7 3Te minologija | 2019 | 26
doi.o g/10.35321/ e m26-04
Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying
Specialized Seman ic F ames1
AnA Os Oški Anić
Ins i u e o C oa ian Language and Linguis ics
MAjA LOnčA
Ins i u e o C oa ian Language and Linguis ics
MA inA PA ić
Ins i u e o C oa ian Language and Linguis ics
AbS Ac
he pape discusses he idea o using pa allel co po a o he ex ac ion o e -
minological uni s used o iden i y seman ic ames o a ia ion, as he i s s ep
in de eloping a me hod o de e mining specialized seman ic ames. he p o-
cess o compiling he pa allel co pus o ex s aken om he Eu -Lex da abase
using Ske ch Engine ools is desc ibed i s . he me hodology o ex ac ing
e m candida es and hei manual e i ica ion is hen p esen ed, as well as he
p ocess o ex ac ing and e i ying ele an e bs. he esul s o e m e i i-
ca ion a e discussed, wi h he ocus on he ole o e bs and e bal collo-
ca ions in iden i ying ele an seman ic ames and ame elemen s.
Keywo ds: a ia ion e minology, English-c oa ian co pus, seman ic ames, specialized
knowledge, e minology.
Ano AcIjA
S aipsnyje s a s oma, kaip lygiag a ieji eks ynai gali bū i naudojami e minijos
iene ams, aikomiems a iacijos seman iniams eimams nus a y i, a ink i. ai
pi moji me odo specializuo iems seman iniams eimams nus a y i kū imo pako-
pa. Pi miausia ap ašoma, kaip, emian is Eu -Lex duomenų baze i naudojan is
Ske ch Engine p iemonėmis, engiamas lygiag a usis eks ų inkinys. Tada pa ei-
kiami e minų a ian ų iš inkimo i jų pa ik inimo ankiniu būdu me odai bei
1 his pape is based on he alk “F om pa allel co po a o specialized seman ic ames”, gi en a he 3 d
in e na ional con e ence on e minology Scien i ic, Adminis a i e and Educa ional Dimensions o Te min ol-
ogy in Vilnius, 17–18 oc obe 2019. his wo k has been ully suppo ed by he c oa ian Science Foun-
da ion unde he p ojec H ZZ-UIP-2017-05-7169.
7 4 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
inkamų eiksmažodžių iš inkimo i ik inimo p ocesas. Ap a ian e minų pa
ik inimo ezul a us ypa ingas dėmesys ski iamas eiksmažodžių i žodžių jungi-
nių aidmeniui, nus a omi inkami seman iniai eimai i jų elemen ai.
esminiai žodžiai: a iacijos e minija, anglų i k oa ų kalbų eks ynas, seman iniai eimai,
specializuo os žinios, e minologija.
In oDUc Ion
he e ha e been nume ous applica ions o he heo y o F ame Seman-
ics (Fillmo e 1976, 1982) in lexicog aphy and compu a ional linguis ics,
mos known o which is ce ainly he lexical knowledge da abase F amene
(Fillmo e e al. 2003; uppenho e e al. 2017). he wo k on mapping
ela ions be ween syn ax and seman ics, which F amene essen ially is,
has no only inspi ed simila p ojec s conce ning o he languages besides
English, bu has also pa ed he way o esea ch on specialized knowledge
and he o ganiza ion o specialized knowledge ca ego ies based on seman-
ic ames. ega dless o whe he hey adhe e o F amene ’s me hodol-
ogy closely o hey apply a modi ied app oach o iden i ying and delin-
ea ing seman ic ames as ypes o ca ego ies, he p ojec s c ea ed a ound
building esou ces designed o specialized knowledge communi ies need-
ed o ake in o accoun he speci ics o e minology and he con ex o
languages o speci ic pu poses as opposed o gene al language and i s use
(Fabe e al. 2006; 2009; L’Homme 2012).
