Compe ing Na ionalisms: Quebec-Canada Rela ions
Kenne h McROBERTS
Yo k Uni e si y, To on o
Wo king Pape n.107
Ba celona 1995
Making sense o Canada's cons i u ional impasse o o eign audiences is a
o midable challenge. I in ol es a cane e ms such as "no wi hs anding clause" and
"op ing ou ", as well as obscu e geog aphical e e ences, such as Meech Lake. Bu
he eal challenge is o explain he basic in ac abili y o Canada's cons i u ional
challenge. Th oughou he es o he wo ld, go e nmen s change, empi es collapse,
he Be lin Wall alls, bu Canada's cons i u ional impasse pe sis s. Ye , he os ensible
issues seem o be so i ial. Why should Canada be undamen ally di ed o e
whe he businesspeople in Quebec should be allowed o use languages o he han
F ench on hei signs? S ic ly speaking his does no cons i u e a majo
incon enience o non-F ancophones. No is i di ec ly linked o he su i al o he
F ench language in Quebec, unlike such ques ions as he language o ins uc ion in
schools o he language o wo k.
My p oposi ion is qui e simple: he cons i ucional impasse con inues because
i has become he ocus o a s uggle be ween wo compe ing na ionalisms, bo h o
which ha e long his o ies. In he pas hese wo na ionalisms could coexis in he
same poli ical sys em wi hou challenging i s e y ounda ions. Bu in ecen decades
hey ha e aken o ms ha a e inc easingly compe i i e -e en mu ually exclusi e.
Each has ein o ced he o he , and become mo e and mo e in ole an o each o he .
Ye , nei he is able o o ally displace he o he .
Simply pu , in ecen decades he majo i y o Quebec F ancophones ha e
been con e ed o an explici ly Québécois iden i y. In e ec , F ench-Canadian
na ionalism, which can be aced back o he pe iod o New F ance, has been
ans o med om an e hnic o a e i o ial o m. This in u n has uelled demands o
cons i u ional change o ecognize new iden i y. Ye , he eme gence o his new
Quebec iden i y, and he na ionalism i suppo s has led o he cons uc ion o a
coun e -iden i y a Canadian iden i y, also e i o ial in na u e, and explici ly designed
o nega e i . I , in u n, has become he basis o a new Canadian na ionalism, bu
one ha has unc ioned p ima ily in English Canada.
CHANGES IN QUEBEC DURING THE 1960s
The ans o ma ion o na ionalis ideology in Quebec is a well known s o y.
Wi h he new concep ion o he na ion as u ban, indus ial, and mode n ha became
dominan in he 1960, old cons i u ional a angemen s we e no longe su icien . The
Quebec go e nmen needed addi ional powe s i i we e o mee i s esponsibili ies
as he only go e nmen in Canada con olled by a F ancophone majo i y. By he
same oken, now ha F ancophones o med a modem socie y hei s a us wi hin
Canada had o be ede ined so as o be uly based on equali y. F ancophones had
always belie ed ha hei ela ionship wi h he es o he coun y mus be based on
equali y, bu English Canadians clea ly did no ; in ac ew o hem we e e en awa e
ha F ancophones saw Canada as a compac .
In sho , he 1960s saw g owing demands o a o mal e ision o he
Canadian cons i u ion so as bo h o en ench a dualis ision o Canada and,
especially, o secu e needed powe s o he go e nmen o Quebec.
INITIAL ATTEMPTS TO ACCOMMODATE NEW DEMANDS FROM QUEBEC
Du ing he 1960s, he e we e some se ious a emp s among poli ical and
in ellec ual leade s o g apple wi h hese issues. Fi s , he no ion ha Canada is
composed o wo ounding peoples o na ions was endo sed by all h ee ede al
pa ies. In 1963 he Libe al go e nmen o Les e B. Pea son c ea ed a Royal
Commission on Bilingualism and Bicul u alism whose manda e included
ecommending "wha s eps should be aken o de elop he Canadian Con ede a ion
on he basis o an equal pa ne ship be ween he wo ounding aces, aking in o
accoun he con ibu ion made by o he e hnic g oups o he cul u al en ichmen o
Canada" (1).
Fo hei pa , he Conse a i es s uggled wi h he no ion o " wo na ions". In
1967, a hinke s con e ence a Maison Mon mo ency in Quebec adop ed he posi ion
ha Canada is composed o "deux na ions", which was ende ed " wo ounding
peoples" in English (2). The New Democ a ic Pa y had al eady con on ed he issue
a i s ounding con en ion in 1961. On p odding om he Quebec delega es, i ag eed
ha i s p og amme should include he s a emen ha Canada was c ea ed by he
associa ion o wo na ions and ha h oughou he documen he e m " ede al"
should be used in place o "na ional" (3).
As o he s a us o Quebec i sel , du ing he ea ly 1960s P ime Minis e
Pea son openly ecognized Quebec's dis inc i eness wi h such s a emen s as:
While Quebec is a p o ince in he na ional con ede a ion, i is mo e han a p o ince because
i is he hea land o a people: in a e y eal sense i is a na ion wi hin a na ion (4).
Mo eo e , du ing his pe iod he Pea son go e nmen allowed Quebec o
exe cise a de ac o pa icula s a us by op ing ou o a la ge numbe o join
ede al-p o incial cos -sha ed p og ammes and e en exclusi ely ede al
p og ammes.
