Nation and representation : E. J. Sieyès and the theory of the state of the French Revolution

Na ion and Rep esen a ion: E.J. Siéyès and he Theo y o he S a e o he F ench Re olu ion Ramón MÁIZ Uni e sidad de San iago de Compos ela Wo king Pape n. 18 Ba celona 1990 "La na ion es ou ce qu'elle peu ê e pa cela seul qu'elle es " "Au-delà du sys ème ep ésen a i il n'y a qu'usu pa ion, supe s i ion e olie" The o icial "Jacobin" eading o he F ench Re olu ion, ha is he pa adigm which, om Michele o Soboul, by way o Jau és, o Vo elle himsel , has gi en p i ilege o he "social" aspec o he e olu ion, has shown a he same ime an unusual lack o in e es in he p oblems o i s poli ical heo y, and mo e speci ically he heo y o he S a e. Bo h sphe es, howe e , would, in iew o e olu iona y e en s, unde go a de elopmen o he u mos in e es . The e o e, he impo ance gi en o he Robespie ean discou se, which can easily be ound in any bibliog aphy in use on he Re olu ion, has been u ned in o he silencing, i no he dis o ion o E.J. Sieyes' excep ional con ibu ion. In ac , he se e e neglec and dis ega d a o ded o he hinking and sys em o he one who a he ime opened up he F ench Re olu ion by di ec ing he change o he gene al S a es in o a Na ional Assembly. O he one who, a e ollowing a long ca ee , would simila ly con ibu e o i s closu e, i s ly in The mido , hen in B uma io, and las ly wi h Napoleon Bonapa e. All his con as s wi h he impo ance o his poli ical posi ion, now ac i ely, now "de iè e le ideau", and abo e all wi h he unique cla i y and dep h o his hough s on he e olu iona y S a e. An eloquen p oo o his ma gina ion is gi en by he ac ha Sieyes' wo k, apa om he Essay on P i ileges and Wha is he Thi d S a e? has ne e been published again in F ance. Wi h he odd excep ion o da e (i.e. he The mido speeches, by Bas id), and only e y ecen ly, o Do igny's edi ion cu en ly being p epa ed, has such an unjus i iable omission begun o be ec i ied. Bu no only has he abbo been o go en. In ac , i we compa e his discou se o ha o he 1791 Cons i uen s, his speci ic posi ion has also been dis o ed, iden i ying i " ou cou " wi h ha cons i u ional ex , wi hou ega d o he inal he e ogenei y and i educibili y o bo h poli ical models. In his espec , he canonical eading which he classical F ench school o Public Law: Esmein, Dugui , Hau iou ... and in pa icula Ca e de Malbe g, has passed on o us, and which has come o be he main sou ce o he legacy o public law esul ing om he e olu ion, has undoub edly con ibu ed o inc easing hese mis akes. Fo una ely, and no only as a esul o he inno a i e impulse ha he Fu e school ga e o he analysis o poli ical a ai s, he acuum su ounding Sieyes has slowly begun o be illed a he same ime ha he s udies on e olu iona y poli ical hough , Public Law and he heo y o he S a e ha e been en iched. In his espec , he s udies o E. Schmi , P. Pasquino, M. Fo sy h, B. Manin and in pa icula C. Cla eul mean decisi e ad ances in unde s anding and analyzing he abbo 's wo k. These esea ch s udies ha e, in ac , b ough o ligh he p esence o a complex model, a di e en pa adigm in he poli ical-ideological deba e o he Re olu ion ha shows Sieyes as he mos p o ound hinke o he Re olu ion. In his espec , Cla eul's con ibu ion has pa icula impo ance, inasmuch as, while p o iding he mos sys ema ic analysis so a o Sieyes' sys em, he unde ook he en i e ansc ip ion and s udy o he abbo 's unpublished w i ings, no es and passages ha , now eco e ed, a e cu en ly deposi ed in he Na ional A chi es in Pa is. Unpublished w i ings ha modula e and cla i y many o he unce ain ies o he hough and e olu ion o he abbo 's poin s o iew. The objec i e o his pape , a om any a emp o eplace neglec by an ac i ical my hi ica ion, is none o he han o ad ance some o he esul s o a esea ch s udy in p og ess on he Theo y o he S a e o he F ench Re olu ion. Speci ically, by es ic ing ou sel es exclusi ely o he i s s age o he Re olu ion, we will discuss he a icula ion and de elopmen o wo key concep s in Sieyes' hough : Na ion and Rep esen a ion. Thus, we will a emp o show he speci ic na u e o his heo e ical o mula ion in ela ion o he dominan discou se in he 1791 Cons i uen . Hence, we will show how he in e p e a ion o his p oposals in Eu opean Public Law a e inco ec . Bo h concep s, chosen as he backbone o ou analysis, p o ide in hei abs ac ion e y e ec i e heo e ical e ec s on he whole o he abbo 's ex emely ha monized and cohe en sys em. Bu also, his in e es , we unde s and, goes beyond he me e sphe e o a necessa y c i ical and upda ed "Dogmengeschich e”, o each he con empo a y deba e i sel on democ acy and ep esen a ion, a deba e which is some imes oo has ily belie ed o be sol ed. In his con ex , i is absolu ely essen ial o cla i y he scope he e m "concep " has in Sieyes' wo k. Abo e all, he science ha he abbo pos ula es, he "A Social", has wo closely ela ed aspec s. On he one hand i mus analyze he speci ic socie y o i s ime, desc ibe he wo ld o ac s. Bu in addi ion o his i s "analyse en aison" has a egula o y aspec which a ec s he building and design o new poli ical ins i u ions, he new “public law”. The social mechanism ha he abbo p oposes is cha ac e ized p ecisely by his close, indissoluble o mula ion o ac and law, o wha is and wha should be: "La physique ne peu ê e que la connaissance de ce qui es . L'a social se p opose de plie e d'accommode les ai s à nos besoins e à nos jouissances; il demande ce qui doi ê e pou l'u ili é des hommes" (Vues su les moyens d'execu ion). I is a egula o y decan a ion in ol ing a e o mula ion o he Theo y o he S a e in e ms o Public Law and, mos pa icula ly, as we will see la e , as p inciples, as bases o Cons i u ional Law, "Allgemeines aa sleh e" o he S a e - his "Ê e de aison"- which enligh ens he Re olu ion. Such an epis