Fede alism and Cul u al Plu alism:
The Canadian Expe ience
C. Lloyd BROWN-JOHN
Uni e si y o Windso , On a io
Wo king Pape n.106
Ba celona 1995
INTRODUCTION
Canada is now, and always has been, a cul u ally plu al land. Long be o e
Eu opeans a i ed o colonise and se le he as uppe po ion o he No h
Ame ican con inen peoples o di e se cul u es eamed he land. The names o
g ea Eu opean explo e s and ad en u e s washed upon he coas al sho es o
No h Ame ica - he Genoese explo e John Cabo sailing unde and English lag
in 1497; Gaspa and Michael Co -Real om Po ugal in 1500; Al a aez
Fagundes o Po ugal in 1521; John Ru om England in 1527; Es e an Gomez
also o Po ugal in 1524-25 and inally, Jacques Ca ie o F ance in 1534 and
1535. The Co e-Real b o he s we e he i s o explo e he wa e s o Canada’s
a c ic and he i s o sigh hose people who Eu opeans la e called "Eskimo" o
wha oday we mo e co ec ly call "Inu" o "Inui ".
Wha he g ea 15 h and 16 h Cen u y explo e s could nei he ha e known
no ha e unde s ood is ha while hey looked upon he land as o en ba en and
inhospi able he e we e, indeed, cul u es and peoples who had inhabi ed ha land
o cen u ies. The e i o y which now comp ises "Canada" encompassed no
ewe han 12 linguis ic g oups, some six y dis inc ibal communi ies and li e ally
hund eds o ibal bands1. Wha Eu opeans assumed o be p imi i e sa ages
("noble sa ages" i one belie es Jean Jacques Rousseau!) we e di e se peoples
and cul u es co-habi ing in some o m o egula ised ela ionship hei physical
en i onmen . Fo ms o go e nance exis ed and social o de s p e ailed. Bu ,
because hey did no comply wi h he Eu opean iew o "ci ilisa ion", he ecen
a i als on he con inen se abou changing and o en elimina ing he hos
cul u es. I is i onic oday ha he e y p ocess launched in he 16 h Cen u y by
Eu opeans con inues as new g oups o "explo e s" and "se le s" a i e in
Canada. Today, howe e , he inhabi an s a e able o oice hei conce ns and
hey a e o en able o a gue ha exis ing cul u es a e in dange o being
subme ged by he a i al o new and o eign cul u es. Canada’s o iginal na i e
inhabi an s we e no so able o esis he idel-wa e o cul u al change and, in
consequence, hey we e subme ged and o en disappea ed.
I is possible o imagine ha 100 o mo e yea s o m now he undamen al
languages no only o Canada bu o No h Ame ica in gene al will be en i ely
di e en han hey a e oday. Indeed, a as in lux o pe sons om Hong Kong
in o he wes coas ci y o Vancou e al eady is al e ing he cul u al en i onmen
o ha communi y. In u n, howe e , such immig a ion om non- adi ional
sou ces has e oked a widesp ead eac ion in Canada and has led o a ecen e-
de ini ion o quali ica ions o immig an s a us. Fea ha exis ing cul u es will be
i e ocably al e ed and e en subme ged a e subs an ial mo i a o s o much o
he deba e which su ounds ela ionships be ween he wo " ounding"
communi ies in Canada.
CANADA´S FOUNDING COMMUNITIES
I is an his o ic i ony oday ha in he con empo a y con es be ween he
wo ounding Eu opean cul u es in Canada ha hose who o iginally, we e e med
"Canadians" (as a mode o dis inguising hem om he 'conque ing B i ish' and
who, when digni y once mo e began o lou ish, called hemsel es "Canadiens")
ha e chosen o pu sue ano he iden i y "Quebecois". O cou se, I shall a gue, as
many ha e be o e, ha he wo e ms a e no incompa ible. A e all, mos o us
a e capable o simul aneously iden i ying wi h cul u es and concomi an symbols
o s a e a se e al le els. Thus, oday, o be a e an Quebecois need no be an
assump ion ha one has also p ecluded being a e an Canadian.