Wi h i s commi men o s a e in e en ion, he New Democ a ic Pa y
ecognized ha he ede al go e nmen could no assume i s p ope ole unless
Quebec we e o be excluded om i s ini ia i es. Thus, i o h igh ly adop ed special
s a us o Quebec a i s 1967 con en ion. D a ed by Cha les Taylo , he NDP
posi ion decla ed ha :
In ields o go e nmen which ouch a communi y's way o li e - ields suchs as social secu i y,
own planning, educa ion and communi y de elopmen - Quebec mus ha e he igh and he
iscal esou ces o adop i s own p og ammes and policies in place o hose designed and
inanced by he ede al go e nmen . A he same ime, he ede al go e nmen mus be able
o play an inc eased ole in hese ields whe e his is desi ed by he people o o he
p o inces (5).
Fo hei pa , he P og essi e Conse a i es appa en ly did no ake an
explici posi ion on he ques ion o Quebec's s a us, al hough pa y leade Robe
S an ield e oked su icien openness o he no ion o ecei e he suppo o le De oi
edi o , Claude Ryan, du ing he 1968 ede al elec ion -in opposi ion o Quebec's
os ensible a ou i e son, Pie e T udeau (6).
P obably, nei he o hese posi ions commanded clea majo i y suppo
among English-Canadian poli ical and in ellec ual eli es. In all h ee pa ies, each was
igo ously challenged (7). Bu a leas he " wo na ions" hesis and special s a us o
Quebec we e iewed as legi ima e posi ions o discussion, and had ad oca es in
English Canada.
CONSTRUCTION OF A NEW CANADIAN COUNTER-IDENTITY-AND A NEW
CANADIAN NATIONALISM
By la e 1960s, howe e , his e o o con on di ec ly he new Quebec
na ionalism had been eplaced wi h a new s a egy: o deny ou igh Quebec
na ionalism, in ac o seek o unde mine i s unde lying bases. In e ec , he new
Quebec iden i y was o be challenged wi h a new Canadian iden i y. The p ima y
a chi ec o his new s a egy was, o cou se, Pie e Ellio T udeau, a Mon eal-based
in ellec ual and poli ical ac i is who became P ime Minis e in 1968.
Wi hin his new Canadian iden i y, he e a e a leas i e disc e e
componen s: o icial bilingualism; a cha e o igh s; mul icul u alism; absolu e
equali y o he p o inces and ein o cemen o na ional ins i u ions. Each o hese
elemen s o Canadian poli ical na ionali y can be di ec ly aced o he undamen al
objec i e o de ea ing he Quebec independence mo emen .
O icial Bilingualism
Th ough o icial bilingualism he T udeau go e nmen sough o es ablish he
my h ha he F ench language, and F ench-speake s, was p esen h oughou
Canada. Demog aphically, his mani es ly is no he case, and ne e has been. The
use o F ench has always a ied eno mously om p o ince o p o ince. Only in
Quebec does he majo i y (82%) use F ench; he nex la ges F ancophone
p opo ion, New B unswik’s is only 31 %. Mo eo e , in all p o inces bu Quebec and
New B unswick assimila ion has been e y high. As a esul , in mos p o inces he
p opo ion o he popula ion which uses p ima ily F ench a home is now below 3%
(8). None heless, o icial bilingualism ga e F ench he same o mal s a us as English
h oughou he coun y, a leas o ede al pu poses, howe e ma ginal i migh be o
day- o-day li e.
On his basis, o icial bilingualism p omised o nulli y Quebec's claim o
dis inc i eness on he basis o language by making all o Canada like Quebec.
Canada as a whole, a he han jus Quebec, would be he home o F ancophones.
As Pie e T udeau decla ed in 1968 i mino i y language igh s a e en enched
h oughou Canada hen he F ench-Canadian na ion would s e ch om Mailla d ille
in BC o he Acadian communi y on he A lan ic Coas :
Once you ha e done ha , Quebec canno say i alone speaks o F ench Canadians... M .
Roba s will be speaking o F ench Canadians in On a io, M . Robichaud will be speaking
o F ench Canadians in New B unswick, M . Tha che will speak o F ench Canadians in
Saska chewan, and M . Pea son will be speaking o all F ench Canadians. Nobody will be
able o say, "I need mo e powe because I speak o he F ench-Canadian na ion" (9).
The Cha e o Righ s and F eedoms
Rein o cemen o he s a us o F ench was, in u n, he cen al pu pose o he
second elemen o he T udeau go e nmen 's pan-Canadian coun e iden i y o
Quebec's: an en enched bill o igh s which was inco po a ed as pa o 1982
cons i u ional e ision. The Cha e o Righ s and F eedoms deals wi h many o he
igh s han linguis ic ones: poli ical, legal, mobili y, social, e c... Bu language igh s
clea ly we e i s aison d'ê e (10). The p o ision o mino i y-language educa ion
igh s is he only sec ion o he Cha e no o be subjec o he no wi hs anding
clause, along wi h he mobili y p o ision, and, hank ully, he equi emen o elec ions
e e y i e yea s (along wi h he a ious in e p e i e clauses).
