Na ion and Rep esen a ion: E.J. Siéyès and he Theo y o
he S a e o he F ench Re olu ion
Ramón MÁIZ
Uni e sidad de San iago de Compos ela
Wo king Pape n. 18
Ba celona 1990
"La na ion es ou ce qu'elle peu ê e pa cela seul qu'elle es "
"Au-delà du sys ème ep ésen a i il n'y a qu'usu pa ion, supe s i ion e olie"
The o icial "Jacobin" eading o he F ench Re olu ion, ha is he pa adigm
which, om Michele o Soboul, by way o Jau és, o Vo elle himsel , has gi en
p i ilege o he "social" aspec o he e olu ion, has shown a he same ime an
unusual lack o in e es in he p oblems o i s poli ical heo y, and mo e speci ically
he heo y o he S a e. Bo h sphe es, howe e , would, in iew o e olu iona y
e en s, unde go a de elopmen o he u mos in e es . The e o e, he impo ance
gi en o he Robespie ean discou se, which can easily be ound in any bibliog aphy
in use on he Re olu ion, has been u ned in o he silencing, i no he dis o ion o
E.J. Sieyes' excep ional con ibu ion.
In ac , he se e e neglec and dis ega d a o ded o he hinking and sys em
o he one who a he ime opened up he F ench Re olu ion by di ec ing he change
o he gene al S a es in o a Na ional Assembly. O he one who, a e ollowing a long
ca ee , would simila ly con ibu e o i s closu e, i s ly in The mido , hen in B uma io,
and las ly wi h Napoleon Bonapa e. All his con as s wi h he impo ance o his
poli ical posi ion, now ac i ely, now "de iè e le ideau", and abo e all wi h he unique
cla i y and dep h o his hough s on he e olu iona y S a e.
An eloquen p oo o his ma gina ion is gi en by he ac ha Sieyes' wo k,
apa om he Essay on P i ileges and Wha is he Thi d S a e? has ne e been
published again in F ance. Wi h he odd excep ion o da e (i.e. he The mido
speeches, by Bas id), and only e y ecen ly, o Do igny's edi ion cu en ly being
p epa ed, has such an unjus i iable omission begun o be ec i ied.
Bu no only has he abbo been o go en. In ac , i we compa e his discou se
o ha o he 1791 Cons i uen s, his speci ic posi ion has also been dis o ed,
iden i ying i " ou cou " wi h ha cons i u ional ex , wi hou ega d o he inal
he e ogenei y and i educibili y o bo h poli ical models. In his espec , he canonical
eading which he classical F ench school o Public Law: Esmein, Dugui , Hau iou ...
and in pa icula Ca e de Malbe g, has passed on o us, and which has come o be
he main sou ce o he legacy o public law esul ing om he e olu ion, has
undoub edly con ibu ed o inc easing hese mis akes.
Fo una ely, and no only as a esul o he inno a i e impulse ha he Fu e
school ga e o he analysis o poli ical a ai s, he acuum su ounding Sieyes has
slowly begun o be illed a he same ime ha he s udies on e olu iona y poli ical
hough , Public Law and he heo y o he S a e ha e been en iched. In his espec ,
he s udies o E. Schmi , P. Pasquino, M. Fo sy h, B. Manin and in pa icula C.
Cla eul mean decisi e ad ances in unde s anding and analyzing he abbo 's wo k.
These esea ch s udies ha e, in ac , b ough o ligh he p esence o a complex
model, a di e en pa adigm in he poli ical-ideological deba e o he Re olu ion ha
shows Sieyes as he mos p o ound hinke o he Re olu ion. In his espec ,
Cla eul's con ibu ion has pa icula impo ance, inasmuch as, while p o iding he
mos sys ema ic analysis so a o Sieyes' sys em, he unde ook he en i e
ansc ip ion and s udy o he abbo 's unpublished w i ings, no es and passages ha ,
now eco e ed, a e cu en ly deposi ed in he Na ional A chi es in Pa is.
Unpublished w i ings ha modula e and cla i y many o he unce ain ies o he
hough and e olu ion o he abbo 's poin s o iew.
The objec i e o his pape , a om any a emp o eplace neglec by an
ac i ical my hi ica ion, is none o he han o ad ance some o he esul s o a
esea ch s udy in p og ess on he Theo y o he S a e o he F ench Re olu ion.
Speci ically, by es ic ing ou sel es exclusi ely o he i s s age o he Re olu ion,
we will discuss he a icula ion and de elopmen o wo key concep s in Sieyes'
hough : Na ion and Rep esen a ion. Thus, we will a emp o show he speci ic
na u e o his heo e ical o mula ion in ela ion o he dominan discou se in he 1791
Cons i uen . Hence, we will show how he in e p e a ion o his p oposals in Eu opean
Public Law a e inco ec .
Bo h concep s, chosen as he backbone o ou analysis, p o ide in hei
abs ac ion e y e ec i e heo e ical e ec s on he whole o he abbo 's ex emely
ha monized and cohe en sys em. Bu also, his in e es , we unde s and, goes beyond
he me e sphe e o a necessa y c i ical and upda ed "Dogmengeschich e”, o each
he con empo a y deba e i sel on democ acy and ep esen a ion, a deba e which is
some imes oo has ily belie ed o be sol ed.
In his con ex , i is absolu ely essen ial o cla i y he scope he e m "concep "
has in Sieyes' wo k. Abo e all, he science ha he abbo pos ula es, he "A Social",
has wo closely ela ed aspec s. On he one hand i mus analyze he speci ic socie y
o i s ime, desc ibe he wo ld o ac s. Bu in addi ion o his i s "analyse en aison"
has a egula o y aspec which a ec s he building and design o new poli ical
ins i u ions, he new “public law”. The social mechanism ha he abbo p oposes is
cha ac e ized p ecisely by his close, indissoluble o mula ion o ac and law, o wha
is and wha should be: "La physique ne peu ê e que la connaissance de ce qui es .
L'a social se p opose de plie e d'accommode les ai s à nos besoins e à nos
jouissances; il demande ce qui doi ê e pou l'u ili é des hommes" (Vues su les
moyens d'execu ion).
I is a egula o y decan a ion in ol ing a e o mula ion o he Theo y o he
S a e in e ms o Public Law and, mos pa icula ly, as we will see la e , as p inciples,
as bases o Cons i u ional Law, "Allgemeines aa sleh e" o he S a e - his "Ê e de
aison"- which enligh ens he Re olu ion.