he e has been no lexical esou ce de eloped o he c oa ian language
ha is comple ely based on F amene ’s me hodology and seman ic in en-
o y. ce ain seman ic ames ha e been de ined as pa o a la ge da a-
base o concep ual me apho s in c oa ian (Despo e al. 2019). Howe e ,
a da abase o seman ic ames o a ia ion, which is being de eloped wi h-
in he esea ch p ojec he Dynamici y o Specialized Knowledge Ca ego ies
(DIKA, ihjj.h /dika), is he i s a emp a building such a specialized
da abase o c oa ian. he p ojec deals wi h he desc ip ion o concep-
ual and linguis ic le els o specialized knowledge ca ego ies wi hin he
dynamic na u e o seman ic ames. he p ojec ’s key ou pu is a mul i-
lingual e minological da abase in which a ia ion e minology is de ined
in seman ic ames, including ame elemen s, concep ual ela ions, and
igu a i e and ph aseological e minological uni s. A pa allel co pus o
English and c oa ian ex s in he domain o ai a ic has been compiled
o he pu poses o seman ic and syn ac ic analysis, and i will se e as
7 5Te minologija | 2019 | 26
he s a ing poin o e m ex ac ion and e m analysis. he subdomain
o ai a ic has been chosen as he mos ep esen a i e aspec o he as
and in e disciplina y ield o a ia ion.
his pape discusses he idea o using pa allel co po a o he ex ac ion
o e minological uni s e e ing o speci ic seman ic ames o a ia ion, as
he i s s ep in de eloping a me hod o de e mining seman ic ames and
hei concep ual ela ions in he ield o a ia ion. Al hough pa allel co po a
ha e long been ecognized as in aluable sou ces o e m candida es o build-
ing a ious specialized esou ces (Vin a 2000), hey ha e so a been li le
used in applied esea ch e e ing o F ame Seman ics.2 he p ocess o
compiling he pa allel co pus o ex s aken om he Eu -Lex da abase us-
ing Ske ch Engine ools is desc ibed i s . he me hodology o ex ac ing
e m candida es and hei manual e i ica ion is hen p esen ed, as well as
he p ocess o ex ac ing and e i ying ele an e bs. he esul s o e m
e i ica ion a e p esen ed and commen ed on, ollowed by he discussion o
he po en ial use o e bs and e bal colloca ions in iden i ying ele an
seman ic ames and ame elemen s in he ield o a ia ion.3
1. HEo E IcAL bAcKG oUnD
In con empo a y e minology and LSP communi ies, specialized knowl-
edge esou ces a e no longe buil a ound he desc ip ion o hie a chical
ela ions only because i is conside ed hey do no e lec he dynamic
na u e o he knowledge ca ego ies (Fabe e al. 2006; 2009; L’Homme,
obichaud 2014). Mo eo e , he o mal dis inc ion be ween a dic iona y
and a lexicon ha he whole adi ional e minog aphy is based on seems
o ha e been blu ed wi h mo e and mo e specialized esou ces employing
he me hods o compila ion and knowledge p esen a ion o he wise used
in c ea ing gene al language esou ces (L’Homme e al. 2016; L’Homme
2018). Lexical and seman ic esou ces buil on he p emises o F ame
Seman ics de ine knowledge in e ms o seman ic ames as a ype o
dynamic ca ego ies o in ica e elemen s and mu ual ela ions.
Each seman ic ame is de ined as a ype o e en o s a e wi h i s pa -
icipan s, called ame elemen s (FEs). Seman ic ames a e in oked by
2 Pa allel co po a would ce ainly each hei ull po en ial in he c ea ion o mul ilingual lexical eposi o-
ies based on seman ic ames (boas 2005).