Mul icul u alism
A hi d elemen o he Canadian iden i y is mul icul u alism, which he
T udeau go e nmen p oclaimed in 1971. Canada migh ha e wo o icial languages,
bu i was o be seen o ha e an in ini e numbe o cul u es. The ede al go e nmen
commi ed i sel o "suppo all o Canada's cul u es". P e iously, much o he public
discussion had linked bilingualism wi h bicul u alism. I was in hese e ms ha in
1963 he ede al go e nmen unde Les e B. Pea son had es ablished i s oyal
commission o examine
Canada's na ional uni y c isis: he Royal Commission on Bilingualism and

Bicul u alism.
The T udeau go e nmen 's adop ion o a policy o mul icul u alism o en is
seen simply as a eponse o he demands o Canadians whose o igins we e nei he
B i ish o F ench. Many o hei leade s campaigned agains he concep o
bicul u alism. Con ending ha i necessa ily excluded hei componen s o he
popula ion, hey a gued o a mo e inclusi e e m. Bu he T udeau go e nmen
dea ly had an addi ional pu pose in ejec ing bicul u alism o mul icul u alism: by
ecognizing a mul i ude o cul u es mul icul u alism could ein in he no ion o duali y
and nulli y Quebec's claim o dis inc i eness on he basis o cul u e.
F om he momen he B&B Commission was c ea ed T udeau and his ellow
Quebec an i-na ionalis s had been deeply suspicous o he no ion o bicul u alism.
Thei easoning can be seen in a Ci é lib e assessmen o he B&B Commission's
P elimina y Reppo
[ he go e nmen and he Commission] olun a ily abandon he linguis ic dimension (which
p o ides some concep s which a e none heless applicable) so as o slip in o "bicul u alism"
and o alk o equali y o ci izens in as much as hey pa icipa e in one o wo cul u es... And
wha is he meaning in p ac ice o a Con ede a ion which "de elops acco ding o he
p inciple o equali y be ween he wo cul u es?... he idea o equali y be ween peoples
unde lines he concep o na ional so e eign y, and i would ha e been in e es ing o see
how he Commission in ends o in e p e i s manda e wi hou being led necessa ily o
p opose he di ision o Canada in o wo na ional s a es" (11).
The Equali y o he P o inces
The T udeau go e nmen 's ie ce commi men o he p inciple o absolu e
equali y among he p o inces was clea ly oo ed in i s de e mina ion o coun e he
claims o Quebec na ionalis s.
Insis ing ha " ede alism canno wo k unless all he p o inces a e in basically
he same ela ion o he cen al go e nmen " (12), T udeau decla ed on one occasion
ha , "I hink pa icula s a us o Quebec is he bigges in ellec ual hoax e e ois ed
on he people o Quebec and he people o Canada" (13).
Rein o cemen o Na ional Ins i u ions
Finally, his insis ence on a uni o m ede alism was coupled wi h a
de e mina ion ha he ede al go e nmen play a signi ican ole in he li es o all
Canadians (Québécois included), whe he i be h ough p og ammes o di ec
ans e paymen s, such as Family Allowances, o majo na ional unde akings, such
as he Na ional Ene gy P og am. F om he la e 1960s onwa ds O awa was g ea ly
conce ned ha i s ac ions be " isible" o Canadians (14).
CONTRADICTORY IMPACT OF NEW CANADIAN "COUNTER-IDENTITY"
No su p isingly, he new Canadian iden i y has no a ed well in F ench
Quebec, he popula ion o which in ac i had been designed, No only has he
concep ion o Canada as a bilingual na ion wi h a s ong F ancophone p esence om
coas o coas lacked c edibili y in Quebec, bu he p inciple o o mal equali y
be ween English and F ench inc easingly has appea ed as an obs acle o he ypes
o in e en ion by he Quebec s a e needed o s eng hen he ole o F ench wi hin
he p o ince. As o he Cha e o Righ s and F eedoms, s udies show ha
F ancophones a e as suppo i e as a e Anglophones o he igh s con ained in i -bu
he ins ance o Bill 178 demons a ed ha hey a e no p epa ed o gi e i p io i y o e
a measu e such as Bill 101 ha hey judge o be essen ial o hei cul u al su i al.
Wi h espec o he no ion o a mul icul u al socie y, F ench Quebec has become
inc easingly p epa ed o iew i sel as a socie y d awing upon a a ie y o cul u al
g oups, bu has shown no disposi ion o apply he concep o mul icul u alism o i s
own s a us wi hin Canada as a whole. Finally, Quebec F ancophones ha e shown
hemsel es o be mo e esis an han e e o he no ion ha Quebec cons i u es a
p o ince exac ly like he o he s and should ha e p ecisely he same cons i u ional
s a us.
On he o he land, each o hese elemen s o a new "pan-Canadian" iden i y
has had a ce ain esonance in English Canada. Many English Canadians ha e
emb aced hem as he basis o hei own concep ion o Canada. In pa icula , he
Cha e o Righ s and F eedoms has become a cen al elemen o he dominan
no ion o Canadian na ionhood. Equally en enched is he p inciple o absolu e
equali y o he p o inces: as we shall see, his was amply demons a ed in opposi ion
o he Meech Lake Acco d and suppo o Sena e e o m based on he "T iple E"
model. Many English Canadians ha e come o see Canadian socie y as mul icul u al
and o alue he ideal o a bilingual Canada. Finally, he s eng h o English-Canadian
a achmen o Canadian na ional ins i u ions has been e ealed in a a ie y o ways,
including opposi ion o he F ee T ade Ag eemen and esis ance o decen aliza ion
o powe s o he p o inces.