emological s a emen has, in u n, a double e ec . Fi s o all, he "analyse en aison" openly p esen s i sel in up u e wi h his o y, and gi es p i ilege o will and eason o e adi ion: "Quel doi ê e la é i able science, celle des ai s ou celle des p incipes?" Thus, he pos ula es he c ea ion o he new posi i e a i icial poli ical o de , as a decision ee om bonds wi h he pas . This is con a y o he his o ical idea ha , om Bu ke o Hegel, by way o Rehbe g, would in one way o ano he de end "cons i u ional" e olu ionism agains he b eak b ough abou by he Re olu ion. Secondly, wi hin a p e-c i ical a ionalism (which should no be o e looked), he abbo 's social mechanisms se e he ins i u ional e icacy o he concep s o a g ea e ex en han hei abs ac heo e ical design. The e o e, his sys em owes less o he ideal pe ec ionism o Beg i han o he empi ical con as ing o he a ious mechanisms o he "é ablissemen poli ique”, in his adap a ion o -and a he same ime co ec ion o ( ha excessi e "na u al inequali y"), he socie y o his ime. I Le us examine, hen, he i s o he abo e-men ioned concep s: Na ion. The canonical e sion ha Ca é p o ides on he subjec is well known, ha o he e olu iona y idea o Na ion in his Con ibu ion à la Théo ie Géné ale de l'É a . Tha is, an exclusi ely legal/abs ac concep o na ion as a cen e o a ibu ing so e eign y; i canno be ex ended o he se o indi iduals who o m he F ench communi y, and is clea ly di e en om he "people". The Na ion, hen, is solely conside ed as he o he ace o he S a e: "L'É a n'es que la na ion même ju idiquemen o ganisée". We shall no pu sue his, because i is so well known. Howe e , in wha ollows we will a emp b ie ly o show ha in a e y di e en way in Sieyes: 1. The e is a double, bipola concep o na ion; 2. Tha in he a icula ion o bo h pa s o i he e lies he speci ic na u e o his heo y on his subjec ; and las ly 3. Tha om such an essen ial syn hesis decisi e heo e ical e ec s esul o he whole o his en i e sys em. In pa icula , in Sieyes' discou se we can clea ly ind bo h a legal-poli ical concep o Na ion, cen e ed a ound he p oblem o he i le o so e eign y, and a socio-poli ical concep o na ion, unde s ood as a speci ic communi y o ci izens, as a social whole. Le us look a each o hem indi idually and in hei ela ionship o each o he . Fi s o all, he concep o na ion as a social whole. The e can be no doub a all ha , as well as he legal-poli ical concep o Na ion, he e is a subs an ial social signi icance a ached o he meaning o na ion as a communi y o ci izens. "Une chose i an e" in Sieyes' w i ings: "Où p end e la na ion? Où elle es : dans les qua an e mille pa oisses qui emb assen ou le e i oi e, ous les habi an s e ibu ai es de la chose publique: c'es là sans dou e la na ion" (Qu'es -ce que le Tie s é a ). This is also he las meaning o he amous p inciple: "Le Tie s é a es une na ion comple e". Thus, as a sociopoli ical concep , na ion applies o he communi y o he F ench (we shall see la e on who hey a e and how hey o m i ), si ua ed in he S a e o na u e and he e o e p io o he S a e (l'É a social): "La na ion exis e a an ou , elle es l'o igine de ou . A an elle e au-dessus d'elle il n'y a que le d oi na u el... Une na ion ne so jamais de l'é a de na u e" (Qu'es -ce que ... ). Now, wi h ega d o he "o d e na u el" ha o ms he na ion, whe eas he classical na u al law, and Rousseau himsel , abs ac he p inciples go e ning he poli ical o de om an abs ac and a-his o ical human na u e, Sieyes app oaches men as subjec s de e mined in ime and space by he socioeconomic s uc u e o he socie y o hei age, namely 18 h cen u y F ance. This "s a e o na u e" is unde s ood, hen, om a clea ly economic iewpoin , ollowing he lines o hough o he economis s o he age ha Sieyes, as shown by his unpublished w i ings and no es be o e he Re olu ion, had s udied ex ensi ely and p o oundly. This is ou au ho 's analy ical poin o depa u e: he economic s uc u e o F ance in ha e a becomes he basis, o which he newly c ea ed public es ablishmen has o adap , while co ec ing i s excesses. Since he economic sys em is seen o be pa icula ly dynamic, he S a e has o e ol e a he same ime, and adjus he ma e ial na u e o i s ins i u ions o he changes b ough abou by unceasing social and economic p og ess. A undamen al ea u e o Sieyes' sys em is ou lined he e: poli ical and egula o y o de a ionally adap ed o a socie y seen as a sum o p ope y and libe y, a ma ke socie y ounded on ade be ween ee independen wo ke s. Thus, his is a clea app oach by Sieyes o Locke's ideas and a he same ime a mo e away om Rousseau's ideas. A mo e owa ds Locke and away om Rousseau, which will no cease o become mo e p o ound as he abbo de elops his discou se. Now, poin ing ou he gene ic deb ha Sieyes owes o he economis s is only an ini ial s ep owa ds unde s anding he kind o "s a e o na u e" o ha p inciple, which equi es u he cla i ica ion. In ac , Sieyes does no ag ee a all wi h he physioc a s ha Land is he sole basis o alue and he only sou ce o weal h. On he con a y, he asc ibes o he heo y o alue-labo , he basic ou lines o which can be ound in his unpublished w i ings: "C'es le a ail qui o me la ichesse. Pa mi les jouissances il au dis ingue celles que ou le monde se p ocu e ou peu se p ocu e sans les ache e , de celles qu'on es obligé d'acqué i pa un a ail ou pa le i e qui le ep ésen e. Nous donnons le nom de ichesses a ou es les collec ions de biens acquis pa les a aux" (Le es aux économis es). His p oximi y o Smi h in his c i icism o he physioc a s, o ha ing cons uc ed a poli ical economy on ci cula ion and no on p oduc ion, is also con inued in he heo y o he di ision o labo , which as we shall see is o he u mos impo ance o Sieyes' poli ical hough . Now, i "le a ail géné al es donc le ondemen de la socié é, e l'o d e social n'es que le meilleu o d e