3 We hank he anonymous e iewe s o hei in aluable commen s and sugges ions.
7 6 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
lexical uni s, i.e. wo ds in e e yday language o e ms in specialized knowl-
edge, which ins an ia e ame elemen s. he basic c i e ion o delimi ing
one ame om ano he is ha all lexical uni s should “e oke he same
ype o e en and sha e he same in en o y and con igu a ion o FEs”
( uppenho e e al. 2017: 384–385). his me hod o a i ing a he scope
o seman ic ames and hei de ini ions could be, howe e , conside ed an
a bi a y one because i does no equi e a p e ious “o e iew” o he
a ailable lexical da a. Since many ames ollow a scena io-like composi-
ion, hei desc ip ion usually s a s om selec ing ele an e bs ( up-
penho e e al. 2010) o which app op ia e a gumen s a e added ollowing
he anno a ion o examples ex ac ed om he co pus. Al hough lexical
uni s and ame elemen s a e de ined acco ding o he analysed co pus
da a, seman ic ames a e ne e heless mos ly in ui i ely iden i ied and
named. In iden i ying seman ic ames o a ce ain specialized knowledge
domain, i would be mo e sui able o i s delinea e he scope o knowledge
being de ined, which in e minology wo k is done h ough he iden i ica-
ion o key concep s and concep ual ela ions in he domain.
e minological esea ch has closely kep ack o de elopmen s in lin-
guis ics o e he pas wo decades, and has shi ed i s heo e ical ocus o
analysing p ocesses and e en s as mo e dynamic specialized knowledge
s uc u es. he e o e, i has become clea ha p edica i e e ms ( e bs,
adjec i es, ad e bs and ce ain nouns) o en deno e key concep s o a
domain e minology (L’Homme 1998; Pimen el 2012; L’Homme, o-
bichaud 2014). Fo ins ance, e ms communica e, ly, ake o , and ans-
po a e ypically p esen in he ield o a ia ion, as well as e ms o a
numbe o p ocedu es ha we on ologically de ine as p ocesses o ac-
i i ies. Al hough he no ion o e mhood is a he well unde s ood among
e minologis s when i comes o de e mining he concep ual le el o e ms,
he c i e ia o choosing which ypes o lexical uni s should be included
as e ms in a e minological esou ce s ill di e depending on he ield
analysed and he heo e ical amewo k applied. he c i e ia o de ining
ypes o e bs ca ying specialized meaning p oposed by L’Homme (1998,
2015) a e mos e e ed o in e minological li e a u e, along wi h Lo en e’s
c i e ia and he ypology o e bs in specialized discou se (2002, 2007).
L’Homme dis inguishes among h ee ypes o e bs in specialized ex s:
e bs speci ic o a ce ain ield (e.g. land, ake o ), e bs ha acqui e
specialized meaning in he ield (e.g. ope a e), and e bs o gene al lan-
7 7Te minologija | 2019 | 26
guage.4 Ve bs ha belong o he i s and second ypes can be labelled as
e ms, bu e bs o he second ype p esen a mo e in e es ing g oup o
e minological analysis because he e a e cases when i is no clea whe h-
e he meaning is di e en enough om he e b’s canonical o de aul
gene al dic iona y meaning.
he c i e ia o deciding whe he a e b akes on a new, specialized
meaning in a gi en con ex should ye be mo e p ecisely de ined. he
c i e ia o deciding whe he a e b can be classi ied as a e m depend,
acco ding o L’Homme (1998, 2015), on i s a gumen s and i s mo pho-
logical and seman ical ela ion o lexical uni s o he same meaning ha
a e de ined as e ms. In sho , i a e b has a gumen s ha a e de ined
as e ms, i is likely o be a e m i sel , as in he sen ence The pilo lies
he helicop e . Also, i he noun akeo is de ined as a e m, hen he e b
ake o should also be de ined as one. We ha e applied hese c i e ia in
ou analysis o ex ac ed e bs, o which mo e is said in sec ion 4.
2. ME HoDS
In o de o de elop a alid me hodology o iden i ying specialized se-
man ic ames, se e al s eps had o be aken. Fi s , a pa allel English-
c oa ian co pus was c ea ed. he second s age consis ed o e m ex ac ion
and alida ion o e m candida es’ lis s. he hi d s ep included ex ac ing
a lis o e bs and analysing hei colloca ions bea ing specialized meaning.
