica: unción del gene ado y e ec o calo í ico de la co ien e eléc ica' (MEC 1989, p. 153). Beyond scien i ic concep s The new science cu iculum in England and Wales is de ined in e ms o 17 'A ainmen Ta ge s', wi h up o 10 le els in each. Examples o some a ainmen a ge s and associa ed le els a e gi en in he appendix. I is in ended ha le els 1-3 be app op ia e o pupils aged 5- 7; le els 2-5 o pupils aged 8-1 1; 3-7 o pupils 12-14; 4-10 o pupils 15-16. No e ha some assump ions abou pupils' abili ies a e buil in o he legal speci ica ion: i is assumed ha pupils will a y in hei abili y o achie e speci ied le els, and also ha he ange o achie emen is g ea e in olde pupils. Table 1 Con en o Na ional Cu iculum Science, o ages 5-16 in England and Wales. A ainmen Ti le Ta ge Numbe AT 1 AT2* AT3 AT4 AT5* AT6 AT7* AT8 AT9 ATlO ATl 1 AT12* AT13 AT14 AT15* AT16* AT17* Explo a ion o science The a ie y o li e P ocesses o li e Gene ics and e olu ion Human in luences on he Ea h Types and uses o ma e ials Making new ma e ials Explaining how ma e ials beha e Ea h and a mosphe e Fo ces Elec ici y and magne ism The scien i ic aspec s o in o ma ion echnology including elec onics Ene gy Sound and music Using ligh and elec omagne ic adia ion The Ea h in space The na u e o science A ainmen Ta ge s ma ked * a e no included in he 'Model B' p og am ha may be o e ed a ages 15 and 16. I is expec ed ha his sho e p og amme will be only o e ed o able pupils, who wish o concen a e on languages, o example. Table 1 shows ha he a ainmen a ge s include many amilia opic a eas, bu also ha 'Explo a ion o Scien- ce' and he 'Na u e o Science' mus be augh . I is now a equi emen o help pupils de elop he in ellec ual and p ac ica1 skills ha allow hem o explo e he wo ld o science and o de elop a ulle unde s anding o scien i- ic phenomena and he p ocedu es o scien i ic explo a- ion and in es iga ion. The ac i i ies should encou age he abili y o: i Plan, hypo hesize and p edic ii Design and ca y ou in es iga ions iii In e p e esul s and indings i D aw in e ences Communica e explo a o y asks and expe imen s. (A ainmen Ta ge 1: 'Explo a ion o science', DES 1989: 3). [The s a emen o he equi alen Spanish posi ion is sp ead h oughou he p oposal, bu simila ideas can be ex ac ed om explici commen s made unde he hea- ding 'P ocedimien os' in many o he con en blocks, as well as he elabo a ion in sec ions 42- 49, pp. 179-183, and om he s a emen unde 'Objec i os Gene ales' (p. 119): Desa olla y aplica es a egias pe sonales en la esolución de p oblemas y en la explo ación de si ua- ciones y enómenos desconocidos u lizando las es a egias y pau as de acción p opias de la in es i- gación cien í ica de la ealidad (iden i ica el p oblema, analiza sus elemen os pncipales, ecaba la in o mación disponible, o mula hipó esis plausibles pa a solu- ciona lo, ecoge da os ele an es pa a con as a las hipó esis o muladas, analiza los da os de o ma ap opiada, o mula conclusiones, explo a solucio- nes al e na i as, e c.)] A ainmen Ta ge 17 ('The na u e o Science') con ains con en ha has no been common in s anda d English science cou ses: Pupils should de elop hei knowledge and unde s anding o he ways in which scien i ic ideas change h ough ime and how he na u e o hese ideas and he uses o which hey a e pu a e a ec ed by he social, mo al, spi i ual and cul u al con ex s in which hey a e de eloped; in doing so, hey should begin o ecognize ha while science is an impo an way o hinking abou expe ience, i is no he only way. (DES 1989, p. 36) The wo English s a emen s show ha he ashionable