possible des a aux" (Le es...), he c i icism o physioc a ic hinking is shown o be cen al, bo h o he pu poses o de e mining he F ench na ion in i s s a e o na u e, and o he pu poses o conside ing he poli ics o mode ni y: "Les peuples Eu opéens mode nes essemblen bien peu aux peuples anciens. Il ne s'agi pa mi nous que de Comme ce, d'Ag icul u e, de ab iques. Le dési de ichesses semble ne ai e de ous les É a s de l'Eu ope que de as es a elie s. Aussi les sys èmes poli iques, aujou d'hui, son exclusi emen ondés su le a ail" (Di e su le e o oyal). Fo he es , Sieyes, in ag eemen wi h he abo e, dis inguishes h ee e y di e en social classes om hose o Quesnay: he weal h-p oducing class, he ("communica ice") class, which ci cula es weal h, and las ly he poli ical class, which main ains poli ical o de and gua an ees he unc ioning o p oduc ion and he ma ke . As a co olla y o all his, he na ion is unde s ood o be he communi y o p oduce s o alue, in he wide sense o " a aux pa iculie s e onc ions publiques". This has a leas h ee decisi e poli ical consequences, which a e: 1.- Fi s o all, no all he F ench people o m he F ench na ion. The na ion is a g oup o p oduce s, which should include ade s and indus ialis s, as well as poli icians and ci il se an s, and e en he "mos menial domes ic se ices". In sho , he na ion is he Thi d S a e and " he Thi d s a e is a comple e Na ion”. Simila ly and a he same ime, because o hei " ainean isse”, Nobili y is de ini ely excluded om he Na ion. I he na ion, as "engagemen ”, is o med spon aneously by i ue o he necessi y men ha e o a end o hei needs ("besoins") and he ad an ages ha he g oup has o ca y ou hei p oduc i e ac i i ies, he exclusion o hose sec o s which a e indeb ed o P i ilege is imposed p ecisely because o ha adical and o iginal emo al om he na ional "common in e es " ha de i es om he consubs an ial pa asi ism o anyone who " i de ses ancê es" (Essai su les P i ilèges). 2.- The na ion, as a social whole ha has i s limi s ma ked by i s p oduc i i y, also p o ides, acco ding o he di ision o labo ha Sieyes de elops e en be o e he appea ance in 1776 o "The Weal h o Na ions", and in a wide sense han Smi h, a key c i e ia in he s uc u ing o he S a e. In ac , he " a ail en ep ésen a ion" has i s con inui y in he poli ical s uc u e as his sepa a es hose who go e n om hose who a e go e ned, a sepa a ion based on echnical specializa ion. Thus, ep esen a ion is bo n, as a comple ely cen al and essen ial amewo k o he whole cons uc ion o he "social s a e”, bu i also appea s as a " ep esen a i e go e nmen " o expe s. Agains he my h o he "Ago a”, ha is eedom unde s ood as compulso y and abso bing pa liamen a y pa icipa ion by all ci izens in he a ai s o he S a e, he abbo conside s eedom, as a basis o social o de . I is a p oduc ha allows o delega e he a ai s o go e nmen o he mos capable h ough sub le and complex mechanisms o ep esen a ion and con ol, so ha he majo i y o ci izens can ca y ou he ac i i ies o p oduc ion and ade which belong o he ci il socie y o hei ime: "à l'ab i de la sécu i é commune, je me li e ai anquillemen à mes p oje s pe sonnels, je sui ai ma élici é comme je l'en end ai, assu é de ne encon e des bonnes légales à mes dési s que celles que la socié é me p esc i a pou l'in é ê commun, auquel je pa e a ec lequel mon in é ê pa iculie a ai une alliance si u ile" (Qu'es -ce que...). This "in nuce" is he p oblem o Cons an 's "Libe é des mode nes", "poli ical eedom" as a gua an ee o exe cising ue "ci il eedom". Rep esen a ion which in no way, as we will see la e , means aliena ion o he ci izen's poli ical will, no he elimina ion o all ins ance o pa icipa ion. Howe e , on he basis o he dis inc ion o h ee ypes o in e es s -indi idual, co po a e and common, o which only he las can be ep esen ed, Sieyes clea ly sepa a es public om p i a e. Thus, "la chose commune n'es pas le ou ", and he e o e he ci izens only ha e o en us a e y small pa o hei sphe e o ac i i ies o he S a e. The claim ha he S a e in ades he ci izens' indi idual and p i a e sphe e esul s in he change om he " e-publique" in o wha Sieyes e y exp essi ely de ines as " e- o ale”. This absolu e au ho i y ha "pénè e jusqu'à l'in é ieu de l'homme", his Rousseaunian communi y spi i , in his opinion ine i ably esul s in he denial o indi idual igh s, and in ac , in a "monacale" ype o o ganiza ion. 3.- Las ly, he lawless solida i y o he Thi d S a e is he consequence o he exclusion o Nobili y and he ha mony o in e es s o he p oduce s. The la e is he esul o an economic analysis ha concedes equali y in on o he law, he equali y o wo ke s and equal alue o hei wo k in he ma ke . This social uni o mi y, con eyed by he absence o ca ego ies o p oduc i e/unp oduc i e labo , a su plus alue and unequal exchange, ac s as suppo o he con ic ion ha he expulsion o he Nobili y om he na ional sphe e would esol e he only eme ging social con adic ion in a wo ld whe e di e en p i a e in e es s would, unde he man le o common in e es s, li e in peace ul coexis ence. This social uni o mi y, a e cleansing he social body o i s a is oc a ic exc escence, es ablishes he bases ha allow, bu in no way gua an ee, no mean o Sieyes i s au oma ic exis ence, he eme gence o a na ional will. As a subsequen esul , poli ical pa ies and poli ical g oups a e no only conside ed by ou au ho o be unnecessa y bu also ac ually ha m ul, when co po a e and g oup in e es s a e placed ou side public/s a e and p i a e/indi idual a ai s: "La g ande di icul é ien donc de l'in é ê pa lequel un ci oyen s'acco de a ec quelques au es seulemen . Celui-ci pe me de se conce e , de se ligue ; pa lui se combinen les p oje s dange eux pou la communau é". No hing, hen, should in e ene be ween public and p i a e a ai s, be ween he S a e and he ci izens. In ac , he