As J.R.Mille (1975;63) has sugges ed, o m Con ede a ion in 1867
Canada ne e was in ended o be any hing else bu a "poli ical en i y". Uni o mi y,
"...would ha e p o ed impossible o a ainmen . The a ious [B i ish] colonies,
wi h hei unique his o ical de elopmen , hei di e en eligious denomina ions,
and hei dis inc na ionali ies, could no ha e been homogenized cul u ally as
hey we e joined poli ically. The peculia i ies o language, c eed, and egional
iden i y had o be main ained, o se e al good and compelling easons".
Mille adds:
"E en i i we e possible o assimila e all B i ish No h Ame icans, o wha would
you assimila e hem?...Canadian uni y was no pu chased a he p ice o
homogeniza ion because he colonial poli icians who p oduced i had no in en ion
o c ea ing p oblems o hemsel es by deba ing some hing as abs ac and
heo e ical as he cul u al basis o he new s a e".
Ye , while poli ical wage ing and comp omise cha ac e ised he con ede al
and/o ede al se lemen eco ded in he o iginal Canadian cons i u ion o 1867 -
The B i ish No h Ame ica Ac - issues o cul u e we e deep and sub ley pe asi e.
Canada’s wo ounding Eu opean cul u es we e F ench and B i ish - he
la e being a blend o English, Sco ish, Welsh and I ish2. His o ically hese wo
cul u es had en wined on many occasions om he days o Caesa and Romans
o William he Conque o in 1066 and Edwa d IV’s in asion o F ance in 14753
and, o cou se, he Se en Yea s Wa which led o he cap u e o New F ance by
he B i ish and i s cession o he B i ish Empi e by he 1763 T ea y o Pa is.
A B i ish P oclama ion o 1763 which, among o he hings, limi ed he
e i o ial size o New F ance - enamed Quebec- in an a emp o assimila e he
newly conque ed peoples and encou age se lemen by B i ish immig an s la gely
ailed in i s in en . Consequen ly, in 1774 in a documen known as The Quebec
Ac , he B i ish es o ed F ench ci il wa , he seigneu ial sys em and, es ablished
Ca holicism ( o he i s ime e e in a B i ish e i o y) as a eligion wi h
acknowledged s a us. The igh o he Chu ch o collec he i he was also
ensu ed. I do no p opose o en e in o he deba e o e who domina ed whom in
la e 18 h and ea ly 19 h cen u y Quebec4. Wha I do wish o sugges , howe e , is
ha a he impe cep ibly and i e ocably he cul u al iden i ies o bo h
ancophone communi ies in Canada (Quebec and les acadiennes5) pe sis ed -
albei ha o Quebec wi h g ea p esence.
I is impo an o app ecia e his pe sis ence o he ancophone cul u al
iden i y in Canada o e he di icul cen u y a e he 1763 conques 6. The
conques had been enuous and he 1774 Quebec Ac was unashamedly an
a emp o ensu e ha he F ench inhabi an s o he newly acqui ed e i o y did
no join he bu geoning e ol in Ame ican colonies. Whe he he B i ish la e ed
hemsel es wi h he belie ha he inhabi an s o he new colony emained
passi e du ing he Ame ican in asion due o enligh end colonial policy o , simply
due o indi e ence is no ce ain. Wha is ce ain, howe e , is ha o he nex 70
yea s assimila ion was he ope a ional p emise o B i ish colonial go e nance.
Wha is equally ce ain, howe e , is ha les canadiennes lea ned he in icacies
o he B i ish cons i u ion much mo e apidly han he B i ish had an icipa ed
(Iga ua, 1974). Employing B i ish poli ical ins i u ions, les canadiennes
(especially o he me can ile class), sough o expand hei own con ol o e laws
and ins i u ions in acco dance wi h F ench law and adi ion.
In summa y, he e y na u e o linguis ic and cul u al p o ec ions assu ed
F ench speaking. Canadians, especially a e he Cons i u ion Ac o 1791 when
hey pa icipa ed in colonial go e nmen , ensu ed ha la su i ance o he
ancophone ac in No h Ame ica would ha e a subs an ial poli ical dimension.
In a wa wi h he Ame icans (1812-1814) many ancophones ende ed se ice o
B i ish in e u n o land g an s. Thei loyal y was demons a ed and he e was no
u ning back as 1837 up isings in bo h "Uppe " (On a io) and "Lowe " (Quebec), in
suppo o ep esen a i e go e nmen , sugges ed. The ancophone poli ical ac
was clea ly in play in Canada a e 1841 and The Ac o Union7. Thus, in he 25
yea s he ea e , leading up o he 1867 ede a ion o he ou No h Ame ican
B i ish colonies as "Canada", he impe a i e o cul u al and linguis ic su i al had
been con e ed in o an e ec i e poli ical p esence.