2.1. Co pus compila ion
he co pus is compiled om he Di ec o y o legal ac s o he Eu o-
pean Union, chap e T anspo policy, subchap e Ai anspo in English
and c oa ian. ou o 220 documen s om he Ai anspo subchap e ,
178 legal ac s a e aken ha ing bo h (English and c oa ian) language
e sions. he ex s a e downloaded om he EU -Lex da abase,5 and
en e ed in o he Ske ch Engine’s co pus compila ion module.6 he sim-
ples way o c ea e a pa allel co pus in Ske ch Engine is o upload da a
4 L’Homme (2015) u he classi ies gene al language e bs in o suppo e bs (a e Le a 2002) and
discu si e e bs ( ollowing Lo en e and he classi ica ion om 2002). See Pimen el (2017) o a ecen
elabo a ion o hese wo app oaches o ypology o e bs in specialized ex s.
5 A ailable a : h ps://eu -lex.eu opa.eu/b owse/di ec o ies/legisla ion.h ml [accessed 05.09.2019].
6 A ailable a : h ps://www.ske chengine.eu/use -guide/use -manual/co po a/se ing-up-pa allel-co po a/
[accessed 05.09.2019].

7 8 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
in a abula o ma such as a sp eadshee (Excel). Sp eadshee s mus
con ain language names in he i s ow and hen aligned segmen s (wo d,
sen ences, o pa ag aphs) side by side.
E e y documen (legal ac ) was p ocessed o ge one column o each
language. In o de o achie e his, bulle s and numbe ing, as well as nu-
me ical pa o ables in documen s we e emo ed. Each language in he
sou ce ile was p ocessed in o a sepa a e monolingual co pus and aligned
wi h he co esponding co pus in he o he language.
Table 1. size o he pa allel english-C oa ian co pus
EnGLISH c oA IAn EnGLISH c oA IAn
okens 1,151,297 1,059,406 Sen ences 72,045 75,638
Wo ds 951,156 855,560 Documen s 178 178
Apa om ex ac ing mos equen single-wo d and mul i-wo d e ms
used as candida es o seman ic ames elemen s, he co pus can also be used
o he ex ac ion o e ms, de ini ions and examples o he linguis ic con ex
ha will be en e ed in o he e minological da abase Ai F ame. he co pus
will also se e o he analysis o he syn ac ic le el o e ms, i.e. hei col-
loca ions, ph aseological ela ions and p edica e-a gumen cons uc ions.
2.2. Te m ex ac ion and e m e i ica ion
Au oma ic e m ex ac ion was conduc ed o each language wi h he
op ion o ex ac ing a lis o 1000 single-wo d and mul i-wo d keywo ds.
he EU -Lex English 2/2016 co pus was used as a e e ence co pus o
ex ac ing English single-wo d e m candida es, while he English Web
2013 was used as a e e ence co pus o ex ac ing mul i-wo d e m can-
dida es. Simila op ions we e possible o e m ex ac ion in c oa ian.
he EU -Lex c oa ian 2/2016 co pus se ed as a e e ence co pus o
ex ac ing mo e ele an single-wo d e m candida es, while his op ion
was no possible o ex ac ing mul i- e m keywo ds. he e o e, he c o-
a ian Web h Wac 2.2. co pus was used ins ead.
In o de o es he eliabili y o he me hod, he i s 100 e m candida es
aken om he English lis o mul i-wo d e ms we e manually alida ed.
Ha ing checked hei conco dances, ou o 100 e m candida es, 70 we e
ecognized as alid e ms by a e minologis wi h ample expe ience in
7 9Te minologija | 2019 | 26
a ia ion e minology. he lis o English keywo ds (o single-wo d e ms)
consis ed la gely ou o a ia ion abb e ia ions and a ew key a ia ion e ms.