Such an epis emological s a emen has, in u n, a double e ec . Fi s o all, he
"analyse en aison" openly p esen s i sel in up u e wi h his o y, and gi es p i ilege
o will and eason o e adi ion: "Quel doi ê e la é i able science, celle des ai s ou
celle des p incipes?" Thus, he pos ula es he c ea ion o he new posi i e a i icial
poli ical o de , as a decision ee om bonds wi h he pas . This is con a y o he
his o ical idea ha , om Bu ke o Hegel, by way o Rehbe g, would in one way o
ano he de end "cons i u ional" e olu ionism agains he b eak b ough abou by he
Re olu ion. Secondly, wi hin a p e-c i ical a ionalism (which should no be
o e looked), he abbo 's social mechanisms se e he ins i u ional e icacy o he
concep s o a g ea e ex en han hei abs ac heo e ical design. The e o e, his
sys em owes less o he ideal pe ec ionism o Beg i han o he empi ical
con as ing o he a ious mechanisms o he "é ablissemen poli ique”, in his
adap a ion o -and a he same ime co ec ion o ( ha excessi e "na u al inequali y"),
he socie y o his ime.
I
Le us examine, hen, he i s o he abo e-men ioned concep s: Na ion. The
canonical e sion ha Ca é p o ides on he subjec is well known, ha o he
e olu iona y idea o Na ion in his Con ibu ion à la Théo ie Géné ale de l'É a . Tha
is, an exclusi ely legal/abs ac concep o na ion as a cen e o a ibu ing
so e eign y; i canno be ex ended o he se o indi iduals who o m he F ench
communi y, and is clea ly di e en om he "people". The Na ion, hen, is solely
conside ed as he o he ace o he S a e: "L'É a n'es que la na ion même
ju idiquemen o ganisée". We shall no pu sue his, because i is so well known.
Howe e , in wha ollows we will a emp b ie ly o show ha in a e y di e en
way in Sieyes: 1. The e is a double, bipola concep o na ion; 2. Tha in he
a icula ion o bo h pa s o i he e lies he speci ic na u e o his heo y on his
subjec ; and las ly 3. Tha om such an essen ial syn hesis decisi e heo e ical
e ec s esul o he whole o his en i e sys em.
In pa icula , in Sieyes' discou se we can clea ly ind bo h a legal-poli ical
concep o Na ion, cen e ed a ound he p oblem o he i le o so e eign y, and a
socio-poli ical concep o na ion, unde s ood as a speci ic communi y o ci izens, as a
social whole. Le us look a each o hem indi idually and in hei ela ionship o each
o he .
Fi s o all, he concep o na ion as a social whole. The e can be no doub a
all ha , as well as he legal-poli ical concep o Na ion, he e is a subs an ial social
signi icance a ached o he meaning o na ion as a communi y o ci izens. "Une
chose i an e" in Sieyes' w i ings: "Où p end e la na ion? Où elle es : dans les
qua an e mille pa oisses qui emb assen ou le e i oi e, ous les habi an s e
ibu ai es de la chose publique: c'es là sans dou e la na ion" (Qu'es -ce que le Tie s
é a ). This is also he las meaning o he amous p inciple: "Le Tie s é a es une
na ion comple e".
Thus, as a sociopoli ical concep , na ion applies o he communi y o he
F ench (we shall see la e on who hey a e and how hey o m i ), si ua ed in he
S a e o na u e and he e o e p io o he S a e (l'É a social): "La na ion exis e a an
ou , elle es l'o igine de ou . A an elle e au-dessus d'elle il n'y a que le d oi
na u el... Une na ion ne so jamais de l'é a de na u e" (Qu'es -ce que ... ).
Now, wi h ega d o he "o d e na u el" ha o ms he na ion, whe eas he
classical na u al law, and Rousseau himsel , abs ac he p inciples go e ning he
poli ical o de om an abs ac and a-his o ical human na u e, Sieyes app oaches
men as subjec s de e mined in ime and space by he socioeconomic s uc u e o he
socie y o hei age, namely 18 h cen u y F ance. This "s a e o na u e" is unde s ood,
hen, om a clea ly economic iewpoin , ollowing he lines o hough o he
economis s o he age ha Sieyes, as shown by his unpublished w i ings and no es
be o e he Re olu ion, had s udied ex ensi ely and p o oundly. This is ou au ho 's
analy ical poin o depa u e: he economic s uc u e o F ance in ha e a becomes
he basis, o which he newly c ea ed public es ablishmen has o adap , while
co ec ing i s excesses. Since he economic sys em is seen o be pa icula ly
dynamic, he S a e has o e ol e a he same ime, and adjus he ma e ial na u e o
i s ins i u ions o he changes b ough abou by unceasing social and economic
p og ess.
A undamen al ea u e o Sieyes' sys em is ou lined he e: poli ical and
egula o y o de a ionally adap ed o a socie y seen as a sum o p ope y and libe y,
a ma ke socie y ounded on ade be ween ee independen wo ke s. Thus, his is a
clea app oach by Sieyes o Locke's ideas and a he same ime a mo e away om
Rousseau's ideas. A mo e owa ds Locke and away om Rousseau, which will no
cease o become mo e p o ound as he abbo de elops his discou se.
Now, poin ing ou he gene ic deb ha Sieyes owes o he economis s is only
an ini ial s ep owa ds unde s anding he kind o "s a e o na u e" o ha p inciple,
which equi es u he cla i ica ion. In ac , Sieyes does no ag ee a all wi h he
physioc a s ha Land is he sole basis o alue and he only sou ce o weal h. On he
con a y, he asc ibes o he heo y o alue-labo , he basic ou lines o which can be
ound in his unpublished w i ings: "C'es le a ail qui o me la ichesse. Pa mi les
jouissances il au dis ingue celles que ou le monde se p ocu e ou peu se p ocu e
sans les ache e , de celles qu'on es obligé d'acqué i pa un a ail ou pa le i e qui

le ep ésen e. Nous donnons le nom de ichesses a ou es les collec ions de biens
acquis pa les a aux" (Le es aux économis es).
His p oximi y o Smi h in his c i icism o he physioc a s, o ha ing cons uc ed
a poli ical economy on ci cula ion and no on p oduc ion, is also con inued in he
heo y o he di ision o labo , which as we shall see is o he u mos impo ance o
Sieyes' poli ical hough .