esea ch a ea o al e na i e amewo ks does no p o ide e idence on al1 a eas ha will conce n class oom ea- che s. A ainmen a ge s 1 and 17 do no in ol e phe- nomena ha can be add essed by scien i ic p ocedu es. The second also in ol es alue judgemen s, and a a ma u e le e1 in he school will equi e pupils o hink abou he di e ences be ween his o ical and scien i ic ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) e idence, and may also in ol e hem in mo al and class oom eaching: you canno mee he needs o al1 o e hical deba e. he pupils al1 o he ime o al1 objec i es. Fo example, Theobald (1977) showed ha o memo y o biological p inciples, class-cen ed eaching is be e o s uden s who a e bo h 'open-minded' and ha e a 'cogni i e p e e ence Science educa ion as a ehicle 0 eaching gene al o e e lea ning', while indi idual cen ed eaching is skills be e o 'dogma ic' s uden s and o hose wi h a 'cogni i e p e e en e o p inciples' (Theobald's sum- Teache s in England and Wales ha e been oid ha is quo ed in Lucas 1986, p. 193). 'lea ning in science con ibu es o pe sonal de elop- men ' : Th oughou hei science educa ion pupils should be Table 11 encou aged o de elop hei powe s o easoning by Class oom concems and esea ch a eas. e lec ing on hei own unde s anding, by e lec ing and hinking abou e idence in a disciplined way, AimS Examples Resea ch a eas and by app ecia ing ha lea ning may in ol e changes Cu iculum Issues in he way hey hink abou , explain and do hings. In his way science helps pupils o become independen science Concep s o ce al ema i e amewo ks lea ne s. (Na ional Cu iculum Council 1989, p. A5) espi a ion cogni i e p ocessing chemical bonds syn he ic heo ies This is no an aim unique o science educa ion, bu i is a s ong pa o he jus i ica ion o eaching science. Simila ly, i is asse ed ha : ... scien i ic me hods a e use ully applied o enqui y in many con ex s, o exwple in design and echnology . Wo k in hese a eas will bene i di ec ly om he inc eased ele ance and inspi a ion ha he applica ion o scien i ic skills and s a egies will b ing. (Na ional Cu iculum Council 1989, p. A5) Ye his claim is con a y o he expe ience o many eache s and esea che s ha skills and knowledge a e o en no ans e ed om he con ex o lea ning o a con ex o use. INSTRUCTIONAL DEMANDS The h ee a eas ou lined abo e a e conce ned wi h he aims o science educa ion in he English and Welsh Na ional Cu iculum o science. The aims a e, a leas heo e ically, independen o he me hods eache s cho- ose o use o each hem. Bu he e is a g ea a ie y o eaching me hods a ailable o eache s, anging om he didac ic p esen a ion o concep s, o he use o open ended in es iga ions whe e he pupils and he eache s may no ha e a clea end poin in mind, bu whe e he p ocedu es used in eaching a solu ion a e he impo an eaching goals. The e has been in he pas a g ea deal o esea ch in o class oom p ocesses, examining he in e ac ion be ween a iables such as eache s yles, pupil pe sonali y and cogni i e p e e ences, when di e en educa ional ou - comes we e conside ed. Gene al esea ch on such 'Ap- i ude-T ea men In e ac ions' in class ooms is e iewed b ie ly by Tobias (1976). Resul s om science class o- oms show ha he e is a se ious p oblem o eache s who a emp o inco po a e he esul s o he s udies in o e osion Science P ocesses con olling a iables obse ing expe imen ing measu emen mic oscopy Science Applica ions design & echnology en i onmen al issues p oblem sol ing Science and Socie y e ec s on socie y e ec s o socie y his oncal con ex philosophic con ex Science con ibu ing o a i ude