The cons i u ional ag eemen o 1865 which led o he inal B i ish No h
Ame ica Ac in 1867 was, o all p ac ical pu poses, a poli ical conclusion among
wo di e se linguis ic and eligiously p emised communi ies. Canada was a
poli ical comp omise. I was no a coun y ounded on high pu pose and wi h
s unning cons i u ional decla a ions- Unlike he Ame icans, he Canadian
cons i u ional d a e s p oduced an a chaic documen -p emised upon heo ies o
B i ish cons i u ional p ac ise al eady ou -da ed in 18678.
The concep , he e o e, ha he 1867 ede al ela ionship in Canada was a
poli ical comp omise be ween wo " ounding" aces holds conside able subs ance.
Tha concep is ex emely impo an in unde s anding e en s which ha e
anspi ed in he 128 yea s since ha poli ical ag eemen . McRobe s and
Pos ga e (1980;32) ha e obse ed:
"Fo F ench Canada, he eal bene i o Con ede a ion [in 1867] was he p o ision
o a ange o powe s, limi ed bu sac osanc , o e i s own a ai ...[Quebec
became] a conc e e poli ical uni , p o ec ed by he Cons i u ion, in which he
F ench Canadian communi y could be clea ly dominan and hus ha e a chance
o su i e on i s own e ms".
Bu , hey also no e ha :
"F ench Canadians we e elega ed o he posi ion o a pe manen mino i y whe e
hei igh s and powe s we e subjec o he ac ions o he Anglo-Canadian
majo i y".
Fo F ench speaking Canadians, especially hose in Quebec, he Canadian
Cons i u ion was a pe manen poli ical ag eemen whe eby he mino i y
ancophone communi y would ga ne no only in e nal sel -de e mina ion bu
assu ances ha hei mino i y s a us -no only in Canada bu con inen ally- would
be p o ec ed9. Re lec ing upon his, Alain Gagnon (1989;147) has no ed ha " he
Canadian sys em has been success ul, no so much in esol ing con lic , as in

managing i , and s iking a lexible balance be ween he di e gen iews o he
ini ial ba gain". The Quebec’s ea s ha hei language, eligion and cul u e would
be abused was bo ne ou in he yea s a e he 1867 'Con ede a ion' ( ede al)
ag eemen 10. Since 1867, he dominan poli ical issue in Canada has been he
na u e o he undamen al ba gain be ween he wo ounding communi ies.
Fea s ha he o iginal ba gain is h ea ened combined wi h some a he
oman ic no ions abou ma u ing "na ionhood" p o ide much o he impe us o he
con empo a y deba e o e cul u e and poli ics in Canada.
NOTES ON THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE
La en and o e sepa a ism ha e been pa o Quebec na ionalism
ce ainly o mos o he 20 h Cen u y. A gumen s ha e aken many o ms bu one
o e whelming cha ac e is ic o much o he discussion has been a sense o
oman icism inged wi h ea o wha some neo-na ionalis s desc ibe as "cul u al
genocide".
The oman icism o neo-na ionalism in Quebec is p emised upon
assump ions bo h abou he ma u a ion o a people and he ole independence
would play in es ablishing he iden i y o hose people. I is a s yle o na ionalism
cha ac e is ic o many o he na ionalis mo emen s and i lends i sel well o
poli ical manipula ion, o like a eligion, na ionalism plays upon he sen imen s
o en a he expense o eason and common sense.
So e eign y is seen as a na u al p ocess -"we can see he Quebec na ion
ans o m i sel om a agile bud o a supe b lowe opening up o he wo ld"
(Lagassé, 1992). An holis ic pe cep ion o a collec i i y, sa ed om assimila ion,
now mo ing o wa d wi h high ened poli ical consciousness and a sense o
"na ion". Fo some o he ex eme na ionalis s Quebec si s p eca iously pe ched
on he b ink o annihila ion "main enan ou jamais" sc eams he i le o Pie e
Bou gaul ’s (1990) challenge; "Gou e ne ou dispa aî e" is he wa ning o one
Pie e Valdeboncoeu (in 1976 he was also w i ing o genocide).