Now, i "le a ail géné al es donc le ondemen de la socié é, e l'o d e social
n'es que le meilleu o d e possible des a aux" (Le es...), he c i icism o
physioc a ic hinking is shown o be cen al, bo h o he pu poses o de e mining he
F ench na ion in i s s a e o na u e, and o he pu poses o conside ing he poli ics o
mode ni y: "Les peuples Eu opéens mode nes essemblen bien peu aux peuples
anciens. Il ne s'agi pa mi nous que de Comme ce, d'Ag icul u e, de ab iques. Le
dési de ichesses semble ne ai e de ous les É a s de l'Eu ope que de as es
a elie s. Aussi les sys èmes poli iques, aujou d'hui, son exclusi emen ondés su le
a ail" (Di e su le e o oyal).
Fo he es , Sieyes, in ag eemen wi h he abo e, dis inguishes h ee e y
di e en social classes om hose o Quesnay: he weal h-p oducing class, he
("communica ice") class, which ci cula es weal h, and las ly he poli ical class, which
main ains poli ical o de and gua an ees he unc ioning o p oduc ion and he
ma ke . As a co olla y o all his, he na ion is unde s ood o be he communi y o
p oduce s o alue, in he wide sense o " a aux pa iculie s e onc ions publiques".
This has a leas h ee decisi e poli ical consequences, which a e:
1.- Fi s o all, no all he F ench people o m he F ench na ion. The na ion is a
g oup o p oduce s, which should include ade s and indus ialis s, as well as
poli icians and ci il se an s, and e en he "mos menial domes ic se ices". In sho ,
he na ion is he Thi d S a e and " he Thi d s a e is a comple e Na ion”. Simila ly and
a he same ime, because o hei " ainean isse”, Nobili y is de ini ely excluded om
he Na ion.
I he na ion, as "engagemen ”, is o med spon aneously by i ue o he
necessi y men ha e o a end o hei needs ("besoins") and he ad an ages ha he
g oup has o ca y ou hei p oduc i e ac i i ies, he exclusion o hose sec o s which
a e indeb ed o P i ilege is imposed p ecisely because o ha adical and o iginal
emo al om he na ional "common in e es " ha de i es om he consubs an ial
pa asi ism o anyone who " i de ses ancê es" (Essai su les P i ilèges).
2.- The na ion, as a social whole ha has i s limi s ma ked by i s p oduc i i y,
also p o ides, acco ding o he di ision o labo ha Sieyes de elops e en be o e he
appea ance in 1776 o "The Weal h o Na ions", and in a wide sense han Smi h, a
key c i e ia in he s uc u ing o he S a e. In ac , he " a ail en ep ésen a ion" has
i s con inui y in he poli ical s uc u e as his sepa a es hose who go e n om hose
who a e go e ned, a sepa a ion based on echnical specializa ion. Thus,
ep esen a ion is bo n, as a comple ely cen al and essen ial amewo k o he whole
cons uc ion o he "social s a e”, bu i also appea s as a " ep esen a i e
go e nmen " o expe s.
Agains he my h o he "Ago a”, ha is eedom unde s ood as compulso y
and abso bing pa liamen a y pa icipa ion by all ci izens in he a ai s o he S a e, he
abbo conside s eedom, as a basis o social o de . I is a p oduc ha allows o
delega e he a ai s o go e nmen o he mos capable h ough sub le and complex
mechanisms o ep esen a ion and con ol, so ha he majo i y o ci izens can ca y
ou he ac i i ies o p oduc ion and ade which belong o he ci il socie y o hei ime:
"à l'ab i de la sécu i é commune, je me li e ai anquillemen à mes p oje s
pe sonnels, je sui ai ma élici é comme je l'en end ai, assu é de ne encon e des
bonnes légales à mes dési s que celles que la socié é me p esc i a pou l'in é ê
commun, auquel je pa e a ec lequel mon in é ê pa iculie a ai une alliance si
u ile" (Qu'es -ce que...). This "in nuce" is he p oblem o Cons an 's "Libe é des
mode nes", "poli ical eedom" as a gua an ee o exe cising ue "ci il eedom".
Rep esen a ion which in no way, as we will see la e , means aliena ion o he ci izen's
poli ical will, no he elimina ion o all ins ance o pa icipa ion.
Howe e , on he basis o he dis inc ion o h ee ypes o in e es s -indi idual,
co po a e and common, o which only he las can be ep esen ed, Sieyes clea ly
sepa a es public om p i a e. Thus, "la chose commune n'es pas le ou ", and
he e o e he ci izens only ha e o en us a e y small pa o hei sphe e o
ac i i ies o he S a e. The claim ha he S a e in ades he ci izens' indi idual and
p i a e sphe e esul s in he change om he " e-publique" in o wha Sieyes e y
exp essi ely de ines as " e- o ale”. This absolu e au ho i y ha "pénè e jusqu'à
l'in é ieu de l'homme", his Rousseaunian communi y spi i , in his opinion ine i ably
esul s in he denial o indi idual igh s, and in ac , in a "monacale" ype o
o ganiza ion.
3.- Las ly, he lawless solida i y o he Thi d S a e is he consequence o he
exclusion o Nobili y and he ha mony o in e es s o he p oduce s. The la e is he
esul o an economic analysis ha concedes equali y in on o he law, he equali y
o wo ke s and equal alue o hei wo k in he ma ke . This social uni o mi y,
con eyed by he absence o ca ego ies o p oduc i e/unp oduc i e labo , a su plus
alue and unequal exchange, ac s as suppo o he con ic ion ha he expulsion o
he Nobili y om he na ional sphe e would esol e he only eme ging social
con adic ion in a wo ld whe e di e en p i a e in e es s would, unde he man le o
common in e es s, li e in peace ul coexis ence. This social uni o mi y, a e cleansing
he social body o i s a is oc a ic exc escence, es ablishes he bases ha allow, bu in
no way gua an ee, no mean o Sieyes i s au oma ic exis ence, he eme gence o a
na ional will.
As a subsequen esul , poli ical pa ies and poli ical g oups a e no only
conside ed by ou au ho o be unnecessa y bu also ac ually ha m ul, when
co po a e and g oup in e es s a e placed ou side public/s a e and p i a e/indi idual
a ai s: "La g ande di icul é ien donc de l'in é ê pa lequel un ci oyen s'acco de
a ec quelques au es seulemen . Celui-ci pe me de se conce e , de se ligue ; pa
lui se combinen les p oje s dange eux pou la communau é". No hing, hen, should
in e ene be ween public and p i a e a ai s, be ween he S a e and he ci izens.
In ac , he abbo does no conside he people as " he ma e ial ha comp ises
he edi ice o he S a e" (Hobbes), no he only "pe sonal sphe e o ope a ion o he
legal code" (Kelsen). The people end o be he se o p oduce s, he Thi d S a e.