T udeau's success in mobilizing he ede al go e nmen , and a good numbe
mainly o English-speaking Canadians, on behal o his new Canadian iden i y
p esen s some s iking i onies. Whe eas he s a egy had been designed o ans o m
he way in which Quebec F ancophones saw Canada, ins ead i s impac has been
p ima ily upon ano he popula ion: English Canadians. In ac , he new Canadian
iden i y ha T udeau helped o o mula e has become he basis o a new Canadian
na ionalism which enjoys s ong suppo in much o English-speaking Canada,
al hough no Quebec. Ye , T udeau had always p o essed a deep opposi ion o all
o ms o na ionalism. This was he a ionale o his ie ce ejec ion o Quebec
na ionalism and his decision o en e ede al poli ics in o de o comba i .
Ul ima ely, his new Canadian na ionalism has ende ed i ually impossible
any cons i u ional eponse o he new Quebec iden i y. As a consequence, a he
han leading o na ional in eg a ion, ede al dissemina ion o his new "pan-Canadian"
iden i y has d i en Canadians u he apa .
Wi hin he e ms o he new Canadian iden i y i is i ually impossible o
comp ehend he claims o Quebec na ionalis s. A e all, i was cons uc ed p ecisely
o coun e and nega e he new Quebec iden i y ha hey had ashioned in he ea ly
1960s. Thus, he linguis ic dimension o Quebec's iden i y is incomp ehensible since
hanks o o icial bilingualism F ench is seen as enjoying a p i ileged s a us
h oughou Canada, obbing Quebec o any dis inc i eness. Thanks o
mul icul u alism, he cul u al dimension o he Quebec iden i y loses i s meaning:
Canada is now seen as composed o a mul iplici y o cul u al g oups. Nei he F ench
Canada no Quebec can ha e any special claim. And, in ligh o bo h he p inciple o
absolu e equali y o he p o inces and he a achmen o na ional poli ical ins i u ions
he e is no basis le o comp ehending Quebec's claim ha i s dis inc i eness
equi es he exe cise o addi ional powe s. The impac o hese a ious p inciples in
o eclosing any ecogni ion o Quebec's dis inc i eness is, o cou se, only ein o ced
by he Cha e o Righ s and F eedoms.
While T udeau would indeed no wan any such esponse o be made, and
has been eady e en in e i emen o in e ene publicly so as o ensu e ha i does
no happen, he e is su ely some i ony ha his mos powe ul ally should be he
"i a ional o ces" o na ionalism.
CONSTITUTIONAL DEBATES AS PROTRACTED STRUGGLE BETWEEN TWO
NATIONALISMS
1982 Cons i u ional Repa ia ion
The new Canadian na ionalism was almos pe ec ly exp essed in he 1982
cons i u ional e ision. In ac , he e ms o he e ision ollow p ecisely he agenda
ha Pie e T udeau p oclaimed in he la e 1960s: he p ima y objec i e was o link
pa ia ion o en enchmen o a bill o igh s. Only when his was accomplished migh
a en ion be gi en o he di ision o powe s, and any expansion o Quebec's
ju isdic ions.
Indeed he 1982 cons i u ional e ision deal only ma ginally wi h he di ision
o powe s, and in a way ha had li le signi icance o he Quebec go e nmen .
Ins ead he ocus was upon a Cha e o Righ s and F eedoms which would de ine o
all Canadians bo h hei igh s in dealing wi h he s a e and se ices ha he s a e
was obliged o p o ide o hem. Among hese igh s, as we ha e seen, language
igh s we e a clea p io i y. By he same oken, language igh s a e de ined in pu ely
indi idual e ms. A he same ime, he Cha e clea ly ecognizes Canada's
mul icul u al cha ac e .
As i o unde line he poin ha he Cons i u ion Ac , 1982, was an
embodimen o he new Canadian na ionalism, i was ejec ed by no jus he Quebec
go e nmen , hen occupied by he Pa i québécois, bu by mos ede alis s wi hin
Quebec's p o incial poli ical eli e. Fo i s pa , he T udeau go e nmen was
unde e ed, con ending ha Pa liamen and only Pa liamen could speak o Canada
as a whole -in e ec o he Canadian na ion. Thus, i was ully en i led o ac o e
Quebec's objec ions, whe he o no i had he suppo o he emaining p o incial
go e nmen s.
Meech Lake Acco d
The o iginal pu pose o he Acco d was mani es . I was in ended o esol e
he de iciency o he 1982 cons i u ional e ision: Canada had pa ia ed i s
cons i u ion bu wi hou Quebec signa u e. In ac , i g ew ou o a s a emen made by
Quebec's minis e o in e go e nmen al ela ions in 1985 in which he ou lined i e
condi ions o Quebec's adhesion o he cons i u ion. Re lec ing he Quebec
go e nmen 's desi e o each an ag eemen despi e i s weak ba gaining posi ion, he
condi ions we e modes in scope. Combined wi h a six h elemen , hese condi ions
we e he basis o an ag eemen among all en p o incial p emie s and he p ime
minis e eached on Ap il 30 h, 1987, a he p ime minis e 's summe e ea nea
Meech Lake.