abbo does no conside he people as " he ma e ial ha comp ises he edi ice o he S a e" (Hobbes), no he only "pe sonal sphe e o ope a ion o he legal code" (Kelsen). The people end o be he se o p oduce s, he Thi d S a e. And, while economically ac i e, hey become, b oadly speaking, he na ion i sel : "le peuple ou la Na ion ne peu a oi qu'une oix, celle de la législa u e na ionale" (Di e su le e o). Thus, he social aspec o he na ion, placed in he "s a e o na u e", akes in Sieyes he ou lines g an ed by ci il socie y, om which he s a e Le ia han eme ges, monopolizing he poli ical powe p e iously dispe sed in ci il socie y. Bu , as we said, he concep o na ion in Sieyes p esen s ano he aspec : he na ion as a legal-poli ical subjec : "Un co ps d'associés i an sous une loi commune e ep ésen és pa la même législa u e". I is a e y well known ac ha he classical heo y o he 1791 Cons i u ion Commi ee ga e his subjec -na ion he i le o na ional so e eign y: "le p incipe de ou e sou e aine é éside essen iellemen dans la na ion". This heo y was de eloped by he F ench classics o Public Law and ixed in canonical e ms by Ca é de Malbe g. Now, i is an ex emely no able ac ha Sieyes in no way uses he concep o "na ional so e eign y" in any o his w i ings, bu on he con a y, on se e al occasions he p oceeds o a de ailed and adical decons uc ion o i , mos o he ime implici ly, bu a o he s openly and explici ly. The key o such a signi ican elision mus be ound in he speci ic o mula ion ha Sieyes makes o he cen al dis inc ion be ween i le and exe cise o public powe . In ac , ins ead o me ging bo h sides, pu ing he people in he place o he na ion and p eaching he inalienabili y o a p e iously cons i u ed will, i.e. Rousseau's heo y o popula so e eign y, ou au ho gi es he na ion he i le o cons i uen powe , which he adically di e en ia es om cons i u ed powe s. Thus he na ion eme ges om he ield o ci il socie y and om social subjec becomes a legal-public subjec . In ac , in he second e a o he o ma ion o a poli ical socie y, he na ion pu s in o e ec a common will, by exe cising i s na u al igh s "la olon é na ionale n'a besoin que de sa éali é pou ê e oujou s légale, elle es l'o igine de ou e légali é ... N'exis an que dans l'o d e na u el, leu olon é, pou so i ou son e e , n'a besoin que de les ca ac è es na u els d'une olon é" (Qu'es - ce que le Tie s). Now, such a heo y o he na ion as he holde o cons i uen powe and he esul ing de i ed and non o iginal cha ac e o cons i u ed powe s, enables Sieyes o mo e he people om he immediacy o exe cising powe , eplacing hem by hei ep esen a i es elec ed o his pu pose: "Les associés son op nomb eux e épandus su une su ace op é endue, pou exe ce acilemen eux-mêmes leu olon é commune. Que on -ils? Ils en dé achen ou ce qui es nécessai e, pou eille e pou oi aux soins publics; e ce e po ion de olon é na ionale e pa conséquen de pou oi , ils en con ien l'exe cice a quelques-uns d'en e eux". Now, he communi y is no s ipped o i s will, inasmuch as i is inalienable, no does i en us mo e han he ba e "po ion qui es nécessai e pou main eni le bon o d e". Thus, unlike he absolu e way Rousseau su ende s, ha "me e en commun ses biens, sa pe sonne, sa ie e ou e sa puissance sous la sup ême di ec ion de la olon é géné ale" (Du Con a Social), Sieyes secula izes he legi imacy o he S a e, es ablishing i s con ol and limi a ion as he ask o social a and an e ec o he sys ema ic mis us in he uncu bed gene al will. Fo his eason, popula so e eign y, in his opinion, is an imi a ion o absolu e powe and a heo e ical p inciple o he " e- o ale”. He he e o e p oceeds o a decisi e decons uc ion o he s a ed concep : "la sou e aine é, même populai e, es une concep ion oyalis e e monacale, une concep ion des uc ice de la libe é... ce mo ne s'es p ésen é si colossal de an l'imagina ion des ançais, enco e pleins de supe s i ions oyales, que pa ce qu'ils se son ai un de oi de le do e de l'hé i age pompeux e des a ibu s du pou oi absolu" (Discou s 2 The mido ). So e eign y, unlimi ed powe by de ini ion, and he e o e "un mons e en poli ique" is subs i u ed by he heo y o cons i uen powe /cons i u ed powe s. By means o his, as a as he exe cise o powe is conce ned, Sieyes does no eplace he na ion o he people, bu o he ep esen a i es (o dina y o ex ao dina y), in i s ba e immediacy. I s cons i uen au ho i y ha ing been exe cised, he na ion becomes a la en s a e, keeping a powe in ese e. Because, in ac , as we will see, we canno easily accep , ollowing Schmi 's me apho in he now classic passages o his "Ve assungsleh e", ha in Sieyes, he people only occupy he place ha was ese ed o God in he heo y o he di ine o igin o oyal powe . This is so because, while he na ion does no aliena e i s powe , ha is, i is no dissol ed o e e a e he exe cise o cons i uen powe , no hing p e en s i om excep ionally eappea ing in o de o " esaisi " he la e and al e he bases o he whole legal o de . has indica ed ha in Sieyes' unpublished w i ings he e exp essly appea s he exp ession "pou oi neu e" o designa e his mode a ing unc ion. We could add o his he quali y o "p emie Ci oyen", wi h oyal pa icipa ion in he legisla i e p ocess being unable o exceed, on he one hand, exe cise o he o e -al hough "nulle pa e son su age ne peu en aloi deux"- and he subsequen sanc ion and p oclama ion (Di e su le e o). Acco ding o all indica ions, Sieyes appea s no o be hinking echnically o a cons i u ional mona chy, bu o a pa liamen a y one, whe e he sanc ion would be in oduced as a due ac , me ely o mal and ou side he will o he legisla i e body, se in app o al. The speci ic di e ence o he abbo 's posi ion in his espec is e en mo e no iceable i , when he p oposed i in 1791, he e m "donnée" was supp essed. A e m ha , wi h clea echnical inco ec ness, combined he imes o app