And, while economically ac i e, hey become, b oadly speaking, he na ion i sel : "le
peuple ou la Na ion ne peu a oi qu'une oix, celle de la législa u e na ionale" (Di e
su le e o). Thus, he social aspec o he na ion, placed in he "s a e o na u e",
akes in Sieyes he ou lines g an ed by ci il socie y, om which he s a e Le ia han
eme ges, monopolizing he poli ical powe p e iously dispe sed in ci il socie y.
Bu , as we said, he concep o na ion in Sieyes p esen s ano he aspec : he
na ion as a legal-poli ical subjec : "Un co ps d'associés i an sous une loi commune
e ep ésen és pa la même législa u e". I is a e y well known ac ha he classical
heo y o he 1791 Cons i u ion Commi ee ga e his subjec -na ion he i le o
na ional so e eign y: "le p incipe de ou e sou e aine é éside essen iellemen dans
la na ion". This heo y was de eloped by he F ench classics o Public Law and ixed
in canonical e ms by Ca é de Malbe g.
Now, i is an ex emely no able ac ha Sieyes in no way uses he concep o
"na ional so e eign y" in any o his w i ings, bu on he con a y, on se e al occasions
he p oceeds o a de ailed and adical decons uc ion o i , mos o he ime implici ly,
bu a o he s openly and explici ly.
The key o such a signi ican elision mus be ound in he speci ic o mula ion
ha Sieyes makes o he cen al dis inc ion be ween i le and exe cise o public
powe . In ac , ins ead o me ging bo h sides, pu ing he people in he place o he
na ion and p eaching he inalienabili y o a p e iously cons i u ed will, i.e. Rousseau's
heo y o popula so e eign y, ou au ho gi es he na ion he i le o cons i uen
powe , which he adically di e en ia es om cons i u ed powe s.
Thus he na ion eme ges om he ield o ci il socie y and om social subjec
becomes a legal-public subjec . In ac , in he second e a o he o ma ion o a
poli ical socie y, he na ion pu s in o e ec a common will, by exe cising i s na u al
igh s "la olon é na ionale n'a besoin que de sa éali é pou ê e oujou s légale, elle
es l'o igine de ou e légali é ... N'exis an que dans l'o d e na u el, leu olon é, pou
so i ou son e e , n'a besoin que de les ca ac è es na u els d'une olon é" (Qu'es -
ce que le Tie s).
Now, such a heo y o he na ion as he holde o cons i uen powe and he
esul ing de i ed and non o iginal cha ac e o cons i u ed powe s, enables Sieyes o
mo e he people om he immediacy o exe cising powe , eplacing hem by hei
ep esen a i es elec ed o his pu pose: "Les associés son op nomb eux e
épandus su une su ace op é endue, pou exe ce acilemen eux-mêmes leu
olon é commune. Que on -ils? Ils en dé achen ou ce qui es nécessai e, pou
eille e pou oi aux soins publics; e ce e po ion de olon é na ionale e pa
conséquen de pou oi , ils en con ien l'exe cice a quelques-uns d'en e eux".
Now, he communi y is no s ipped o i s will, inasmuch as i is inalienable, no
does i en us mo e han he ba e "po ion qui es nécessai e pou main eni le bon
o d e". Thus, unlike he absolu e way Rousseau su ende s, ha "me e en commun
ses biens, sa pe sonne, sa ie e ou e sa puissance sous la sup ême di ec ion de la
olon é géné ale" (Du Con a Social), Sieyes secula izes he legi imacy o he S a e,
es ablishing i s con ol and limi a ion as he ask o social a and an e ec o he
sys ema ic mis us in he uncu bed gene al will. Fo his eason, popula so e eign y,
in his opinion, is an imi a ion o absolu e powe and a heo e ical p inciple o he " e-
o ale”. He he e o e p oceeds o a decisi e decons uc ion o he s a ed concep : "la
sou e aine é, même populai e, es une concep ion oyalis e e monacale, une
concep ion des uc ice de la libe é... ce mo ne s'es p ésen é si colossal de an
l'imagina ion des ançais, enco e pleins de supe s i ions oyales, que pa ce qu'ils se
son ai un de oi de le do e de l'hé i age pompeux e des a ibu s du pou oi
absolu" (Discou s 2 The mido ).
So e eign y, unlimi ed powe by de ini ion, and he e o e "un mons e en
poli ique" is subs i u ed by he heo y o cons i uen powe /cons i u ed powe s. By
means o his, as a as he exe cise o powe is conce ned, Sieyes does no eplace
he na ion o he people, bu o he ep esen a i es (o dina y o ex ao dina y), in i s
ba e immediacy. I s cons i uen au ho i y ha ing been exe cised, he na ion becomes
a la en s a e, keeping a powe in ese e. Because, in ac , as we will see, we
canno easily accep , ollowing Schmi 's me apho in he now classic passages o his
"Ve assungsleh e", ha in Sieyes, he people only occupy he place ha was
ese ed o God in he heo y o he di ine o igin o oyal powe . This is so because,
while he na ion does no aliena e i s powe , ha is, i is no dissol ed o e e a e
he exe cise o cons i uen powe , no hing p e en s i om excep ionally eappea ing
in o de o " esaisi " he la e and al e he bases o he whole legal o de .
has indica ed ha in Sieyes' unpublished w i ings he e exp essly appea s he
exp ession "pou oi neu e" o designa e his mode a ing unc ion.
We could add o his he quali y o "p emie Ci oyen", wi h oyal pa icipa ion in
he legisla i e p ocess being unable o exceed, on he one hand, exe cise o he o e
-al hough "nulle pa e son su age ne peu en aloi deux"- and he subsequen
sanc ion and p oclama ion (Di e su le e o). Acco ding o all indica ions, Sieyes
appea s no o be hinking echnically o a cons i u ional mona chy, bu o a
pa liamen a y one, whe e he sanc ion would be in oduced as a due ac , me ely
o mal and ou side he will o he legisla i e body, se in app o al.