The Acco d boiled down o six measu es, all o which long had been unde
discussion in in e go e nmen al ci cles and some o which had ac ually been
p oposed by he ede al go e nmen a one ime o ano he : limi a ion o he ede al
go e nmen ’s use o i s spending in exclusi e p o incial ju isdic ions; designa ion by
p o incial go e nmen s o lis s o nominees o he Sup eme Cou and he Sena e;
an addi ion o h ee i ems o he subjec s o cons i u ional e ision equi ing
unanimous consen by he p o inces; cons i u ionaliza ion o an ag eemen be ween
O awa and Quebec wi h espec o immig a ion, wi h ex ension o he same
p ocedu e o any o he ma e s equi ing unanimous consen o he p o inces; and
simul aneous ecogni ion o Canada's dualis ic na u e and Quebec's s a us as a
"dis inc socie y". By any s anda d, i was a modes package -and ce ainly a minimal
esponse o he aspi a ions o Quebec na ionalis s.
when he objec i e is o c ea e an equal pa ne ship be ween cul u es. Appa en ly,
he B&B Commission had in ended o d aw he b oad ou lines o a cons i u ional
o de ha would be compa ible wi h i s ision o a bicul u al Canada. Fo a a ie y o
easons, his ne e happened.
As we ha e seen, i is in pa because o hese implica ions ha he T udeau
go e nmen abandoned he concep o bicul u alism and was ca e ul o d ain he
concep o bilingualism o any collec i e o e ones, jus as i a oided any alk o equal
pa ne ship among collec i i ies, as opposed o indi idual Canadians.
None heless, e en now hese no ions could p o ide some di ec ion ou o he
p esen dialogue des sou ds. The p ima y di icul y wi h he B&B Commission's
o mula ion o Canada is ha i excluded Abo iginal peoples. (Ce ainly, he ph ase
"equal pa ne ship be ween he wo ounding aces" sounds s ange o con empo a y
ea s -e en i one accep s ha in 1960s English Canada " ace" did no necessa ily
imply skin colou ). He e, some impo an wo k has been done wi hin he o mula ion
o " h ee na ions". Du ing he mos ecen o cons i u ional discussions his concep
no only was ad anced in a mani es o by a g oup o English-Canadian in ellec uals i
became he o icial policy o he Na ional Ac ion Commi ee on he S a us o Women
(27).
ASYMMETRY
As o he ins i u ional o m o his new concep ion o Canada, he e oo i
would be use ul o look a de elopmen s in he 1960s. Be o e T udeau's ision o a
Canadian iden i y had achie ed hegemony in ede al ci cles, he e was conside able
expe imen a ion wi h he concep o asymme y in he dis ibu ion o unc ions
be ween ede al and p o incial go e nmen s. Mee ing Quebec's demands need no
en ail a gene al weakening o he ede al go e nmen , as wi h decen aliza ion o
powe s o all he p o inces. Unde schemes o asymme y, any decen aliza ion o
powe s could go o Quebec alone; O awa would con inue o pe o m hese unc ions
in he es o he coun y. In e ec , English Canada could con inue o ha e as s ong
a ede al go e nmen as i wished (28).
In he ea ly 1960s he Pea son go e nmen allowed Quebec o exe cise a de
ac o pa icula s a us by op ing ou o a la ge numbe o join ede al-p o incial
cos -sha ed p og ammes and e en exclusi ely ede al p og ammes. In doing so, i
was simply building on pas p eceden s. In 1954, Mau ice Duplessis had
ees ablished Quebec's own pe sonal income ax, using ax oom o be aca ed by
O awa (29). In 1959, he Die enbake go e nmen had ag eed o aca e co po a e
income ax oom in Quebec so as o allow Quebec ci y o eco e unds which, in he
es o Canada, we e paid di ec ly o uni e si ies (30).

To be su e, asymme y would aise some ins i u ional p oblems. In pa icula ,
c i ics ha e wonde ed abou he p op ie y o Quebec M.P.'s o ing on measu es
which, unde asymme y, do no apply o Quebec and o Quebec M.P.'s assuming
Cabine po olios which in ol e p og ams which do no unc ion in Quebec. Bu he
p oblem should no be exagge a ed. A e all, Quebec M.P.'s ha e o ed on laws
dealing wi h he Canada Pension Plan, e en hough Quebec has i s own Quebec
Pension Plan, and wo Quebec M.P.'s e en ha e assumed esponsibili y o hese
p og ams as Minis e s o Heal h and Wel a e: Monique Bégin and Ma c Lalonde.
E en hen, he e may be ways o alle ia e hese complica ions. Fo ins ance, Quebec
M.P.'s may simply no o e on hese measu es - hey would no be o es o
con idence. I , as would mos likely be he case, such a o mal limi a ion o he igh o
op ou o Quebec alone would be poli ically un enable in English Canada, i migh be
ex ended o all p o inces bu wi h p ocedu al equi emen s ha would p eclude i
om being used i olously; a 2/3's majo i y in a p o incial legisla u e o app o al in a
popula e e endum.