o al, sanc ion and p oclama ion o he laws on he da e o he oyal sanc ion, because "semble ai ouloi nous app end e que le é i able législa eu es le oi, puisque la loi se ai donnée pa la sanc ion”. As a esul , he abbo would equi e a eco d o be made o he p oclama ion da e, aking in o accoun ha "es la plus essen ielle à connaî e; ca c'es de ce jou -là seulemen que les ci oyens son obligés de s'y soume e" (Moni eu , VIII, p. 286). Thus, he law is no concei ed by Sieyes as a complex ac acco ding o he model o cons i u ional mona chy (Laband), in which "le mona que eu à la ois le con enu de la loi e sa o ce impé a i e" (Ca é), a esidue om he mona chic p inciple. Qui e on he con a y, he law becomes he exclusi e he i age (as ega ds es ablishmen and legal alidi y) o he Na ional Assembly and, a he same ime, he oyal sanc ion becomes a me e in eg a ing equisi e o i s e icacy. In a simila way o wha occu ed wi h he concep o na ion, he e is in Sieyes a concep o ep esen a ion ha would c ys allize in he 1791 ex and ha is i educible o he majo i y posi ion o he Cons i u ion Commi ee. An idea o ep esen a i e go e nmen ha , al hough i unde goes poli ical-o ganiza ional changes as he yea s go by, i would om he poin o iew o i s bases, emain howe e un ouched. In ac , in ela ion o he exis ence o wo assumed, adically di e en phases in he abbo 's hinking on ep esen a ion - he i s one go e ned by a Rousseaunian spi i , accep ing he impe a i e manda e, while he second would accep he ep esen a i e manda e in e ms simila o hose o he Cons i u ion Commi ee-, a de ailed analysis o he ex s shows ha , apa om some shi s, he e is an essen ial con inui y. The e o e, he b eak be ween a i s and a second Sieyes, sugges ed by au ho s such as Zweig o Löwens ein (op. ci .), ollowing Gie ke in his classic wo k Al hussius und die En wicklung de na u ech lichen S aa s heo ien (1880), canno be accep ed. Qui e on he con a y, in he abbo we ind a speci ic idea o ep esen a ion as "déléga ion sans aliéna ion" and "edi ice ep ésen a i e de base démoc a ique", which is clea ly di e en om he one ha iumphed in he 1791 Cons i u ion ( o which Ca é w ongly akes him) and con inues wi h a ious o ganic-ins i u ional c ys alliza ions h oughou all his w i ings. F om such an idea o ep esen a ion, we can syn hesize he key momen s, ha is o say: A.- Fi s o all, and once again in opposi ion o Rousseau, Sieyes demands a all imes a " aie ep ésen a ion;" namely, he ep esen a i e ac s on behal o he ep esen ed pa y, he e only being a p io gene ic con en , bu in no way a speci ic will o be ansmi ed. The poli ical will is cons uc ed h oughou he p ocess o ep esen a i e media ion, excluding he me e ans e by he ep esen a i e o a p elimina y and o igina ing con en . As a esul , ep esen a ion mus be ee and no a Rousseaunian "pou oi commis”, incapable o educing di e se mul iplici y o he minimum indispensable poli ical uni y. Only in his way will he syn hesis o he gene al will as he will o he majo i y be eached: "la mé hode de dé ache de simples po eu s de o es es essen iellemen icieuse: les Dépu és, obligés de s'en eni sc upuleusemen à l'a is de leu s comme an s, ne pou an poin se concilie en 'eux, il de ien sou en impossible de i e de la o ali é des o es une olon é commune; o c'es la olon é commune qu'il au ... la communau é se dé e mine donc à acco de plus de con iance à ses manda ai es. Elle les onde de p ocu a ion, à l'e e de se éuni , de délibé e , de se concilie , e de ouloi en commun: alo s, au- lieu de simples po eu s de o es, elle a de ais ep ésen an s" (Vues su les moyens). F om his s a ing poin , Sieyes cons uc s a e y cha ac e is ic and o iginal manda e o ep esen a ion, he ea u es o which a e: a.- Exclusion o he impe a i e manda e, cha ac e is ic o democ acy, because i would make he common decision and ag eemen s ("délibe a ions") impossible: "Le Peuple dans un pays qui n'es pas une démoc a ie (e la F ance ne sau ai l'ê e)... ne peu pa le , ne peu agi que pa ses Rep ésen an s" (Di e su le e o). b.- Bu , and his is decisi e, exclusion also o he " ou cou " ep esen a i e manda e, aking in o accoun ha he cha ac e is ic dynamics o he " us ”, o he con idence ha is placed in he base o i s whole sys em, p e en aliena ion o he igh s o he ep esen ed pa y and absolu e au onomy o he ep esen a i e om any con ol o he han a pu ely elec o al one. The e o e, unlike he 1791 ex , Sieyes in oduces he possibili y o annulmen : "Mais la mission donnée aux ep ésen an s ne peu jamais ê e une aliéna ion. Ce e mission es essen iellemen lib e, cons ammen é ocable, e limi ée, au g é des comme an s, pou le emps ainsi que pou la na u e des a ai es (pou oi cons i uan ou onc ion législa i e, R.M.)" (Vues). Hence, hen, he i educible speci ici y o Sieyes' heo y o ep esen a ion, ha c ys allizes in a "gou e nemen ep ésen a i ”, o mula ed, acco ding o his own wo ds, as a "base démoc a ique e l'édi ice ep ésen a i e" (Bases de l'É a social). This in u n is ans o med in o wo di e en e ec s: 1.- Fi s o all, he a o e-men ioned democ a ic base o he ep esen a i e edi ice would be o med by he p ima y Assemblies. These, in Sieyes' model, a e egula ed no only o a me ely elec o al pu pose, a e which hey would disappea , bu as ue bodies o con ol and pa icipa ion by he ci izens, a collec i e "oeil de la Ré olu ion”, basic bodies o democ acy wi h he capaci y o dismissal and exclusion (no o impe a i e manda e), designed o " a aichi les ep ésen an s d'esp i démoc a ique" (Bases). This unc ion would, howe e , be elimina ed by he Cons i u ion Commi ee. 2.