de elopmen pe sonal de elopmen pe sonal hygiene e lec on hinking cogni i e skills desc ip i e accoun s expe imen al s udies e alua i e s udies analy ic s udies desc ip i e accoun s expe imen al s udies e alua i e s udies in e en ion s udies e alua ion s udies descnp i e accoun s analy ic s udies expenmen al s udies in e en ion s udies descnp i e accoun s me acogni ion s udies Ins uc ional Issues Class oom p ocesses eache s yles ATI s udies class oom clima e obse a ional s udies open-ended wo k in e en ion s udies New ools mic ocompu e s in e en ion s udies in o ma ion echnology obse a ion s udies e alua ion s udies O he a eas o esea ch dealing wi h class oom p ocedu- es and science educa ion ha e been summa ized by F ase (1986), and he e is an inc easing need o e- sea ch in o he e ec s o using new ins uc ional s a- egies, such as manipula ing mic o-compu e model- building sys ems (e.g., Wong 1987a, 1987b), da aanalysis packages (e.g., McCo mick & Squi es 1988) in e na ionally sha ed collec ion o da a on en i onmen al hemes (e.g., Na ional En i onmen al Da abase P ojec 1989), he e ec o language s uc u es on ex book usage (e.g., Kulka ni 1988), he uses o g oup wo k, and in es iga- i e labo a o y classes (Milla 1987). Table 2 summa izes he a eas o conce n and includes an accoun o he ype o esea ch ha is equi ed o unde s- 208 ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) INVESTIGACION Y EXPERIENCIAS DIDACTICAS and each o he a eas o conce n. The e a e, o cou se many esea ch s udies ha con ain mo e han one s yle o esea ch wi hin and be ween a eas o conce n. The able does no mean ha he esea ch s udies mus be disc e e, di ec ed o only one a ea o conce n, and based on single me hodologies. Some o he bes s udies a e long e m (al hough he e a e ew o hem, see A zi 1988), and conce n hemsel es wi h a a ie y o issues. The epo o he Assessmen o Pe o mance Uni on he s udies o science a age 13 in England and Wales (Scho ield e al. 1989) looks a many o he a eas o conce n in he able, and ela es, as a as possible in he su ey design, a numbe o analyses. Fo example, he epo conside s pupil's in e es s and pe cep ions ela ing o science, hei use o g aphical and symbolic ep esen a ions, hei obse a ion skills, hei applica ion o science concep s o no el si ua ions, and he planning and pe - o mance o in es iga ions. E en his ex ensi e and expensi e s udy, howe e , does no look a all issues o cu en conce n: he e is no assessmen o concep s ela ed o he in e ac ion o science and socie y, no o an his o ical awa eness. APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM How should he eache app oach class oom science? The simples answe o he ques ion is bo h he mos help ul and he mos obscu e: he eache needs o each so ha he aims o he o al science cu iculum a e aken in o accoun in e e y lesson. I is he mos help ul answe because i emphasises he need o be in eg a i e; o a oid ocussing only on he ashion o he momen . When we look a he inco po- a ion o ideas om he al e na i e concep ion mo e- men , do we s op o conside whe he implemen ing he ecommenda ions o he cu iculum planne s who ha e been in luence by hese ideas will inhibi o enhance he achie emen o he wide aims? Wha message abou he na u e o science will be gained, pe haps unconsciously, by he pupils who ollow he me hod o explica ion o hei exis ing ideas, ollowed by con on ing hese ideas wi h phenomena? (D i e 1989, p. 88 o a diag amma ic schema o his mode o eaching.) Wha will i ell he pupil abou he his o ical s a us o scien i ic ideas? Will i enable he pupil o ha e mo e han a