The speci ic di e ence o he abbo 's posi ion in his espec is e en mo e
no iceable i , when he p oposed i in 1791, he e m "donnée" was supp essed. A
e m ha , wi h clea echnical inco ec ness, combined he imes o app o al,
sanc ion and p oclama ion o he laws on he da e o he oyal sanc ion, because
"semble ai ouloi nous app end e que le é i able législa eu es le oi, puisque la
loi se ai donnée pa la sanc ion”. As a esul , he abbo would equi e a eco d o be
made o he p oclama ion da e, aking in o accoun ha "es la plus essen ielle à
connaî e; ca c'es de ce jou -là seulemen que les ci oyens son obligés de s'y
soume e" (Moni eu , VIII, p. 286). Thus, he law is no concei ed by Sieyes as a
complex ac acco ding o he model o cons i u ional mona chy (Laband), in which "le
mona que eu à la ois le con enu de la loi e sa o ce impé a i e" (Ca é), a esidue
om he mona chic p inciple. Qui e on he con a y, he law becomes he exclusi e
he i age (as ega ds es ablishmen and legal alidi y) o he Na ional Assembly and,
a he same ime, he oyal sanc ion becomes a me e in eg a ing equisi e o i s
e icacy.
In a simila way o wha occu ed wi h he concep o na ion, he e is in Sieyes
a concep o ep esen a ion ha would c ys allize in he 1791 ex and ha is
i educible o he majo i y posi ion o he Cons i u ion Commi ee. An idea o
ep esen a i e go e nmen ha , al hough i unde goes poli ical-o ganiza ional
changes as he yea s go by, i would om he poin o iew o i s bases, emain
howe e un ouched.
In ac , in ela ion o he exis ence o wo assumed, adically di e en phases
in he abbo 's hinking on ep esen a ion - he i s one go e ned by a Rousseaunian
spi i , accep ing he impe a i e manda e, while he second would accep he
ep esen a i e manda e in e ms simila o hose o he Cons i u ion Commi ee-, a
de ailed analysis o he ex s shows ha , apa om some shi s, he e is an essen ial
con inui y. The e o e, he b eak be ween a i s and a second Sieyes, sugges ed by
au ho s such as Zweig o Löwens ein (op. ci .), ollowing Gie ke in his classic wo k
Al hussius und die En wicklung de na u ech lichen S aa s heo ien (1880), canno be
accep ed. Qui e on he con a y, in he abbo we ind a speci ic idea o ep esen a ion

as "déléga ion sans aliéna ion" and "edi ice ep ésen a i e de base démoc a ique",
which is clea ly di e en om he one ha iumphed in he 1791 Cons i u ion ( o
which Ca é w ongly akes him) and con inues wi h a ious o ganic-ins i u ional
c ys alliza ions h oughou all his w i ings. F om such an idea o ep esen a ion, we
can syn hesize he key momen s, ha is o say:
A.- Fi s o all, and once again in opposi ion o Rousseau, Sieyes demands a
all imes a " aie ep ésen a ion;" namely, he ep esen a i e ac s on behal o he
ep esen ed pa y, he e only being a p io gene ic con en , bu in no way a speci ic
will o be ansmi ed. The poli ical will is cons uc ed h oughou he p ocess o
ep esen a i e media ion, excluding he me e ans e by he ep esen a i e o a
p elimina y and o igina ing con en . As a esul , ep esen a ion mus be ee and no
a Rousseaunian "pou oi commis”, incapable o educing di e se mul iplici y o he
minimum indispensable poli ical uni y. Only in his way will he syn hesis o he
gene al will as he will o he majo i y be eached: "la mé hode de dé ache de
simples po eu s de o es es essen iellemen icieuse: les Dépu és, obligés de s'en
eni sc upuleusemen à l'a is de leu s comme an s, ne pou an poin se concilie
en 'eux, il de ien sou en impossible de i e de la o ali é des o es une olon é
commune; o c'es la olon é commune qu'il au ... la communau é se dé e mine donc
à acco de plus de con iance à ses manda ai es. Elle les onde de p ocu a ion, à
l'e e de se éuni , de délibé e , de se concilie , e de ouloi en commun: alo s, au-
lieu de simples po eu s de o es, elle a de ais ep ésen an s" (Vues su les
moyens).
F om his s a ing poin , Sieyes cons uc s a e y cha ac e is ic and o iginal
manda e o ep esen a ion, he ea u es o which a e:
a.- Exclusion o he impe a i e manda e, cha ac e is ic o democ acy, because
i would make he common decision and ag eemen s ("délibe a ions") impossible: "Le
Peuple dans un pays qui n'es pas une démoc a ie (e la F ance ne sau ai l'ê e)...
ne peu pa le , ne peu agi que pa ses Rep ésen an s" (Di e su le e o).
b.- Bu , and his is decisi e, exclusion also o he " ou cou " ep esen a i e
manda e, aking in o accoun ha he cha ac e is ic dynamics o he " us ”, o he
con idence ha is placed in he base o i s whole sys em, p e en aliena ion o he
igh s o he ep esen ed pa y and absolu e au onomy o he ep esen a i e om any
con ol o he han a pu ely elec o al one. The e o e, unlike he 1791 ex , Sieyes
in oduces he possibili y o annulmen : "Mais la mission donnée aux ep ésen an s
ne peu jamais ê e une aliéna ion. Ce e mission es essen iellemen lib e,
cons ammen é ocable, e limi ée, au g é des comme an s, pou le emps ainsi que
pou la na u e des a ai es (pou oi cons i uan ou onc ion législa i e, R.M.)" (Vues).
Hence, hen, he i educible speci ici y o Sieyes' heo y o ep esen a ion, ha
c ys allizes in a "gou e nemen ep ésen a i ”, o mula ed, acco ding o his own
wo ds, as a "base démoc a ique e l'édi ice ep ésen a i e" (Bases de l'É a social).
This in u n is ans o med in o wo di e en e ec s:
1.- Fi s o all, he a o e-men ioned democ a ic base o he ep esen a i e
edi ice would be o med by he p ima y Assemblies. These, in Sieyes' model, a e
egula ed no only o a me ely elec o al pu pose, a e which hey would disappea ,
bu as ue bodies o con ol and pa icipa ion by he ci izens, a collec i e "oeil de la
Ré olu ion”, basic bodies o democ acy wi h he capaci y o dismissal and exclusion
(no o impe a i e manda e), designed o " a aichi les ep ésen an s d'esp i
démoc a ique" (Bases). This unc ion would, howe e , be elimina ed by he
Cons i u ion Commi ee.
2.- Secondly, and inasmuch as o ou au ho " ou es ep ésen a ion dans
l'É a social”, ep esen a ion would go beyond he me e sphe e o legisla i e powe ,
o each he execu i e and judicial bodies: " ous son ep ésen an s”.