O he neo-na ionalis s see Quebec as s ong and a om disappea ing
(La ouche, 1990). La ouche e en p aises ede alism bu , like many ellow
na ionalis s, common sense is adandoned once oman icism akes o e .
La ouche a gues ha only a ue poli ical s a e will pe mi Quebec socie y o
ex end o he apex o i s po en ial as a ully plu alis ic en i y. The a gumen inds
i s mos comple e and ulles exp ession in a 1993 wo k by Fe nand Dumon one
o Quebec’s mos espec ed schola s and o me di ec o o Le cen e Québécois
de eche che su la cul u e11. Dumon a gues his na ionalism in e ms o a
"genesis" -a quasi-o ganic en i y wi h a li e en i ely o i s own. The "o he ness" o
"les anglais" con as ed o he eme ging ealisa ion o being "F ench", a passage
om childhood o adolescence, a ansi ion om homeland o coun y, a genesis
om a people o a na ion.
Fo neo-na ionalis s such as Dumon , Quebec’s p oblem has been i s
his o ic inabili y o ind i s collec i e iden i y as a na ion. I has eached se e al
imes o he elusi e na ional iden i y and each ime he collec i i y has al e ed.
This, Dumon a gues, is he " oca ion" (p. 235) o a people who pu sued hei
iden i y unde he e y eyes o he B i ish Empi e. My hs and legends buil upon
my hs and legends in he neo-na ionalis wo ld. The 1774 Quebec Ac is seen as
cle e ic o y o hose wi h ision enough o see su i al as he collec i e and
immedia e goal. The ebellion o 1837 is e-in e p e ed away om a s uggle o
esponsible go e nmen o symbolise ano he ac o de iance by he collec i i y
agains he cul u al opp esso . Cons uc ing na ionalis my hs con inues o his
e y day. A cons i u ional ag eemen by nine o en p o inces (no including
Quebec) in 1981, akes on he my h o he "nigh o he long kni es" o " he s ab
in he back". The my h con enien ly o e looks he ole -o lack, he eo - played by
Quebec’s he na ionalis P emie René Le esque. While he P emie played ca ds
in his ho el oom he o he go e nmen leade s concluded a deal. While Quebec’s
P emie snuggled in bed he nex mo ning, he o he go e nmen leade s
announced hei deal.
Ano he aspec o he con empo a y deba e in Quebec ela es o a genuine
ea ha he iden i y o F ench speaking pe sons will be subme ged as he na u e
o immig a ion changes. Quebec’s bi h a e has allen o m 3.78 in 1951 o 1.43 in
1986. This cons i u es one o he lowes bi h a es in he wo ld12 (Ins i u , 1989). A
1988 s udy commissioned by he Quebec Conseil de la langue ançaise
concluded ha he p opo ion o o al Canadian popula ion who would inhabi
Quebec would decline om 26.5% in 1981 o 24.1% by 2021. A ea o being
cul u ally subme ged, a ea now being oiced by English-speaking Canadians as
la ge numbe s o non-Eu opean immig an s en e Canada, is much mo e acu e
in a p o ince whe ein mino i y s a us has always been a way o li e13. The i ony is
ha Quebec is now ha ing eno mous di icul ies assimila ing immig an s -much
he same expe ience ha "B i ish" Canada, his o ically, had ying o assimila e
F ench speaking inhabi an s.
In many espec s he con empo a y deba e in Canada is cons i u ional in
he i s ins ance bu , mo e undamen ally, i pe ains e y closely o he ongoing
his o ic s uggle o cul u al su i al in he e i o y gene ally desc ibed as
Quebec14. As sugges ed abo e, he issue o cul u al su i al has ne e been
subme ged in so a as conce ns he F ench speaking communi y o Canada.
Fea s now being exp essed ha he cul u al onslaugh is e en mo e h ea ening
e lec much o he con empo a y deba e gene ally in Canada o e immig a ion
and he impac upon adi ional "Canadian" cul u al alues. A 1991 na ional
consul a i e inqui y in o Canada’s u u e (Ci izen’s Fo um, 1991; 85-87) ound
ha Canadians we e challenging concep s such as "mul i-cul u alism" as being
di isi e:
O e whelmingly, pa icipan s [in public consul a ion hea ings] old us ha
eminding us o ou di e en o igins is less use ul in building a uni ed coun y han
emphasizing he hings we ha e in common...