- Secondly, and inasmuch as o ou au ho " ou es ep ésen a ion dans l'É a social”, ep esen a ion would go beyond he me e sphe e o legisla i e powe , o each he execu i e and judicial bodies: " ous son ep ésen an s”. Thus, he iden i y o he cons i u ional legal s a u e o hese powe s (mo e p ecisely, o hese bodies ha pe o m di e en unc ions) excludes all possible hie a chical a angemen be ween hem, since, as we ha e al eady said, hey a e no o iginal and equally de i e om he Cons i u ion, e en he legisla i e powe . Sieyes' idea o " ep esen a i e go e nmen " is hus shown o be en i ely di e en . Fi s , as a co olla y o he hie a chical supe io i y o he Cons i u ion, esul ing om he heo y o he cons i uen powe o he na ion, i explodes he my h o legisla i e powe as a p i ileged exp ession o he na ional will. Secondly, cen e ed on he cons uc i e na u e o common will, de eloped by he a ious ins i u ions o he public es ablishmen , i pays equal a en ion o each and e e y one o he cons i u ional bodies in hei unc ional specializa ion. Taking all his as a whole, he model o ep esen a ion pu o wa d by Sieyes is clea ly di e en om he ep esen a i e manda e, as i would be es ablished in he 1791 Cons i u ion, om whe e i would pass o wes e n cons i u ional Law, and which in ol es he absolu e au onomy o he ep esen a i e in ela ion o he ep esen ed pa ies. Ve y di e en ly, his model o a democ a ic base and ep esen a i e edi ice shows comple ely o iginal ea u es, among which he ollowing a e wo hy o no e: 1.- Reduc ion in he manda e pe iod ( h ee yea s) and annual enewal by hi ds, as well as no immedia e e-eligibili y un il a pe iod o h ee yea s has elapsed. The p ima y Assemblies would elec he i s and second hi ds o e mina e, and so he membe s o pa liamen would be con olled, as hey would a oid being e mina ed i s ; in ac , "on s'e o ce a de ne pas mé i e ce choix" (Quelques idées de Cons i u ion). 2.- Possibili y o dismissal and exclusion o he membe s o pa liamen by he p ima y Assemblies, should con idence in he ep esen a i e be los . Annulmen would, howe e , in o de o gua an ee con olled use o he ins i u ion, equi e a ein o ced majo i y o h ee qua e s o he elec ed Assembly. Thus, he p ima y Assemblies, as well as a pu ely elec o al unc ion, would p o ide ha " esh democ a ic ai " o impe us and supe ision o he whole ep esen a i e edi ice a i s h ee le els: Municipal, Depa men al and Na ional. 3.- Comple e eo ganiza ion o he F ench poli ical e i o y, which Sieyes calls "Aduna ion poli ique”, on he basis o depa men al uni s and he es ablishmen o a sys em o p opo ional ep esen a ion by way o h ee di e en ac o s: 1.- Te i o y: Whe e he uni o mi y o su ace a ea o he new depa men s would be ans o med in o a ixed numbe o membe s o pa liamen o each one o hem. 2.- Popula ion: A ce ain numbe o membe s o pa liamen would be dis ibu ed in p opo ion o he espec i e popula ion o he depa men s. 3.- Con ibu ion: A highe a e o ax paymen -including bo h he olume o axes and he amoun o he olun a y ax ha opens he doo s o ac i e ci izens, as we shall see la e -, would be ans o med equally in o a g ea e numbe o membe s o pa liamen . "Aduna ion" comp ises he las eason o a ep esen a i e S a e which is con igu ed as uni a y and also cen alized, openly excluding ede alism: "La F ance ne doi poin ê e un assemblage de pe i es Na ions, qui se gou e ne on sépa émen en Démoc a ies; elle n'es poin une collec ion d'É a s; elle es un ou unique, composé de pa ies in ég an es; ces pa ies ne doi en poin a oi sépa émen une exis ence complè e pa ce que ne son que des pa ies ne o man qu'un seul ou ”. 4.- C ea ion o a ue Public Opinion h ough anspa ency in decision making, de elopmen o he p ess and ci cula ion o books and pamphle s o poli ical deba e, as well as, and in pa icula , he es ablishmen o a new and e ec i e sys em o Public Ins uc ion. Sieyes would de elop all hese i ems in e y in e es ing new de ailed legisla i e p ojec s. 5.- Las ly, c ea ion o a "ci izens' mo al sense" o ac i e pa icipa ion in poli ics, designed o in ol e he la ges possible numbe o ci izens in he democ a ic base o elec ion and con ol (ac i e ci izen y) o he ep esen a i e edi ice, and sa e he cons i u ion om a new "poli ical a is oc acy”. In his espec , Sieyes would design bo h calenda s o na ional holidays, hono s and celeb a ions in p aise o ci ic alues. As we can see, a ep esen a i e sys em such as he one abo e, based on a con idence submi ed o a con ol o he ep esen a i es as indi iduals (dismissal) and no on hei ac s (exclusion o he impe a i e manda e), as well as on a o mula ion o democ acy o pa icipa ion and ep esen a ion, is clea ly di e en om he 1791 model. As we al eady know, he la e excluded any con ol by he o e on he pe son elec ed, and educed poli ical pa icipa ion o me e elec ion. B.- A cen al pa o Sieyes, " ep esen a i e go e nmen " is, hen, he impo an ole played by he p ima y Assemblies, which he au ho also calls "Comi ia”. In each dis ic , hese p ima y Assemblies we e made up o poli ically ac i e ci izens (acco ding o he c i e ia ha we shall examine la e ) in a numbe ne e highe han six o se en hund ed, in which case hey would be subdi ided. Fa om being dissol ed, once hei elec o al commi men had been made (as he Cons i u ion Commi ee would es ablish), among he addi ional unc ions ha Sieyes gi es hem, he mos no able o ou pu poses he e is he p epa a ion o he eligibili y lis s om which candida es would be p oposed. This unc ion would also be elimina ed by he Cons i u ion Commi ee and would no appea in he 1791 ex . In ac , in he absence o poli ical pa ies o he easons s a ed abo e, he abbo assigned o he "comi ia" he selec ion o candida es a an ini ial le el. Fo he es , ano he such would occu a he depa men al and na ional le els. All ac i e ci izens who we e wo hy o such an "hono ”, aking in o accoun ha o be eligible is no a igh bu a hono i ic ecogni ion o a special me i o ci izenship, would be en e ed on he lis o hose eligible. E e y yea , he p ima y Assemblies would d aw up hese lis s o eligible people by a majo i