F eedom, Secu i y & Jus ice:
Eu opean Legal S udies
Ri is a giu idica di classe A
2022, n. 3
DIRETTORE
Angela Di S asi
O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale e di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Ti ola e della Ca ed a Jean Monne 2017-2020 (Commissione eu opea)
"Judicial P o ec ion o Fundamen al Righ s in he Eu opean A ea o F eedom, Secu i y and Jus ice"
COMITATO SCIENTIFICO
Se gio Ma ia Ca bone, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Geno a
Robe a Cle ici, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale p i a o, Uni e si à di Milano
Nigel Lowe, P o esso Eme i us, Uni e si y o Ca di
Paolo Mengozzi, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à "Alma Ma e S udio um" di Bologna - già A oca o gene ale p esso la Co e di gius izia dell’UE
Massimo Panebianco, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Sale no
Guido Raimondi, già P esiden e della Co e EDU - P esiden e di Sezione della Co e di Cassazione
Sil ana Scia a, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Fi enze - P esiden e della Co e Cos i uzionale
Giuseppe Tesau o, P o esso e . . di Di i o dell'UE, Uni e si à di Napoli "Fede ico II" - P esiden e Eme i o della Co e Cos i uzionale
An onio Tizzano, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Roma “La Sapienza” - Vice P esiden e Eme i o della Co e di gius izia dell’UE
Ennio T iggiani, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Ba i
Ugo Villani, P o esso e Eme i o, Uni e si à di Ba i
COMITATO EDITORIALE
Ma ia Ca e ina Ba u i, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ve ona
Giandona o Caggiano, O dina io . . di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à Roma T e
Al onso-Luis Cal o Ca a aca, Ca ed á ico de De echo In e nacional P i ado, Uni e sidad Ca los III de Mad id
Pablo An onio Fe nández-Sánchez, Ca ed á ico de De echo In e nacional, Uni e sidad de Se illa
Inge Go ae e, Di ec o o he Eu opean Legal S udies Depa men , College o Eu ope, B uges
Paola Mo i, O dina io di Di i o dell'Unione eu opea, Uni e si à "Magna G aecia" di Ca anza o
Lina Panella, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Messina
Nicole a Pa isi, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ca ania - già Componen e ANAC
Lucia Se ena Rossi, O dina io di Di i o dell'UE, Uni e si à "Alma Ma e S udio um" di Bologna - Giudice della Co e di gius izia dell’UE
COMITATO DEI REFEREES
B uno Ba el, Associa o . . di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Pado a
Ma co Ben enu i, O dina io di Is i uzioni di Di i o pubblico, Uni e si à di Roma "La Sapienza"
Ra aele Cadin, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Roma “La Sapienza”
Ruggie o Ca a i Panico, O dina io . . di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Milano
Ida Ca acciolo, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à della Campania - Giudice dell’ITLOS
Fede ico Casola i, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à “Alma Ma e S udio um” di Bologna
Luisa Casse i, O dina io di Is i uzioni di Di i o Pubblico, Uni e si à di Pe ugia
Gio anni Cellama e, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ba i
Giuseppe D’Angelo, O dina io di Di i o ecclesias ico e canonico, Uni e si à di Sale no
Ma cello Di Filippo, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Pisa
Rosa io Espinosa Calabuig, Ca ed á ica de De echo In e nacional P i ado, Uni e si a de València
Ana C. Gallego He nández, P o eso a Ayudan e de De echo In e nacional Público y Relaciones In e nacionales, Uni e sidad de Se illa
Pie o Ga giulo, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Te amo
Gianca lo Gua ino, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Napoli “Fede ico II”
Elspe h Guild, Associa e Senio Resea ch Fellow, CEPS
Vic o Luis Gu ié ez Cas illo, P o eso de De echo In e nacional Público, Uni e sidad de Jaén
I an Ing a allo, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Ba i
Paola I aldi, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Geno a
Luigi Kalb, O dina io di P ocedu a Penale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Luisa Ma in, Ma ie Cu ie Fellow, EUI e Rice ca o e di Di i o dell’UE, Uni e si à dell’Insub ia
Simone Ma inai, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Pisa
Fab izio Ma ongiu Buonaiu i, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Mace a a