No is Ou e Canada's desi e o mo e powe a he cen e incompa ible wi h
Quebec's desi e o g ea e p o incial au onomy. In ac , unde ce ain assump ions
hey a e highly compa ible. P esuming ha unde asymme y Quebec M.P.'s would
no o e on measu es ha do no apply o Quebec, Ou e Canada would in hese
ins ances domina e he House o Commons. Wi hou Quebec M.P.'s o ing, Ou e
Canada M.P.'s would ha e a majo i y o he sea s. To his ex en , a "T iple E" Sena e
migh no e en be necessa y o accommoda e Wes e n Canadian conce ns (31). I i
we e o p o e necessa y, a "T iple E" Sena e migh s ill be made accep able o
Quebec by coupling i wi h a majo expansion in Quebec's powe (32).
Beyond he T udeau ision's app oach o ede al-p o incial ela ions,
s essing he absolu e equali y o he p o inces, he concep o asymme y could
p o i ably be applied o each o he o he elemen s o he new Canadian iden i y.
Uni o m applica ion o he Cha e o Righ s and F eedoms migh be empe ed in he
case o Quebec by a ecogni ion o Quebec's pa icula cul u al impe a i es: his
would ha e been he p ima y e ec o he Meech Lake Acco ds's "dis inc socie y"
clause. Language igh s and Canadian bilingualism could be concei ed so as o
ecognize ha he Quebec go e nmen mus ac o suppo he p o ince's majo i y
language in a way ha no o he p o ince needs o suppo i s majo i y language; and
ha he e is a undamen al asymme y be ween he si ua ion o he Quebec
Anglophone mino i y and he F ancophone mino i ies o he o he p o inces. Finally,
i may e en be ime o ecognize he a i iciali y o a concep ion o Canadian
mul icul u alism ha in e ec places on p ecisely he same plane all claims o
cul u al speci ici y and dis inc i eness.
To be su e, o e wen y- i e yea s ha e passed since he T udeau
go e nmen began he e o o implan he new Canadian iden i y. Fede al
go e nmen policies o dissemina e and implemen he new alues seem o be well
en enched. Th ough o mal e ision hey a e now embedded in he Canadian
cons i u ion.
None heless, he ecen deba e o e Abo iginal igh s is highly sugges i e.
A e all, in he case o Abo iginal peoples he Cha lo e own Acco d was o h igh in
i s ecogni ion ha hey cons i u e dis inc collec i i ies in Canada. The p oposed
Canada Clause was o con ain a p o ision decla ing ha :
he Abo iginal peoples o Canada, being he i s peoples o go e n his land, ha e he igh
o p omo e hei languages, cul u es and adi ions and o ensu e he in eg i y o hei
socie ies, and hei go e nmen s cons i u e one o h ee o de s o go e nmen in Canada
(33).
By he same oken, ecognizing ha "The Abo iginal peoples o Canada ha e
he inhe en igh o sel -go e nmen wi hin Canada", he Acco d would ha e
launched a p ocess h ough which he ede al, p o incial and e i o ial go e nmen s
would each en e in o "good ai h" nego ia ion wi h Abo iginal peoples o ag eemen s
h ough which his igh would be implemen ed (34). Clea ly, he e would ha e been
eno mous a ia ion, o asymme y, among hese many ag eemen s.
The p oposals appea ed o ha e enjoyed qui e b oad suppo in English
Canada. The basic concep s did no seem o gene a e he con o e sy hey do when
applied o Quebec. The p oposals ecei ed less sympa hy in F ancophone Quebec,
bu his was in pa because o English-Canadian e usal o apply he same concep s
o Quebec.
In he las analysis, Canada can pe sis as a ede al sys em bu only i
ede alism is aken se iously and i s po en ials a e ully exploi ed. Ra he han
seeking o ind symme y and impose uni o mi y we should be ac i ely pu suing
asymme y and using ede alism o accommoda e di e ences in needs and
aspi a ions. Despi e his much-p o essed a achmen o ede alism, T udeau ejec ed
much o wha ede alism has o o e and h ough such measu es as he Cha e o
Righ s and F eedoms implan ed a discou se ha is undamen ally an i- ede alis . The
obs acles o es o ing a uly ede al ision o Canada, based on he ecogni ion ha
Canada is indeed a mul ina ional s a e, would seem o be s agge ing. Ye , he
al e na i es a e dis inc ly una ac i e.
NOTES
This ex d aws upon some o my p e iously published ex s including: English Canada and Quebec:
A oiding he Issue, Six h Roba s Lec u e. Roba s Cen e o Canadian S udies, Yo k Uni e si y,
1991, "Cons uc ing Canadian Iden i ies", Cons i u ional Fo um cons i u ionnel, ol.4, nº4,
Summe /1993, p. 93-96, and "Disag eeing on Fundamen als: English Canada and Quebec",
McROBERTS, Kenne h and MONAHAN, Pa ick J.: The Cha lo e own Acco d, he Re e endum
and he Fu u e o Canada. To on o, Uni e si y o To on o P ess, 1993, p. 249-263.
(1) ROYAL COMMISSION ON BILINGUALISM AND BICULTURALISM: P elimina y Repo .
O awa, Queen’s P in e , 1965, p. 151.
(2) A he subsequen leade ship con en ion, John Die enbake led a igo ous cha ge agains he
p oposi ion bu none o he o he leade ship candida es suppo ed him, and he mo ion was
" abled". See he accoun in The Canadian Annual Re iew, 1967, p. 32-38.