y o e, and nobody could assume any public posi ion wi hou ha ing p e iously been on one o hem o a leas one yea . The candida es ha would appea on hese lis s would ei he be elec ed (in he case o he legisla i e body, in ascending o de ), o appoin ed by he highe le el, ha is, he local ci il se an s by he p o incials, he la e by he na ionals e c. (in he case o adminis a i e-execu i e powe , in descending o de ). Thus, he p ima y Assemblies would p o ide lis s o hose people eligible bo h o elec ion o he na ional Assembly, a he i s s age, and o appoin men by he op ci il se an s o he Go e nmen . E en i hose who a e adminis e ed do no appoin hem, ci il se an s should be us ed, s ic ly in ag eemen wi h he cha ac e ha Sieyes gi es hem o ep esen a i es. He e in ac is he ul ima e meaning o he abbo 's c yp ic and usually misin e p e ed exp ession: "La con iance ien d'en bas, le pou oi ien d'en hau ”. Now, he loss o con idence leads o he b eak up o he ep esen a i e bond in wo ways: dismissal ( e mina ion o a ep esen a i e du ing his manda e pe iod), o exclusion (non-inclusion in he annual eligibili y lis ). In his way, in he legisla i e o de , ep esen a i es could be dismissed by hei elec o s’ assemblies, and excluded by he assembly ha appoin ed hem eligible (by a 3/4 majo i y). In u n, in he go e nmen , ep esen a i es could be dismissed by hei hie a chical supe io s and excluded by he espec i e p ima y Assemblies. In he judicial o de , he e was an annual elimina ion sc u iny, whe e a blank o e would mean suppo o he judge, and o he al e na i e names could be p oposed (Nou elle o ganisa ion de la Police e la Jus ice). A e yea 3, in ace o he a an -ga de ins umen a ion o he sec ions by he Jacobins, Sieyes was o de ise an appeals sys em be o e he "Ju y Cons i u ionnai e" o con es ep esen a i es. Con ol would become judicial and de- poli icized, bea ing in mind nonexis ence o he impe a i e manda e ha would ake away om he p ima y Assemblies he ask o dismissal, bu no exclusion. C.- Mo eo e , as a as he ci izens' s a u e is conce ned, he e a e subs an ial di e ences be ween Sieyes' idea and ha o he cons i u ional epo . In ac , a e he appa en accep ance by he Cons i u ion commi ee o he abbo 's dis inc ion be ween ac i e ci izens, who enjoyed poli ical igh s, and passi e ci izens, who only had he gene al ad an ages o p o ec ion and secu i y o he public es ablishmen , he e we e de ini ely unde lying di e ging pe spec i es. Ag eemen would cen e a ound an eli is and census ocused concep o he passi e elec o a e: hey all accep ed he need o he census equi emen , income le el, in e es and esponsibili y o public a ai s, in ellec ual capaci y, and educa ion. Tha is, go e nmen should belong o he "classes a ailable”. In o de o be elec ed o he na ional Assembly, i would be necessa y o pay he amous sil e ma k and o own an es ablished p ope y. Bo h ag eed, also, ha ac i e ci izens pe o med mili a y se ice in he Na ional Gua d ( om which he Ac o 15.06.1790 excluded passi e ci izens), ook pa in ju ies, and con ibu ed inancially in main aining he S a e. Now, in o de o become an ac i e ci izen, Sieyes p oposed a e y small ci ic ax ("la plus pe i e axe possible") and olun a y in na u e. This con ibu ion would demons a e he minimum in e es in public a ai s necessa y o ci izens o exe cise poli ical igh s in he p ima y Assemblies in a esponsible ashion, and in no way was i designed o exclude la ge sec o s o he popula ion om o ing. In ac , o he abbo , and cen al o his philosophy: "les d oi s poli iques doi en ê e a achés non a la p op e é mais a la pe sonne" (Ins uc ions à donne aux bailliages). He e we ind an essen ial di e ence: while o Sieyes su age is a igh , ha only economic and poli ical backwa dness p e en ed om becoming immedia ely gene alized, o he cons i uen commi ee, o ing is a me e unc ion ha he Na ion en us s o a chosen pa o i s membe s. The uni e sal na u e o su age and he igh s o he ci izens, ha ou au ho claims, a e a cen al pa o his model o ep esen a i e go e nmen : " ous ne pou ez pas e use la quali é de Ci oyens e les d oi s du ci isme à ce e mul i ude sans ins uc ion, qu'un a ail o cé abso be en en ie . Puisqu'ils doi en obéi à la Loi, ou comme ous, ils doi en aussi, ou comme ous, concou i à la ai e. Ce concou s doi ê e égal" (Di e su le e o). Thus, he cons i u ion commi ee would es ablish a o ing equi emen in o de o be allowed o o e ha would "de ac o" mean exclusion o he majo i y o he popula ion (speci ically: a p opo ion o 16 ac i e ci izens pe e e y 100 inhabi an s) and ini ia ed he o ing su age. The di e ences wi h ega d o he ac i e elec o a e do no s op he e, howe e . In ac , in his espec , as Pasquino has indica ed, Sieyes is placed in a pe spec i e ending owa ds uni e sal su age. In ac : 1.- As a as he exclusion o women om he igh o o e is conce ned, he abbo s a es ha , while in Eu opean coun ies women can be queens; "pa une singuliè e con adic ion", hey a e excluded om exe cising he o e, and so: "D'ap ès un p éjugé qui ne se pe me pas môme le dou e à ce e éga d, nous sommes donc o cés de e anche au moins la moi ié de la popula ion o ale" (Obse a ions su le appo du Comi é de Cons i u ion). This is a posi ion ha as in e e y hing ega ding ep esen a ion, places he abbo close o Condo ce 's posi ion and clea ly agains bo h ha o he Cons i u ion Commi ee and he Jacobins. 2.-.Equally signi ican is he exclusion o begga s and ag an s o echnical easons om gua an ee o census, o o domes ic se an s, because o hei p esumable cap i e o e: "ceux qu'une dépendance se ile ien a achés aux olon és a bi ai es d'un maî e". 3.