Manual analysis and e m e i ica ion o bo h English and c oa ian
candida e lis s o ex ac ed e ms was hen conduc ed. he e i ica ion
p ocess consis ed o wo phases: 1. emo ing all abb e ia ions and ob ious
gene al language wo ds and colloca ions; and 2. analysing he conco d-
ances o he emaining e ms in o de o e i y whe he hey we e indeed
a ia ion e ms. Abb e ia ions a e commonly used in a ia ion as e ms,
hus no including hem in a dic iona y o glossa y o a ia ion would be
unde s ood as a poo p esen a ion o a ia ion e minology in use. How-
e e , since we wan ed o a i e a a lis o e ms o mul i-wo d cons uc-
ions ha could be used in naming he elemen s o seman ic ames in
a ia ion, abb e ia ions as lexical subs i u es o ull e ms we e no ea ed
in he same unc ion he e. Apa om his, he e was no eason o keep-
ing abb e ia ions in he c oa ian e m candida es lis s because hey we e
used in he ex s as o eign language elemen s.
2.3. Ex ac ion and analysis o e bs
he lis s o English and c oa ian e b we e ex ac ed au oma ically
using he Keywo ds op ion in Ske ch Engine. Ve bs be, ha e and do ha e
no been aken in o accoun in he English co pus, while bi i “beˮ, ima i
“ha eˮ, moći “canˮ and mo a i “mus ˮ ha e been omi ed om he analy-
sis in he c oa ian co pus. he i s 100 e bs om each lis a e hen
analysed by manual alida ion o hei wo d ske ches. colloca ions deemed
as mul i-wo d e ms o colloca ions o ela i e signi icance o a ia ion
e minology based on hei equency a e no ed down in an Excel shee
nex o he analysed e b.
3. ESUL S AnD DIScUSSIon
Manual e m e i ica ion o single-wo d and mul i-wo d English and
c oa ian e m candida es yielded su p ising esul s conce ning p ecision
and ecall o he au oma ic ex ac ion p ocess in Ske ch Engine. Fo in-
s ance, a e he i s phase o e m e i ica ion, ou o 1000 e ms, only
400 single-wo d c oa ian e ms emained ha we e no abb e ia ions o
gene al language wo ds. he inal lis s o c oa ian e ms consis o 199
single-wo d and 455 mul i-wo d c oa ian e ms. he e a e somewha
mo e English mul i-wo d e ms, bu no as many as one would expec .
664 mul i-wo d English e ms emained a e he analysis, bu only 148
8 0 Ana Os oški Anić Ex ac ing Lexical Uni s o Iden i ying
Maja Lonča Specialized Seman ic F ames
Ma ina Pa ić
single-wo d English e ms, which makes o a signi ican ly poo esul o
only 14.8% alid e ms om he ini ial lis o mul i-wo d English e ms.
As expec ed, he second phase o e m e i ica ion p esen ed se e al
issues ega ding he e mhood o he candida es. I bo h he noun and
he adjec i e e e ing o a ce ain concep appea ed on he lis , he noun
was kep as a mo e p o o ypical e m ealiza ion.7 his was mo e he case
wi h he c oa ian e ms since in English a noun and an adjec i e o en
ha e he same mo phological o m, as in he ollowing examples: kabina,
kabinski “cabinˮ, na igacija, na igacijski “na iga ion, na iga ionalˮ, helikop-
e , helikop e ski “helicop e ˮ, iden i ikacija, iden i ikacijski “iden i ica ionˮ.
Simila ly, i bo h an adjec i e and an ad e b appea ed in he lis s, he
adjec i e o m was kep : ins umen alni, ins umen alno “ins umen ˮ, while
in he case o he e b/adjec i e di e ence, he e b was no mally kep
on he lis : ce i ici a i, ce i ici an “ce i y, ce i iedˮ. When wo nouns
e e ing o he same concep appea ed, bo h we e kep i one o hem
was e e ing o he ac ion, and he o he o he esul , as in he example
o iden i ikacija and iden i ici anje “iden i ica ionˮ. I seems ha no such
di e ence exis s in he English coun e pa s.
he English e m candida es lis s included a lo o in o ma ion ha
needed o be il e ed, such as he names o coun ies, pe sonal names (e.g.
juncke ), wo ds in o he o eign languages, and e en some unc ion wo ds
(e.g. he p onoun his). he algo i hm o he ex ac ion o keywo ds and
mul i-wo d e ms appa en ly ecognizes o eign elemen s, i.e. non-English
wo ds in he co pus as e ms, oo. his could ha e been a oided had he
ph ases (in all EU languages) ha usually appea a he end o each docu-
men been e ased p io o adding he documen s o he co pus, bu i was
decided ha i was easie o igno e hem in he candida es’ lis s a e wa ds.