simplis ic idea o he ela ionship be ween da a and in e p e a ion? Be - ween hypo hesis and esea ch design? Be ween iden i- ica ion o a iables and he ype o in es iga ion unde aken? (Lucas & Tobin 1987). Be ween concep ual amewo k, ecei ed wisdom, and he in e p e a ion o simple clas- s oom exe cises? (Lucas & Ga cia-Rodeja Gayoso 1989). In addi ion, ocusing solely on he esul s o he 'al e na- i e concep ion' mo emen will ein o ce he isk o ` alking abou pupils lea ning science as i hey we e science lea ning machines, de oid o eelings and o he demands on hei a en ion' (Head 1989:153). The answe is mos obscu e because i ells us li le o how o in eg a e he indings o he ex ensi e al e na i e concep ions wo k wi h he compa a i ely small amoun s ENSEN - ANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990, 8 (3) o ac ual class oom esea ch on how pupils app oach he asks o iden i ica ion o a iables and he design o expe imen s ( Scho ield e al. 1989, o some discussion o his a ea), and he ex emely limi ed esea ch in o pupils' skills in in e p e ing change in scien i ic ideas in an his o ical con ex . Mos o he li e a u e in he la e a ea is analy ic, compa ing ex book accoun s wi h his o ical s udies, usually showing ha he ex book his o ies a e, a bes , limi ed, and a wo s , se iously dis o ed, accoun s o he de elopmen o scien i ic ideas (B ush 1974, A ons 1988, Roo -Be ns ein 1989). In he absence o good syn heses o ecen esea ch in a eas o he han class oom clima es and he al e na i e concep ions mo emen s we a e o ced o use gene al p inciples, and a gue om ou 'p o essional judgemen '. This is no necessa ily a majo limi a ion, because he ac o so a guing can aise ques ions o esea ch. Pe haps he mos impo an message is o look o he heo e ical unde pinings o he esea ch, i possible some syn hesis o heo e ical pe spec i es. C i ics (e.g. Clax on 1989) ha e a gued ha he in e p e a ion o `cons uc i ism' implici in he wo k o many o he cu en science educa ion esea che s is oo na ow, and o he s sugges ha i is unde - heo ized. Fo example, he pa e n o lessons sugges ed by D i e (1989) may no wo k equally well o all ypes o science concep s. I suspec ha he echnique will wo k well o hose opics whe e pupils can di ec ly con on phenomena (is i an acciden ha he examples used in D i e (1989) a e hose ha appea o be modi ying gene aliza ions ha a e based ela i ely di ec ly on obse a ion o phenome- na?), bu ha i will no be so success ul in induc ing pupils in o explana o y heo ies. Rowell and Dawson (1989) dis inguish be ween concep s o he i s ype, such as A chimedes P inciple, which hey e e o as `induc i e gene aliza ions', and concep s o he second ype, which hey call 'cons uc i e gene aliza ions', such as he kine ic heo y o gases, which equi e a change in knowledge amewo ks ei he by e ising heo ies o c ea ing new ones. (No e ha Rowell and Dawson ha e a i ed a hei posi ion by a syn hesis o Piage ian de elopmen al heo ies, cogni i e p ocess psychology, and aspec s o heo ies o a i icial in elli- gence.) Theo e ical unde pinnings o he o he a eas o conce n a e less secu e. We can u n o a gumen s om de e- lopmen al psychology o some guidance abou he pos- sible le els o sophis ica ion ha pupils can each in he in e p e a ion o scien i ic p ocesses, such as hypo hesi- zing, d awing in e ences, and handling a iables, al- hough i is impo an he e o no e ha ecen wo k by Adey and Shaye has demons a ed ha i is possible o ain pupils in he o mal ope a ional skills o con ol and exclusion o a iables, a io and p opo ionali y, e c., so ha hei achie emen o hese