Daniela Ma ani, Rice ca o e di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Ros ane Medhi, P o esseu de D oi Public, Uni e si é d’Aix-Ma seille
S e ano Mon aldo, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di To ino
Viole a Mo eno-Lax, Senio Lec u e in Law, Queen Ma y Uni e si y o London
Claudia Mo iducci, P o esso e Senio di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à Roma T e
Michele Nino, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
C iseide No i, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Foggia
Anna O iolo, Associa o di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Leona do Pasquali, Associa o di Di i o dell'Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Pisa
Pie o Penne a, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Emanuela Pis oia, O dina io di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Te amo
Conce a Ma ia Pon eco o, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Napoli “Fede ico II”
Pie o Pus o ino, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à LUISS di Roma
San iago Ripol Ca ulla, Ca ed á ico de De echo in e nacional público, Uni e si a Pompeu Fab a Ba celona
Gianpaolo Ma ia Ruo olo, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Foggia
Te esa Russo, Associa o di Di i o dell'Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Alessand a A. Souza Sil ei a, Di e o a do Cen o de Es udos em Di ei o da UE, Uni e sidad do Minho
Ángel Tinoco Pas ana, P o eso de De echo P ocesal, Uni e sidad de Se illa
Chia a En ica Tuo, O dina io di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Geno a
Tali ha Vassalli di Dachenhausen, O dina io . . di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Napoli “Fede ico II”
Alessand a Zanobe i, O dina io di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à “Alma Ma e S udio um” di Bologna
COMITATO DI REDAZIONE
F ancesco Buonomenna, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Angela Fes a, Rice ca o e di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à della Campania “Luigi Van i elli”
Ca e ina F a ea, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Ve ona
Anna Ie mano, Rice ca o e di Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Angela Ma one, Do o e di ice ca in Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Michele Messina, Associa o di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Messina
Rossana Palladino (Coo dina o e), Rice ca o e di Di i o dell’Unione eu opea, Uni e si à di Sale no
Re isione linguis ica degli abs ac s a cu a di
F ancesco Campo eda, Do o e di ice ca in Di i o In e nazionale, Uni e si à di Sale no
Ri is a quad imes ale on line “F eedom, Secu i y & Jus ice: Eu opean Legal S udies”
www. sjeu os udies.eu
Edi o iale Scien i ica, Via San Biagio dei Lib ai, 39 - Napoli
CODICE ISSN 2532-2079 - Regis azione p esso il T ibunale di Noce a In e io e n° 3 del 3 ma zo 2017
Indice-Somma io
2022, n. 3
Edi o iale
No ae e e e es “ on ie e” della ci adinanza eu opea
Angela Di S asi
p. 1
Saggi e A icoli
In ema di immuni à dello S a o dalla giu isdizione: il complesso bilanciamen o a u ela dei
di i i della pe sona e p e oga i e della San a Sede
Sil ia Can oni
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion, Adminis a i e Func ion and Human Righ s P o ec ion
unde he Lens o he EU Ombudsman and a Recen S a egic Ini ia i e
F ancesca Ma ines
Libe à di esp essione e u ela della digni à delle gio nalis e: il con as o all’online sexis ha e
speech nello spazio digi ale eu opeo
Claudia Mo ini
La no malizzazione della so eglianza di massa nella p assi giu isp udenziale delle Co i di
S asbu go e Lussembu go: e so il cambio di pa adigma del appo o p i acy . secu i y
Michele Nino
Il di i o del mino e alla libe à di eligione: la ecen e
giu isp udenza della Co e eu opea dei di i i dell’uomo e il ilie o della Con enzione sui di i i
dal anciullo
Giuseppina Pizzolan e
In e na ional Sanc ions o he Eu opean Union in Sea ch o E ec i eness and Accoun abili y
Al edo Rizzo
Commen i e No e
La ispos a della Commissione eu opea al “de e io amen o” del di i o di asilo in G ecia:
i lessioni sull’a enua o a i ismo dell’Is i uzione “gua diana dei T a a i”
Ma cella Come i
La mig azione legale pe mo i i di la o o a due anni dalla p esen azione del “Nuo o Pa o sulla
mig azione e l’asilo”: una i o ma (in)compiu a?