Thus, he iden i y o he cons i u ional legal s a u e o hese powe s (mo e
p ecisely, o hese bodies ha pe o m di e en unc ions) excludes all possible
hie a chical a angemen be ween hem, since, as we ha e al eady said, hey a e no
o iginal and equally de i e om he Cons i u ion, e en he legisla i e powe .
Sieyes' idea o " ep esen a i e go e nmen " is hus shown o be en i ely
di e en . Fi s , as a co olla y o he hie a chical supe io i y o he Cons i u ion,
esul ing om he heo y o he cons i uen powe o he na ion, i explodes he my h
o legisla i e powe as a p i ileged exp ession o he na ional will. Secondly, cen e ed
on he cons uc i e na u e o common will, de eloped by he a ious ins i u ions o
he public es ablishmen , i pays equal a en ion o each and e e y one o he
cons i u ional bodies in hei unc ional specializa ion.
Taking all his as a whole, he model o ep esen a ion pu o wa d by Sieyes
is clea ly di e en om he ep esen a i e manda e, as i would be es ablished in he
1791 Cons i u ion, om whe e i would pass o wes e n cons i u ional Law, and which
in ol es he absolu e au onomy o he ep esen a i e in ela ion o he ep esen ed
pa ies. Ve y di e en ly, his model o a democ a ic base and ep esen a i e edi ice
shows comple ely o iginal ea u es, among which he ollowing a e wo hy o no e:
1.- Reduc ion in he manda e pe iod ( h ee yea s) and annual enewal by
hi ds, as well as no immedia e e-eligibili y un il a pe iod o h ee yea s has elapsed.
The p ima y Assemblies would elec he i s and second hi ds o e mina e, and so
he membe s o pa liamen would be con olled, as hey would a oid being
e mina ed i s ; in ac , "on s'e o ce a de ne pas mé i e ce choix" (Quelques idées
de Cons i u ion).
2.- Possibili y o dismissal and exclusion o he membe s o pa liamen by he
p ima y Assemblies, should con idence in he ep esen a i e be los . Annulmen
would, howe e , in o de o gua an ee con olled use o he ins i u ion, equi e a
ein o ced majo i y o h ee qua e s o he elec ed Assembly. Thus, he p ima y
Assemblies, as well as a pu ely elec o al unc ion, would p o ide ha " esh
democ a ic ai " o impe us and supe ision o he whole ep esen a i e edi ice a i s
h ee le els: Municipal, Depa men al and Na ional.
3.- Comple e eo ganiza ion o he F ench poli ical e i o y, which Sieyes calls
"Aduna ion poli ique”, on he basis o depa men al uni s and he es ablishmen o a
sys em o p opo ional ep esen a ion by way o h ee di e en ac o s:
1.- Te i o y: Whe e he uni o mi y o su ace a ea o he new depa men s
would be ans o med in o a ixed numbe o membe s o pa liamen o each one o
hem.
2.- Popula ion: A ce ain numbe o membe s o pa liamen would be
dis ibu ed in p opo ion o he espec i e popula ion o he depa men s.
3.- Con ibu ion: A highe a e o ax paymen -including bo h he olume o
axes and he amoun o he olun a y ax ha opens he doo s o ac i e ci izens, as
we shall see la e -, would be ans o med equally in o a g ea e numbe o membe s
o pa liamen .
"Aduna ion" comp ises he las eason o a ep esen a i e S a e which is
con igu ed as uni a y and also cen alized, openly excluding ede alism: "La F ance
ne doi poin ê e un assemblage de pe i es Na ions, qui se gou e ne on sépa émen
en Démoc a ies; elle n'es poin une collec ion d'É a s; elle es un ou unique,
composé de pa ies in ég an es; ces pa ies ne doi en poin a oi sépa émen une
exis ence complè e pa ce que ne son que des pa ies ne o man qu'un seul ou ”.
4.- C ea ion o a ue Public Opinion h ough anspa ency in decision making,
de elopmen o he p ess and ci cula ion o books and pamphle s o poli ical deba e,
as well as, and in pa icula , he es ablishmen o a new and e ec i e sys em o
Public Ins uc ion. Sieyes would de elop all hese i ems in e y in e es ing new
de ailed legisla i e p ojec s.
5.- Las ly, c ea ion o a "ci izens' mo al sense" o ac i e pa icipa ion in
poli ics, designed o in ol e he la ges possible numbe o ci izens in he democ a ic
base o elec ion and con ol (ac i e ci izen y) o he ep esen a i e edi ice, and sa e
he cons i u ion om a new "poli ical a is oc acy”. In his espec , Sieyes would
design bo h calenda s o na ional holidays, hono s and celeb a ions in p aise o ci ic
alues.
As we can see, a ep esen a i e sys em such as he one abo e, based on a
con idence submi ed o a con ol o he ep esen a i es as indi iduals (dismissal)
and no on hei ac s (exclusion o he impe a i e manda e), as well as on a
o mula ion o democ acy o pa icipa ion and ep esen a ion, is clea ly di e en om
he 1791 model. As we al eady know, he la e excluded any con ol by he o e on
he pe son elec ed, and educed poli ical pa icipa ion o me e elec ion.
B.- A cen al pa o Sieyes, " ep esen a i e go e nmen " is, hen, he
impo an ole played by he p ima y Assemblies, which he au ho also calls
"Comi ia”. In each dis ic , hese p ima y Assemblies we e made up o poli ically
ac i e ci izens (acco ding o he c i e ia ha we shall examine la e ) in a numbe
ne e highe han six o se en hund ed, in which case hey would be subdi ided.
Fa om being dissol ed, once hei elec o al commi men had been made (as
he Cons i u ion Commi ee would es ablish), among he addi ional unc ions ha
Sieyes gi es hem, he mos no able o ou pu poses he e is he p epa a ion o he
eligibili y lis s om which candida es would be p oposed. This unc ion would also be
elimina ed by he Cons i u ion Commi ee and would no appea in he 1791 ex .
In ac , in he absence o poli ical pa ies o he easons s a ed abo e, he
abbo assigned o he "comi ia" he selec ion o candida es a an ini ial le el. Fo he
es , ano he such would occu a he depa men al and na ional le els. All ac i e
ci izens who we e wo hy o such an "hono ”, aking in o accoun ha o be eligible is
no a igh bu a hono i ic ecogni ion o a special me i o ci izenship, would be
en e ed on he lis o hose eligible.