he second phase e m e i ica ion ega ding he English e m candi-
da es showed he inabili y o dis inguish wo-pa om h ee-pa mul i-
wo d cons uc ions as he g ea es pi all o he applied algo i hm, which
is a common e o in many s a is ical e m ex ac ion ools. Bound ai
and simula ed engine a e hus pa s o la ge , co ec mul i-wo d e ms
bound ai ca go and simula ed engine ailu e (bo h e sions appea ed on
he lis ), as well as ins umen g ound and c ew compa men (ins ead o
7 his kind o easoning is mo e in line wi h adi ional e minology wo k, in which nouns had p io i y
in e minological dic iona ies o e co esponding adjec i es and e bs e e ing o he same concep
(Sage 1990: 58). Howe e , bo h would be included as lexical uni s connec ed wi h he seman ic ame
hey in oke.
8 1Te minologija | 2019 | 26
ins umen g ound ime and ligh c ew compa men ). Some mul i-wo d
e m candida es o mally appea as p ope e ms and i akes domain
speci ic knowledge o label hem as inco ec o alse posi i e esul s, e.g.:
isual ligh > isual ligh ules, p o iding ai a ic > p o iding ai a ic
se ices, in es iga ion au ho i y > sa e y in es iga ion au ho i y, maximum
ake-o > maximum ake-o mass, seconda y su eillance > seconda y
su eillance ada . Sho e e sions a e o en simply synonyms, like con-
olle licence o ai a ic con olle licence.
Ano he g oup o alse posi i e mul i-wo d e ms consis s o mul i-wo d
exp essions ha could be labelled as belonging o gene al language: el-
e an ai c a , indi idual ai c a , speci ic ai c a , la ge ai c a , p esen
ai c a , heigh o cloud base, ield o ci il a ia ion, en i e lying ime o
speci ic aining. Al hough hey a e mo pho-syn ac ically alid o ms, hey
e e o no pa icula concep and he e o e canno be conside ed e ms.
Ha ing analysed all lis s, we a i ed a a e y small numbe o single-
wo d e ms, 199 c oa ian and 148 English e ms. In o de o e i y whe h-
e he e ms ha could be conside ed o deno e “key” concep s o he ield
had been ex ac ed, he wo d ske ches o he i s 10 e ms in each language
we e analysed. Wo d ske ches a e au oma ic, co pus-de i ed summa ies o
wo ds’ g amma ical and colloca ional pa e ns, and hey se e as an excel-
len sou ce o gene a ing a la ge numbe o e m candida es in hei
syn ac ical con ex (Kilga i e al. 2014). Apa om ypical adjec i e/
noun (we -leased ai c a ) o noun/noun (ai c a noise, ai c a posi ion)
colloca ions, e bal colloca ions (ope a e an ai c a ) and p eposi ional
ph ases (ai c a en e ing in o) gi e in aluable e minological in o ma ion
mos use ul o e minologis s and ansla o s. he mos ele an ela ion
o his pu pose was he coo dina ion ela ion be ween he a ge wo d and
he ela ed wo ds. As can be seen in Figu e 1, he wo ds ela ed o ai c a
a e occupan , e ain, ehicle, p oduc , sys ems, con en , loss, uni , engine,
equipmen and ype. We compa ed he lis o he coo dina ed e ms wi h
he lis o he single-wo d e ms and ma ked hose ha appea ed in bo h.
he second s ep in e i ying he esul s was compa ing he mos equen
colloca ions o he e ms in wo d ske ches wi h hose om he lis o
mul i-wo d e ms. When he colloca ions om he wo d ske ch (e.g. ai c a
iden i ica ion o ai c a ope a o in Figu e 1) ma ched hose in he lis o
e ms ex ac ed om he co pus, hey we e also ma ked as lexical uni s o
be included in he desc ip ion o a seman ic ame.