- Las ly, he numbe o passi e ci izens is conside ed by Sieyes in a dynamic pe spec i e o p og essi e educ ion. And i could no be o he wise, because his concep o ep esen a i e Go e nmen akes in bo h he o mal aspec o ep esen a ion and, o mula ed as an open p ocess, o o exp ess i in Böcken ö de's e ms "inhal liche Rep äsen a ionsbeg i " (Demok a ie und Rep äsen a ion), namely ecogni ion, in ol emen and eal pa icipa ion by he ci izens in con ol o he public es ablishmen , in sho , subs an ial ep esen a ion: "déléga ion sans aliéna ion". Finally, and e y b ie ly, i is pe haps in e es ing o men ion he esul s ha Sieyes' concep s o na ion and ep esen a ions ha e in his c i ical s ance agains he p inciple o sepa a ion o powe s, acco ding o he B i ish model, which had g ea in luence no only on Mounie bu also on o he membe s o he Cons i u ion commi ee (Lally-Tollendal, Be gasse, Cle mon -Tonne e, e c.). In ac , he abbo , in he ligh o e e y hing men ioned abo e, could no bu exp ess his ex eme eluc ance o he in oduc ion in F ance o he B i ish ep esen a i e model, and his, a leas , was o wo basic easons: 1.- I g an ed special ep esen a ion o he nobili y as such, which ein o ced p i ilege in ela ion o he ci izens who we e o mally equal in he eyes o he law. In ac , he nobili y was no longe a pa o a na ion e o mula ed as "le Tie s é a ". 2.- The con lic be ween classes and in e es s was also eco ded as a p inciple o ope a ion o he B i ish ins i u ions. Now, Sieyes' model mean ha , when he nobili y had been elimina ed, he e y aboli ion o P i ileges would es ablish an essen ial uni o mi y o social in e es s ha h ough he "aduna ion poli ique" and a "gou e nemen ep ésen a i ", would dispense wi h he need o a coun e balance o powe s concei ed as bea e s o di e en social in e es s. We can well unde s and, hen, Sieyes' ex eme hos ili y o a poli ical sys em such as he B i ish one, whose pa liamen was comp ised o h ee bodies: King, House o Lo ds and House o Commons, p ecisely opposed in a mu ual "balance". Fi s o all, o Sieyes, King and Pa liamen we e cons i u ed bodies designed o exe cise wo di e en unc ions, execu i e and legisla i e. The e o e, i was nei he possible o a so e eign y o pa liamen o be concei ed as a sup eme exp ession o he will o he people, since he law had o be adjus ed o he Cons i u ion; no could he Mona ch be accep ed as co-legisla o , collabo a ing only owa ds in eg a ion o he e iciency 'o he law h ough he o mal equi emen o sanc ion and p oclama ion. Mo eo e , he e was no eason, ei he , o a di ision o he legisla i e in o an Uppe House and a House o Commons, bo h because o he p elimina y "anéan issemen " o he Nobili y and hei lack o place in he new o de o he Law, and he impossibili y o a second ede al House, excluded by he cen alism o he "aduna ion". Howe e , Sieyes would accep an in e nal di ision o he legisla i e body, o echnical easons. In ac , in his opinion, in he legisla i e p ocedu e, he decision should only be aken by a single body, bu he p oposal and discussion could e y well be dis ibu ed in o commi ees o commissions. Thus, i s cha ac e is ic di ision o powe s wen om "pas employe plusieu s co ps de ep ésen an s à la cons uc ion du même ou age, mais con ie a di e s ep ésen an s des pa ies di é en es de maniè e que le ésul a p oduise l'ensemble". In ano he way, he unc ional di ision o powe s would also make hie a chy among he cons i u ed bodies impossible, and hence lead o dis ega d o he cen ali y o he legisla i e, so "à la page" in he Re olu ion. F om yea III, equal a en ion o he whole o he cons i u ional sys em would lead Sieyes o di e en ia e be ween "execu i e powe " and he "Go e nmen ". The la e would ha e a mixed unc ion be ween legisla i e and "execu i e", acco ding o which he abbo would e en come heo e ically o conside an au onomous egula o y powe , no esul ing om p e ious law. This would be me ely he beginning o his sys em becoming p og essi ely complex, al hough always unde simila basic p inciples, which dese e o be ea ed e y subs an ially on ano he occasion. So, on he basis o a na ion unde s ood a he same ime as a social communi y o p oduce s and holde o cons i uen powe , o a c i icism o na ional so e eign y ha is eplaced by he supe io i y o he Cons i u ion o e cons i u ed powe s, o a heo y o ep esen a ion ha combines a democ a ic base, annulmen and absence o impe a i e manda e, e c., he abbo o F éjus shows us, in he unusual dep h o he p oblems ha he aises, ha he eally is a - emo ed om he p esen -day image ha has made him a spokesman o he p incipal cu en o ini ial Eu opean cons i u ionalism. "La Cons i u ion c'es moi"; in he las a ings, o his long li e, Sieyes succeeded in de ining in his way he co e o wha was his basic obsession: a Theo y o he S a e as he undeniable basis o mode n con inen al Public Law. BASIC BIBLIOGRAPHY Bas id, P., Sieyes e sa pensée. Pa is, 1970. B endin, J.D., Sieyes. La clé de la Ré olu ion F ançaise. Pa is, 1988. B eue , S. "Na ionals aa und Pou oi cons i uan bei Sieyes und Ca l Schmi " ARSP LXX, 1984. Cla eul, C., L'in luence de E. Sieyes su les o igines de la ep ésen a ion en d oi public. These d'É a So bonne, 1982. Fo sy h, M., Reason and Re olu ion: The Poli ical Though o he Abbé Sieyes. New Yo k, 1987. Koung, Y., Théo ie cons i u ionnelle de Sieyes. Pa is, 1934. Löwens ein, K., Volk und pa lamen nach de S aa s heo ie de anzösische na ional e sammlung on 1789. München, 1922. Mo o, R. "L'a e sociale e l'idea di socie à nel pensie o di Sieyes" Ri is a In . di Filoso ia del Di i o. 45, 1968. Pasquino, P., "E. Sieyes, B Cons an e le Gou e nmen des mode nes". Re ue ançaise de Science Poli ique, 1988. id. "Il conce o di app esen anza e i ondamen i del di i o pubblico de la i oluzione: E.J. Sieyes" in Fu e , L'e edi à della Ri oluzione ancese. Ba i, 1989 Redslob, R., Die S aa s heo ien de anzösischen Na ional e sammlung on 1789. Leipzig, 1912. Schmi , E., "Rep esen a io in o o und ep esen a io singula i e " His o ische Zei sch i , 1971, 213.