(3) MORTON, Desmond: The New Democ a s, 1961-1986: The Poli ics o Change. Copp Cla k
Pi man, 1986, p. 25.
(4) This was con ained in a 1963 s a emen o a mee ing o he Canadian F ench-Language Weekly
Newspape s Associa ion a Mu ay Bay, Quebec. I is simila o a 1964 s a emen made o English
Canada, on CBC ele ision, ha Quebec is "in some espec s no a p o ince like he o he s bu he
homeland o a people". Bo h a e quo ed in NEWMAN, Pe e C.: The Dis empe o Ou Times.
To on o, McClelland & S ewa , 1968, p. 320.
(5) MORTON, D.: The New Democ a s..., p. 77.
(6) See Canadian Annual Re iew, 1968, p. 37-38. On he o he hand, Simeon and Robinson claim
ha he pe sonally disliked he idea, SIMEON, Richa d & ROBINSON, Ian: S a e, Socie y and he
De elopmen o Canadian Fede alism, ol. 71, Collec ed Resea ch S udies, Royal Commission on
he Economic Union and De elopmen P ospec s o Canada. To on o, Uni e si y o To on o P ess,
1990, p. 190. Indeed du ing he elec ion campaign S an ield no only e used o endo se ei he wo
na ions o special s a us, bu bi e ly complained abou a Libe al ad e isemen ha associa ed him
wi h he wo concep s, “S an ield Con inues Feud wi h PM on PC cons i u ional posi ion", Globe &
Mail, June 21/1968.
(7) John Die enbake 's inal ac as Conse a i e Pa y leade was o lead he cha ge agains he " wo
na ion" hesis. The NDP’s e oca ion o " wo na ions" p ecipi a ed Eugene Fo sey's depa u e and
i s indo semen o special s a us o Quebec caused Ramsay Cook and Kenne h McNaugh o
b eak wi h i , MORTON, D.: The New Democ a s..., p. 77-78. See also LAMOUREUX, And é: Le
NPD e le Quebec, 1958-1985. Mon eal, Edi ions du Pa c, 1985, p. 97. Fo sey's opposi ion is
elabo a ed in FORSEY, Eugene: "Canada: wo na ions o one?", Canadian Jou nal o Economics
and Poli ical Science, XXVII, 4, No embe /1962.
(8) Calcula ed om S a is ics Canada: Adjus ed Language Da a, Ap il/1988.
(9) Speech o Quebec Libe al Con en ion, Janua y 28, 1968, epo ed in O awa Ci izen, Janua y
29/194 as quo ed in RADAWANSKI, Geo ge: T udeau. Sca bo ough, Macmillan-NAL Publishing
L d., 1978, p. 286.
(10) T udeau acknowledged his when in he all o 1980, ha ing eleased his p ojec o cons i u ional
e ision, he add essed he Quebec Ci y Chamb e de Comme ce. He explained ha he
en echmen o language igh s alone would ha e p o oked English-Canadian c ies o "F ench
Powe "; o he igh s had o be added o he p ojec . "Des p o inces on p ié O awa de leu impose
le espec du ançais", Le De oi , Oc obe 23/1980, p. 1.
(11) Comi é pou une poli ique onc ionnelle, "Biza e algèb e", Ci é lib e, XX, 82, Decembe / 1965
(Albe B e on, Claude B uneau, Y on Gau hie , Ma c Lalonde, Mau ice Pina d), p. 14. Pie e
T udeau epo edly was closely in ol ed in he p epa a ion o he documen bu did no sign i since
he had al eady en e ed ede al poli ics. In p esen ing his go e nmen 's policy o mul icul u alism in
1971, P ime Minis e T udeau was explici in his ejec ion o bicul u alism. He decla ed ha :
The e y i le o he Royal Commission whose ecommenda ions we a e now in he p ocess
o implemen ing seems o sugges ha bilingualism and bicul u alism a e insepa able. Bu he e m
bicul u alism does no accu a ely depie ou socie y; he wo d mul icul u alism is mo e p ecise in his
espec .
This cons i u es a ansla ion o ex ac s om he F ench ex , as ep oduced in Le De oi , Oc obe
13/1971.
(12) NEWMAN, Pe e : To on o S a , Ap il 2/1966, as quo ed in SIMEON, Richa d: Fede al P o incial
Diplomacy: he making o ecen policy in Canada. To on o, Uni e si y o To on o P ess, 1972, p.
68.
(13) PEACOCK, Don: Jou ney o Powe : The S o y o a Canadian Elec ion. To on o, 1968, as
quo ed in SIMEON. R.: Fede al-P o incial...., p. 90.
(14) As An hony Ca eless has no ed:
[The] g owing desi e a O awa o secu e a g ea e isibili y o ede al policies [can be
seen as s emming] in he i s ins ance, om he inc easing s eng h o and e ec i eness
o Quebec's sepa a is claims and, in la e yea s, om he g owing bellige ency o ich
p o inces.
CARELESS, An hony: Ini ia i e and Response. Mon eal, McGill-Queen’s Uni e si y P ess, 1977,
p. 177, ou emphasis.
(15) See "Voice o he People", Maclean's, June 15/1987, p. 12, and BLAIS, And é and CRÊTE, Jean:
"Pou quoi l’opinion publique au Canada anglais a- -elle eje é l'Acco d du lac Meech", in HUDON,
Raymond and PELLETIER, Réjean (eds.): L’engagemen in ellec uel: mélanges en I'honneu de
Léon Dion. Quebec, Les P esses de I'Uni e si é La al, 1991, p. 398.