indica o s o Piage ian o mal hinking is accele a ed compa ed o un ea ed g oups. (Adey, Shaye & Ya es 1989, o a p elimina y epo o he s udy). We know ha he con ex o es ing and ins uc ion makes a g ea di e en- ce in pupils appa en abili ies o design expe imen s (Mu phy 1989), bu a heo e ical explana ion o he 209 complex pa e ns achie ed is lacking, and in he absence o an adequa e heo y i is di icul o gene alize o class oom con ex s. To sum up, 1 belie e ha we need o de elop a pedagogy ha is sensi i e o he complex demands o science class ooms ha a e ying o mee mul iple aims. 1 belie e we can do his, by selec ing in es iga ions o use in he class oom ha will o ce he pupil o con on e idence (simila o he s a egies de ised by he CLIS g oup in Leeds), bu which pay due a en ion o he alidi y o he in e p e a ions made o he da a collec ed (Lucas & Ga cía-Rodeja Gayoso). A judicious use o classicalexpe imen s in e p e ed wi hp ope his o iog aphy (A ons), and which e lec s de ensible philosophic mo- dels o science, will help gi e adequa e a en ion o he his o ical dimensions. To handle hese demands, eache s need o be bo h sensi i e o he his o y and philosophy o science, and awa e o he me hods o ensu ing ha pupils a e awa e o he di e ences be ween scien i ic and o he ypes o a gumen . They also need ex books ha mee his challenge. A amily o echniques ha seem o be able o inco po- a e mos o hese aims is being de eloped a ound he wo ld. These echniques which ha e a a ie y o local a ian s, a e collec i ely known as 'me a-cogni i e s a egies', and ha e in common an emphasis on helping pupils become awa e o hei own lea ning. Fo accoun s wi h an emphasis on science educa ion applica ions see No ak (1989), and Bai d (1986). Me hods o helping eache s mee hese goals? The mos impo an p oblem emains o be add essed. How do we inco po a e he esul s o esea ch in science educa ion in o class oom p ac ice? As Whi e (1988) poin s ou , mos p og ammes o e o m based on heo ies o ins uc ion ha e no had a g ea impac on class ooms. He sugges s ha he lack o success is because o he isola ion o eache s, 'p ac ica1 p oblems o school o ganiza ion', and he ambi alen iew o academics held by p ac ising school eache s. He commen s ha ' heo y canno be launched in o p ac ice like a missile: a he i has o be cul u ed and nu u ed like a plan ' (p. 130). In he p ojec ha he uses o illus a e his a gumen , 10 eache s in one Aus alian school made a de e mined e o o de elop a me acog- ni i e eaching s a egy . The P ojec o Enhancing E ec i e Lea ning (PEEL) aimed o imp o e he quali y o school lea ning and ea- ching. T aining o his imp o emen is cen ed on ha ing s uden s become mo e willing and able o accep esponsibili y and con ol o hei own lea ning. T aining has h ee aspec s: inc easing s uden s' knowledge o wha lea ning is and how i wo ks; enhancing s uden s' awa eness o lea - ning p ocess and ou come; imp o ing s uden s' con ol; o lea ning h ough mo e pu pose ul de- cision-making. (Bai d & Mi chell 1986) (Fu he de ails abou he me acogni i e s a egies in- ol ed can be ound in Bai d 1986). As a esul o his expe ience Whi e a gues ha i is essen ial ha he cos s o eache s o an inno a ion a e ecognized: eache s abandoning well ied echniques pu hemsel es back in o he posi ion o eache s jus s a ing hei ca e , and ha e o ake he isk o li ing wi h he consequences o ailu e. He a ibu es he ap- pa en success o PEEL o he p esence o wo impo an linking g oups, (i) o me eache s who ha e become psychologis s, and (ii) ac i e eache - esea che s. The PEEL con ex is an unusual one. I