Pa icipan s que ied he ocus on ci izens' o igins and celeb a ing he i age
cul u es, a he han emb acing a uniquely Canadian na ional cha ac e and
celeb a ing ou Canadian he i age...
A g ea many pa icipan s see he unding o mul i-cul u alism p og ams as a
conc e e example o he way in which go e nmen is encou aging di isi eness
h ough ou di e se cul u al o igins, a he han os e ing uni y.
The heme o cul u al subme sion is an omnip esen heme no only in
Quebec bu as well in English-speaking Canada. Fo F ench-speaking esiden s
o Quebec, he lu e o ecou se o na ionalism is i s a ac i eness as a de ensi e
mode -a o ess- agains assimila ion, mul i-cul u alism and e en ual
disappea ance. Fo F ench cul u e o su i e, he machine y o an iden i iable
poli ical s a e mus be in place. The a gumen linking cul u al su i al o poli ical
iden i y has been compelling hese pas ew yea s.
CULTURAL PLURALISM: DIVERSITY WITHIN UNITY -THE FEDERAL
DILEMMA
Table1
Viewed om a linguis ic pe spec i e among he op 20 coun ies o o igin,
oughly 125,000 immig an s we e loca ions we e English is a majo spoken
language while ewe han 20,000 immig an s a i ed om loca ions whe e
F ench is a majo language -a a io in excess o 6:1. Ano he 50,000, among he
op 20 coun ies o o igin a e om loca ions whe e nei he o Canada’s o icial
languages is spoken al hough, unless an immig an is a sponso ed amily
membe , some minimum linguis ic skill in ei he o icial language is p e- equisi e
o immig a ion o Canada.
Ano he conside a ion is he adical and eligious mix o immig an s.
Indeed, oughly 20% o he immig an s we e om coun ies adi ionally
associa ed wi h Eu opean cul u e, caucasian ace and Ch is ian eligions.
Roughly 80% o he immig an s o Canada in 1993 we e o non- adi ional
eligions and mos we e also non-caucasian. These p opo ions ha e been
oughly simila o he pas 25 yea s. In he 1970’s he ede al Go e nmen
esponded wi h unded p og ammes designed o p omo e mul i-cul u alism.
School o icials in majo ci ies such as Vancou e and To on o ins i u ed
"he i age" p og ammes whe eby s uden s could ecei e o mal c edi o ce ain
ypes o s udies in a he i age language o hei p e e ence. By 1990, o example,
he To on o subu b o No h Yo k o e ed he i age language c edi cou ses in
mo e han 54 languages. Va ious eligious communi ies (e.g. Muslims, Sikhs) a e
seeking o icial ecogni ion o hei eligious schools as pa o he o mal
educa ional sys em.
Finally, an addi ional sou ce o ension eme ges when one conside s
whe e immig an s om non- adi ional Canadian sou ces choose o eside. Many,
eme ging om u ban a eas hemsel es, ake esidence in Canada’s p inciple
u ban cen es (To on o, Mon eal, Vancou e and Winnipeg). This accen ua es an
al eady well en enched his o ic aliena ion o u al and smalle communi y
esiden s om u ban dwelle s. U ban communi ies a e pe cei ed o be
conside ably mo e cul u ally di e se han ou lying and u al communi ies and he
sense " wo cul u al communi ies" - ha o adi ional alues and cul u es and ha
o he ecen immig an s- has aken on implied cu ency. The pe cep ion ha
he e is some cohe ence o he cul u al onslaugh o new a i als in Canada is
belied by he di e si y o e hnici ies, eligions and languages each o which seeks
bo h o p ese e i s unique quali ies while simul aneously adding o he complex
ab ic o la e 20 h Cen u y Canada.
Fo he wo " ounding Eu opean cul u es" (F ench and B i ish) he same
sense o cul u al challenge is p esen . Bu , o hose o he B i ish cul u al
communi y -a communi y al eady dilu ed in cul u al e ms by o e 100 yea s o
immig a ion om non-B i ish (bu la gely Eu opean sou ces, Uk aine, Poland,
Iceland, Russia, I aly, Po ugal, e c.)- a need o su i e has ne e been a ac o .
As he dominan cul u e in Canada and, in No h Ame ica, he B i ish (English
language) cul u e has ne e had o s uggle.