(16) "Po ai des Québécois", L’Ac uali é, Janua y/1991, p. 13-16.
(17) Ano he "cha ac e is ic" o Canada is " he equali y o he p o inces", Ibid., sec ion 1.
(18) "The e should be a cons i u ional p o ision o an ongoing ede al ole in he es ablishmen o
na ional policy objec i es o he na ional aspec s o labou ma ke de elopmen . Na ional labou
ma ke objec i es would be es ablished h ough a p ocess which could be se ou in he
Cons i u ion including he obliga ion o p esen a ion o Pa liamen o deba e", S a us Repo : The
Mul ila e al Mee ings on he Cons i u ion. Final e sion, July 16/1992, sec ion 28.
(19) Ibid., sec ion 29
(20) Ibid., sec ion 10.
(21) Unde he Cha lo e own Acco d’s e sion o Sena e e o m, ep esen a ion would indeed ha e
been "equal", wi h he same numbe s (six) o ep esen a i es om each p o ince, plus an
inde e mina e numbe o abo iginal ep esen a i es. Bu i would no necessa ily ha e been
"elec ed": o placa e Quebec P emie Bou assa, p o incial legisla u es had he op ion o appoin ing
he ep esen a i es. And on he basis o he powe s o be wielded by he Sena e, he e was
unce ain y abou he ex en o which i would be "e ec i e". While a majo i y o he Sena e could
s ill e o bills axa ion o na u al esou ces, he Sena e could no longe could e o (by 70%) mos
o he measu es. Bills which we e ejec ed in he Sena e would simply be submi ed o join si ings,
whe e Sena o s would be ou numbe ed by M.P.'s 5 o 1. To add u he insul o inju y, wi hin he
House Cen al Canadian ep esen a ion would be inc eased by 36 sea s, b inging i om 59% o
62.3% (D a Legal Tex , Oc obe 9,1992 [bes e o s ex based on he Cha lo e own Acco d], p.
3-13).
(22) Ibid., p. 11, 13,25 and 31.
(23) McROBERTS, Kenne h and MONAHAN, Pa ick J.: The Cha lo e own Acco d, he Re e endum
and he u u e o Canada. To on o, Uni e si yo To on o P ess, 1933,appendix 3.
(24) ROYAL COMMISSION ON BILINGUALISM AND BICULTURALISM: P elimina y Repo .
O awa, Queen's P in e , 1965, 151, ou emphasis.
(25) ROYAL COMMISSION ON BILINGUALISM AND BICULTURALISM: Book I: Gene al In oduc ion.
O awa, Queens's P in e , 1967, xxxi.
(26) Ibid., xx iii.
(27) "Th ee Na ions in a Delica e S a e", To on o S a , Feb ua y 4/1992, A17.
(28) The concep o asymme y was in ac endo sed a he i s o he i e public con e ences which
he ede al go e nmen o ganized du ing he win e o 1992. In he wo ds o con e ence appo eu
Rosalie Abella:
The go e nmen has o e ed a gene al de olu ion o powe s o he p o inces. You appea o
ha e been eluc an o accep his and p e e ha Canada ha e a s ong cen al go e nmen . Mos o
you ha e u ged ha he ede al go e nmen add ess Quebec's needs di ec ly and ha such ans e s
o powe s as may be necessa y should no o he mos pa be ex ended ac oss his coun y".
DELACOURT, Susan: "Fo um U ges Sepa a e Deal o Quebec", Globe and Mail, Janua y20/1992,
p. 1. Fo hei pa , go e nmen o icials soon dismissed he idea om se ious conside a ions.
(29) In he p ocess, Duplessis o ced he ede al go e nmen o yield 10% o i s ax- wice he amoun
o oom i had o i inally in ended o aca e. This episode is desc ibed, among o he places, in
McROBERTS, Kenne h: Quebec: Social Change and Poli ical C isis, Thi d Edi ion. To on o,
McClelland & S ewa , 1988, p. 124.
(30) Ibid., p. 141.
(31) See, o ins ance, LAXER, Go don: "Dis inc S a us o Quebec: A Bene i o English Canada",
Cons i u ional Fo um cons i u ionnel, ol. 3, nº 3, Win e /1992, p. 60.
(32) In ac , among he documen s p epa ed by op Quebec ci il se an s ha ecen ly published las
Oc obe in L’Ac uali é he e is he in ima ion ha Sena e e o m migh ha e been accep able o
Quebec i i had been accompanied by addi ional powe s o he Quebec go e nmen :
En aison de son ca ac è e dis inc , le Quebec peu di icilemen accep e une é o me du
Séna ou sa ep ésen a ion se ai sensiblemen amoind ie. Seule l’ob en ion d’un s a u
pa iculie - é o man au g é du Quebec le pa age des pou oi s- pou ai
hypo hé iquemen jus i ie une diminu ion sensible de sa ep ésen a ion au séna . LISEE,
jean F ançois: "Dossie s sec e s de Bou assa", L'Ac uali é, 1 No emb e/1992, p. 64.
(33) D a Legal Tex , Oc ob e 9,1992, sec ion 2 (I) (b).
(34) Ibid., sec ion 35.