does no ep e- sen he no mal di ision and low o esea ch in o ma ion, whe e he esea che ca ies ou he wo k, epo s i in a esea ch jou nal, and, wi h luck, in a jou nal add essed o eache s. The eache may y o in oduce he ideas in o he class oom, bu will o en ail, o good easons. The suppo a ailable may be limi ed; he heo e ical unde - pinnings ha a e ob ious o he esea che may no be su icien ly clea ly desc ibed o he eache o adap he desc ip ion o he p ocedu e o he speci ic ci cums ances o he school; he p essu es exe ed by pupils and o he s a o con o m o he adi ional oles may be oo s ong o he eache o esis ( o examples o p essu es applied by pupils see Lucas 1980, p. 168, Mi chell1986, pp. 50-52); pe o mance on es sco es o en goes down when eache s begin o use comple ely new s a egies and hey may abandon he s a egy oo ea ly (No ak 1989, in commen a y, p. 239). How hen a e esea che s and hose esponsible o inse ice educa ion o in luence p ac ice by encou aging eache s o use me hods and echniques ha a e based on esea ch s udies? Un o una ely, he e is no simple answe o his p oblem. Much o wha we do in inse ice wo k is based on 'p o essional judgemen ' a he han on es ed and e- sea ched app oaches o inse ice wo k, and we know ha ou assump ions a e open o ques ion. Fo example, some imes p ojec s o cu iculum inno a ion use ea- che s as he de elope s/implemen e s, in he hope ha his will emo e he gap be ween academic and eache , wi h he academics ac ing as consul an s on echnical issues. Bu he use o eache s is no gua an ee ha ba ie s o inno a ion ound in many s udies o cu- iculum di usion will be b idged. Simon (1989), has shown ha many o he p oblems o communica ion o in en ha occu ed in he G aded Assessmen o Scien- ce P ojec (GASP) (Swain 1988) had been demons a ed in p e ious s udies o inno a ion, including some ca- ied ou wi hin he depa men whe e GASP was loca- ed! O he s udies ha e ound ha majo change in he clas- s oom can be ini ia ed when he eache s wo k closely wi h esea che s (Adey, Shaye & Ya es 1989, T eagus , Legge , Glasson & Wilkinson 1989), bu hese a e expensi e me hods o ini ia ing change. In he T eagus e al. case, h ee esea che s we e closely in ol ed wi h one eache ! Wha we need o do is o es ablish be e me hods o wide-sp ead dissemina ion o ideas, me- hods ha allow he eache o e ain many o he ad an- ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) ages o wo king closely wi h an ou side who helps him Tha is, eache s should ocus on he ansac ions in he o become a ' e lec i e p ac i ione ' (Schon 1983). class ooms, and no me ely he esul s o he eaching. The exis ence o such clus e s will help o o e come he 1 suspec ha wha will be needed is he de elopmen o main p oblem o inse ice cou ses: he single injec ion clus e s o schools, whe e eache s suppo each o he , o ideas, wi hou con inued suppo while hese a e by isi ing each o he 's class ooms, by c i ically obse - being de eloped and ex ended o a a ie y o science ing he way in which pupils a e'wo king and hinking. concep s in a a ie y o school con ex s. REFERENCES 1 ADEY, P., SHAYER, M. and YATES, C., 1989. Cogni i e accele a ion: he e ec s o wo yea s o in e en ion in science classes, in Adey, P. (ed.), Adolescen de elopmen and school science. (Falme , pp. 240-248). ARONS, A. B ., 1988. His o ical and philosophical pe spec i es a ainable in in oduc o y physics cou ses, Educa ional Philosophy and Theo y, 20(2), pp. 13-23. ARZI, H., 1988. F om sho - o long- em: s udying science educa ion longi udinally, S udies in Science Educa ion, 15, pp. 17-53. BAIRD, J. R., 