E e y yea , he p ima y Assemblies would d aw up hese lis s o eligible
people by a majo i y o e, and nobody could assume any public posi ion wi hou
ha ing p e iously been on one o hem o a leas one yea . The candida es ha
would appea on hese lis s would ei he be elec ed (in he case o he legisla i e
body, in ascending o de ), o appoin ed by he highe le el, ha is, he local ci il
se an s by he p o incials, he la e by he na ionals e c. (in he case o
adminis a i e-execu i e powe , in descending o de ). Thus, he p ima y Assemblies
would p o ide lis s o hose people eligible bo h o elec ion o he na ional Assembly,
a he i s s age, and o appoin men by he op ci il se an s o he Go e nmen .
E en i hose who a e adminis e ed do no appoin hem, ci il se an s should be
us ed, s ic ly in ag eemen wi h he cha ac e ha Sieyes gi es hem o
ep esen a i es.
He e in ac is he ul ima e meaning o he abbo 's c yp ic and usually
misin e p e ed exp ession: "La con iance ien d'en bas, le pou oi ien d'en hau ”.
Now, he loss o con idence leads o he b eak up o he ep esen a i e bond
in wo ways: dismissal ( e mina ion o a ep esen a i e du ing his manda e pe iod), o
exclusion (non-inclusion in he annual eligibili y lis ).
In his way, in he legisla i e o de , ep esen a i es could be dismissed by hei
elec o s’ assemblies, and excluded by he assembly ha appoin ed hem eligible (by
a 3/4 majo i y). In u n, in he go e nmen , ep esen a i es could be dismissed by
hei hie a chical supe io s and excluded by he espec i e p ima y Assemblies. In
he judicial o de , he e was an annual elimina ion sc u iny, whe e a blank o e would
mean suppo o he judge, and o he al e na i e names could be p oposed
(Nou elle o ganisa ion de la Police e la Jus ice).
A e yea 3, in ace o he a an -ga de ins umen a ion o he sec ions by he
Jacobins, Sieyes was o de ise an appeals sys em be o e he "Ju y
Cons i u ionnai e" o con es ep esen a i es. Con ol would become judicial and de-
poli icized, bea ing in mind nonexis ence o he impe a i e manda e ha would ake
away om he p ima y Assemblies he ask o dismissal, bu no exclusion.
C.- Mo eo e , as a as he ci izens' s a u e is conce ned, he e a e subs an ial
di e ences be ween Sieyes' idea and ha o he cons i u ional epo .
In ac , a e he appa en accep ance by he Cons i u ion commi ee o he
abbo 's dis inc ion be ween ac i e ci izens, who enjoyed poli ical igh s, and passi e
ci izens, who only had he gene al ad an ages o p o ec ion and secu i y o he public
es ablishmen , he e we e de ini ely unde lying di e ging pe spec i es. Ag eemen
would cen e a ound an eli is and census ocused concep o he passi e elec o a e:
hey all accep ed he need o he census equi emen , income le el, in e es and
esponsibili y o public a ai s, in ellec ual capaci y, and educa ion. Tha is,
go e nmen should belong o he "classes a ailable”. In o de o be elec ed o he
na ional Assembly, i would be necessa y o pay he amous sil e ma k and o own
an es ablished p ope y.
Bo h ag eed, also, ha ac i e ci izens pe o med mili a y se ice in he
Na ional Gua d ( om which he Ac o 15.06.1790 excluded passi e ci izens), ook
pa in ju ies, and con ibu ed inancially in main aining he S a e. Now, in o de o
become an ac i e ci izen, Sieyes p oposed a e y small ci ic ax ("la plus pe i e axe
possible") and olun a y in na u e. This con ibu ion would demons a e he minimum
in e es in public a ai s necessa y o ci izens o exe cise poli ical igh s in he
p ima y Assemblies in a esponsible ashion, and in no way was i designed o
exclude la ge sec o s o he popula ion om o ing. In ac , o he abbo , and cen al

o his philosophy: "les d oi s poli iques doi en ê e a achés non a la p op e é mais a
la pe sonne" (Ins uc ions à donne aux bailliages). He e we ind an essen ial
di e ence: while o Sieyes su age is a igh , ha only economic and poli ical
backwa dness p e en ed om becoming immedia ely gene alized, o he cons i uen
commi ee, o ing is a me e unc ion ha he Na ion en us s o a chosen pa o i s
membe s. The uni e sal na u e o su age and he igh s o he ci izens, ha ou
au ho claims, a e a cen al pa o his model o ep esen a i e go e nmen : " ous ne
pou ez pas e use la quali é de Ci oyens e les d oi s du ci isme à ce e mul i ude
sans ins uc ion, qu'un a ail o cé abso be en en ie . Puisqu'ils doi en obéi à la
Loi, ou comme ous, ils doi en aussi, ou comme ous, concou i à la ai e. Ce
concou s doi ê e égal" (Di e su le e o).
Thus, he cons i u ion commi ee would es ablish a o ing equi emen in o de
o be allowed o o e ha would "de ac o" mean exclusion o he majo i y o he
popula ion (speci ically: a p opo ion o 16 ac i e ci izens pe e e y 100 inhabi an s)
and ini ia ed he o ing su age.
The di e ences wi h ega d o he ac i e elec o a e do no s op he e,
howe e . In ac , in his espec , as Pasquino has indica ed, Sieyes is placed in a
pe spec i e ending owa ds uni e sal su age. In ac :
1.- As a as he exclusion o women om he igh o o e is conce ned, he
abbo s a es ha , while in Eu opean coun ies women can be queens; "pa une
singuliè e con adic ion", hey a e excluded om exe cising he o e, and so:
"D'ap ès un p éjugé qui ne se pe me pas môme le dou e à ce e éga d, nous
sommes donc o cés de e anche au moins la moi ié de la popula ion o ale"
(Obse a ions su le appo du Comi é de Cons i u ion). This is a posi ion ha as in
e e y hing ega ding ep esen a ion, places he abbo close o Condo ce 's posi ion
and clea ly agains bo h ha o he Cons i u ion Commi ee and he Jacobins.
2.-.Equally signi ican is he exclusion o begga s and ag an s o echnical
easons om gua an ee o census, o o domes ic se an s, because o hei
p esumable cap i e o e: "ceux qu'une dépendance se ile ien a achés aux
olon és a bi ai es d'un maî e".
3.- Las ly, he numbe o passi e ci izens is conside ed by Sieyes in a dynamic
pe spec i e o p og essi e educ ion. And i could no be o he wise, because his
concep o ep esen a i e Go e nmen akes in bo h he o mal aspec o
ep esen a ion and, o mula ed as an open p ocess, o o exp ess i in Böcken ö de's
e ms "inhal liche Rep äsen a ionsbeg i " (Demok a ie und Rep äsen a ion), namely
ecogni ion, in ol emen and eal pa icipa ion by he ci izens in con ol o he public
es ablishmen , in sho , subs an ial ep esen a ion: "déléga ion sans aliéna ion".
Finally, and e y b ie ly, i is pe haps in e es ing o men ion he esul s ha
Sieyes' concep s o na ion and ep esen a ions ha e in his c i ical s ance agains he
p inciple o sepa a ion o powe s, acco ding o he B i ish model, which had g ea
in luence no only on Mounie bu also on o he membe s o he Cons i u ion
commi ee (Lally-Tollendal, Be gasse, Cle mon -Tonne e, e c.).
In ac , he abbo , in he ligh o e e y hing men ioned abo e, could no bu
exp ess his ex eme eluc ance o he in oduc ion in F ance o he B i ish
ep esen a i e model, and his, a leas , was o wo basic easons:
1.- I g an ed special ep esen a ion o he nobili y as such, which ein o ced
p i ilege in ela ion o he ci izens who we e o mally equal in he eyes o he law. In
ac , he nobili y was no longe a pa o a na ion e o mula ed as "le Tie s é a ".
2.- The con lic be ween classes and in e es s was also eco ded as a p inciple
o ope a ion o he B i ish ins i u ions.
Now, Sieyes' model mean ha , when he nobili y had been elimina ed, he
e y aboli ion o P i ileges would es ablish an essen ial uni o mi y o social in e es s
ha h ough he "aduna ion poli ique" and a "gou e nemen ep ésen a i ", would
dispense wi h he need o a coun e balance o powe s concei ed as bea e s o
di e en social in e es s. We can well unde s and, hen, Sieyes' ex eme hos ili y o a
poli ical sys em such as he B i ish one, whose pa liamen was comp ised o h ee
bodies: King, House o Lo ds and House o Commons, p ecisely opposed in a mu ual
"balance".
Fi s o all, o Sieyes, King and Pa liamen we e cons i u ed bodies designed
o exe cise wo di e en unc ions, execu i e and legisla i e. The e o e, i was nei he
possible o a so e eign y o pa liamen o be concei ed as a sup eme exp ession o
he will o he people, since he law had o be adjus ed o he Cons i u ion; no could
he Mona ch be accep ed as co-legisla o , collabo a ing only owa ds in eg a ion o
he e iciency 'o he law h ough he o mal equi emen o sanc ion and
p oclama ion.
Mo eo e , he e was no eason, ei he , o a di ision o he legisla i e in o an
Uppe House and a House o Commons, bo h because o he p elimina y
"anéan issemen " o he Nobili y and hei lack o place in he new o de o he Law,
and he impossibili y o a second ede al House, excluded by he cen alism o he
"aduna ion".
Howe e , Sieyes would accep an in e nal di ision o he legisla i e body, o
echnical easons. In ac , in his opinion, in he legisla i e p ocedu e, he decision
should only be aken by a single body, bu he p oposal and discussion could e y
well be dis ibu ed in o commi ees o commissions. Thus, i s cha ac e is ic di ision o
powe s wen om "pas employe plusieu s co ps de ep ésen an s à la cons uc ion
du même ou age, mais con ie a di e s ep ésen an s des pa ies di é en es de
maniè e que le ésul a p oduise l'ensemble".
In ano he way, he unc ional di ision o powe s would also make hie a chy
among he cons i u ed bodies impossible, and hence lead o dis ega d o he
cen ali y o he legisla i e, so "à la page" in he Re olu ion. F om yea III, equal
a en ion o he whole o he cons i u ional sys em would lead Sieyes o di e en ia e
be ween "execu i e powe " and he "Go e nmen ". The la e would ha e a mixed
unc ion be ween legisla i e and "execu i e", acco ding o which he abbo would
e en come heo e ically o conside an au onomous egula o y powe , no esul ing
om p e ious law. This would be me ely he beginning o his sys em becoming
p og essi ely complex, al hough always unde simila basic p inciples, which dese e
o be ea ed e y subs an ially on ano he occasion.
So, on he basis o a na ion unde s ood a he same ime as a social
communi y o p oduce s and holde o cons i uen powe , o a c i icism o na ional
so e eign y ha is eplaced by he supe io i y o he Cons i u ion o e cons i u ed
powe s, o a heo y o ep esen a ion ha combines a democ a ic base, annulmen
and absence o impe a i e manda e, e c., he abbo o F éjus shows us, in he
unusual dep h o he p oblems ha he aises, ha he eally is a - emo ed om he
p esen -day image ha has made him a spokesman o he p incipal cu en o ini ial
Eu opean cons i u ionalism.
"La Cons i u ion c'es moi"; in he las a ings, o his long li e, Sieyes
succeeded in de ining in his way he co e o wha was his basic obsession: a Theo y
o he S a e as he undeniable basis o mode n con inen al Public Law.
BASIC BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bas id, P., Sieyes e sa pensée. Pa is, 1970.
B endin, J.D., Sieyes. La clé de la Ré olu ion F ançaise. Pa is, 1988.
B eue , S. "Na ionals aa und Pou oi cons i uan bei Sieyes und Ca l Schmi " ARSP LXX, 1984.
Cla eul, C., L'in luence de E. Sieyes su les o igines de la ep ésen a ion en d oi public. These d'É a
So bonne, 1982.
Fo sy h, M., Reason and Re olu ion: The Poli ical Though o he Abbé Sieyes. New Yo k, 1987.
Koung, Y., Théo ie cons i u ionnelle de Sieyes. Pa is, 1934.
Löwens ein, K., Volk und pa lamen nach de S aa s heo ie de anzösische na ional e sammlung
on 1789. München, 1922.
Mo o, R. "L'a e sociale e l'idea di socie à nel pensie o di Sieyes" Ri is a In . di Filoso ia del Di i o. 45,
1968.
Pasquino, P., "E. Sieyes, B Cons an e le Gou e nmen des mode nes". Re ue ançaise de Science
Poli ique, 1988.
id. "Il conce o di app esen anza e i ondamen i del di i o pubblico de la i oluzione: E.J. Sieyes" in
Fu e , L'e edi à della Ri oluzione ancese. Ba i, 1989
Redslob, R., Die S aa s heo ien de anzösischen Na ional e sammlung on 1789. Leipzig, 1912.
Schmi , E., "Rep esen a io in o o und ep esen a io singula i e " His o ische Zei sch i , 1971, 213.