1986. Imp o ing lea ning h ough enhanced me acogni ion: aclass oom s udy, Eu opean Jou nal o Science Educa ion, 8, pp. 263-282. BAIRD, J.R. and MITCHELL, 1. J., 1986. Imp o ing he qua- li y o eaching and lea ning: An Aus alian case s udy- he PEEL p ojec . (Monash Uni e si y). BRUSH, S. G., 1974. Should he his o y o science be a ed X?, Science, 183, pp. 1164-1 172. Child ens Leaming in Science, 1987. CLIS in he class oom: App oaches o eaching. Cen e o S udies in Science and Ma hema ics Educa ion, Uni e si y o Leeds. CLAXTON, G., 1989. Cogni iondoesn' ma e i you' e sca ed, dep essed o bo ed, en Adey, P. (ed.), Adolescen de elop- men and school science. (Falme , pp. 155-161). DRIVER, R., 1989. Changing concep ions, en Adey, P. (ed.), Adolescen de elopmen and school science. (Falme , pp. 79- 103). DRIVER, R., GUESNE, E. and TIBERGHEIN, A., 1985. Child en's ideas in science. (Open Uni e si y P ess). FENSHAM, P. J., 1968. Familia bu di e en : some dilemmas and new di ec ions in science educa ion, en Fensham, P. J. (ed.), De elopmen and dilemmas in science educa ion. (Falme P ess, pp. 1-26). FRASER, B. J., 1986. Class oom en i onmen . (C oom Helm). HEAD, J., 1989. Beyond he cogni i e, en Adey, P. (ed.), Adolescen de elopmen andschool science. (Falme , pp. 153- 154). KULKARNI, V. G., 1988. Role o language in science edu- ca ion, en Fensham, P. J. (ed.), De elopmen and dilemmas in science educa ion. (Falme P ess, pp. 160-168). LUCAS, A M., 1980. The de elopmen o a cu iculum mono- poly in Aus alian seconda y schools: Biological Science: The Web o Li e. 2. Resea ch and commen , Jou nal o Biological Educa ion, 14, pp. 167-174. LUCAS, A M., 1986. Tendencias en la in es igacion sob e la enseñanza /ap endizaje de la biología, Enseñanza de las Ciencias, 4(3), pp. 189-198. LUCAS, A. M. and GARCÍA-RODEJA GAYOSO, I., 1989. Con a las in e p e aciones simplis as de los esul ados de los expe imen os ealizados en el aula, Enseñanza de las Ciencias. LUCAS, A. M. and TOBIN, K., 1987. P oblems wi h 'con ol o a iables' as a p ocess skill, Science Educa ion, 71, pp. 685-690. McCORMICK, S. and SQUIRES, D., Th ee dimensional analysis o biological da a: issues ela ing o so wa e design in Windows, en Lo is, F. & Tagg, E. D., (eds.), Compu e s in Educa ion. (Else ie Science Publishe s, pp. 605-610). MEC, 1989. El diseño cu icula base.Á ea de Ciencias Expe- imen ales. (MEC: Mad id). MITCHELL, 1. J., 1986, en Bai d, J. R., &Mi chell, 1. J., 1986. Imp o ing he quali y o eaching and lea ning: An Aus a- lian case s udy- he PEELp ojec . (Monash Uni e si y, pp. 45-85). Na ional Cu iculum Council, 1989. Science: Non-s a u o y guidance. NCC. Na ional En i onmen al Da abase P ojec , 1989. Phase II ial: Acid Rain pack. (Cen e o Educa ional S udies, King's College London). NOVAK, J., 1989. The use o me acogni i e ools o acili a e meaning ul lea ning, en Adey, P. (ed.), Adolescen de elo- pmen and school science. (Falme , pp. 225-239). OSBORNE, R. and FREYBERG, P., 1985. Lea ning in Scien- ce: The implica ions o child en's science. (Heinemann). ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) 211 ROBERTS, D. A., 1988. Wha coun s as science educa ion?, en Fensham, P. J., (ed.), De elopmen and dilemmas in science educa ion. (Falme P ess, pp. 27-54). ROOT-BERNSTEIN, R. S., 1989. How scien is s eally hink, Pe spec i es in Biology and Medicine, 32, pp. 472-488. ROWELL, J. A. and DAWSON, C. J., 1989. Towa ds an in e- g a ed heo y and p ac ice o science eaching, S udies in Science Educa ion, 16, pp. 47-73. SCHOFIELD, B., BELL, J.,BLACK, P., JOHNSON, S., MUR- PHY, P., QUALTER, A. and RUSSELL, T., 1989. Science a age 13: A e iew o APU Su ey indings 1980-84. As- sessmen o Pe o mance Uni , Depa men o Educa ion and Science. (He Majes y's S a ione y O ice). SCHON, D., 1983. The e lec i e p ac i one . Basic Books. SIMON, S., 1989. Cumculum and assessmen inno a ion in science: a s udy o he in oduc ion o he G aded As- sessmen s in Science P ojec in wo schools. Unpublished PhD disse a ion, King's College London, Uni e si y o London. SWAIN, J. R. L., 1988. GASP: he G aded Assessmen s in Science P ojec , School Science Re iew, 70, pp. 152-158. TOBIAS, S., 1976. Achie emen ea men in e ac ions, Re iew o Educa ional Resea ch, 46, pp. 61-74. TREAGUST, D., LEGGETT, M., GLASSON, P. and WIL- KINSON, B., 1989. Enhancing he eaching o physics h ough eache - esea che in e ac ions, Aus alian Science Teache s Jou nal, 35(1), pp. 75-81. Uni ed Kingdom, Depa men o Educa ion and Science, 1989. Science in he Na ional Cu iculum. (He Majes y's S a io- na y O ice). WHITE, R. T., 1988. Theo y in o P ac ice 1, en Fensham, P. J. (ed.), De elopmen and dilemmas in science educa ion. (Falme P ess, pp. 121-132). WONG, D., 1987a. Teaching A-le e1 physics h ough mi- c ocompu e dynamic modelling: 1 Teaching me hods, Jo- u na1 o Compu e Assis ed Lea ning, 3, pp. 41-52. WONG, D. 1987b. Teaching A-le e1 physics h ough mi- c ocompu e dynamic modelling: 11 E alua ion o eaching, Jou nal o Compu e Assis ed Lea ning, 3, pp. 164-157. ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) APPENDIX Two examples o A ainmen Ta ge s in Na ional Cu iculum o Science in England and Wales In hese examples, he wo ds p in ed in i alics a e examples, and do no ha e s a u o y o ce. A ainmen Ta ge 15 Using ligh and elec omagne ic adia ion Pupils should de elop hei knowledge and unde s anding o he p ope ies and beha iou o ligh and elec omagne ic wa es. Le e1 S a emen s o A ainmen Pupils should: 1 Know ha ligh comes om di e en sou ces. Be able o disc imina e be ween colou s and ma ch hem o , whe e app op ia e, demons a e an unde s anding o colou in he en i onmen . 2 Know ha ligh passes h ough some ma e ials and no o he s, and ha when i does no , shadows may be o med. Be able o d aw pic u es, showing ea u es such as ligh , colou and shade. 3 Know ha ligh can be made o change di ec ion and shiny su aces can o m images. Be able o gi e an accoun o an in es iga ion wi h mi o s. 4 Know ha we see objec s because ligh is sca e ed o hem and in o ou eyes. Know ha ligh a els in s aigh lines and use his o explain he shapes and sizes o shadows. 5 Unde s and how ligh is e lec ed. 6 Unde s and how p isms and lenses e ac and dispe se ligh . Be able o gi e an accoun o he s uc u e and unc ion o he eye. Unde s and he p inciples o he common de ec s o sigh and hei co ec ion. 7 Be able o desc ibe and use he wa e model o he na u e o elec omagne ic adia ion. Know ha he e a e many ypes o adioac i e adia ion, ha hey a e impo an in e e yday li e, and be able o desc ibe some o hei applica ions. Be able o explain how some op ical de ices wo k, o example, simple came a, p ojec o and op ical ib e. 8 Unde s and e ac ion as an e ec o di e ences o eloci ies in di e en media. 9 Know ha he elec omagne ic spec um o ms a con inuum o adia ion wi h di e en physiological e ec s. Be able o selec , summa ize and p esen in o ma ion conceming he applica ion o elec o nagne ic wa es in domes ic con ex s, co nmunica ion and medicine. 10 Unde s and he p ocesses o dispe sion, in e e ence, di ac ion and pola isa ion o ligh . ENSEÑANZA DE LAS CIENCIAS, 1990,8 (3) 213