F ancesca Di Gianni
p. 16
p. 39
p. 67
p. 105
p. 134
p. 158
p. 175
p. 211
Ques ioni giu idiche e p oblemi di u ela dei di i i ondamen ali nella ispos a dell’Unione
eu opea alle p a iche di s umen alizzazione dei lussi mig a o i
Mi ko Fo i
En i onmen al Solida i y in he A ea o F eedom, Secu i y and Jus ice. Towa ds he Judicial
P o ec ion o (In e gene a ional) En i onmen al Righ s in he EU
Emanuele Vanna a
p. 245
p. 266
F eedom, Secu i y & Jus ice: Eu opean Legal S udies ISSN 2532-2079
2022, n. 3, pp. 39-66 DOI:10.26321/F.MARTINES.03.2022.03
www. sjeu os udies.eu
THE EUROPEAN UNION EXTERNAL ACTION, ADMINISTRATIVE
FUNCTION AND HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION UNDER THE LENS OF THE
EU OMBUDSMAN AND A RECENT STRATEGIC INITIATIVE
F ancesca Ma ines
SUMMARY: 1. In oduc ion. – 2. Eu opean Ombudsman’s s a egic inqui ies and
ini ia i es: an o e iew. – 3. Eu opean Ombudsman’s sc u iny o he EU
adminis a i e unc ion in ex e nal ela ions and human igh s: a selec ion o cases on
mig a ion, asylum and in e na ional ag eemen s. – 4. The Eu opean Ombudsman’s
s a egic ini ia i e on human igh s and in e na ional ade ag eemen s. – 4.1. Human
igh s clauses and o he human igh s ools in EU in e na ional ade ag eemen s. –
4.2. The Eu opean Ombudsman’s ques ions ega ding he p epa a o y s age o human
igh s clauses. – 4.3. The Eu opean Ombudsman’s ques ions ega ding he
moni o ing and implemen a ion s ages o human igh s clauses. – 5. Concluding
Obse a ions.
1. In oduc ion
On he 9 h o July 2021 he Eu opean Ombudsman (he ea e EO), Emily O’Reilly,
opened a s a egic ini ia i e on “how he Eu opean Commission ensu es espec o
human igh s in he con ex o in e na ional ade ag eemen s” (SI/5/2021/VS)
1
. In he
le e o he Commission, he EO asked how his Ins i u ion ensu es espec o human
igh s in i s in e na ional ade policy and how i manages he so-called human igh s
clauses (HRC)
2
. The s a egic ini ia i e was closed wi h a No e on he 15 h o July 2022.
As will be u he discussed, he ques ions add essed o he Commission conce n he
p epa a o y s age (how i decides o include a human igh s clause in an in e na ional ade
ag eemen and how i de ines he speci ic con en o he p o ision) and he
implemen a ion s age (how he Commission ensu es he execu ion o he clause).
Double blind pee e iewed a icle.
Associa e P o esso in Eu opean Union Law, Uni e si y o Pisa. E-mail: ancesca.ma [email p o ec ed].
1
S a egic inizia i e SI/5/2021/VS. h ps://www.ombudsman.eu opa.eu/i /case/en/59519. All documen s
and cases ci ed in his a icle a e a ailable on he Ombudsman websi e.
2
Fu he ques ions we e asked in p epa a ion o a ollow-up mee ing a ended by ep esen a i es om
a ious DGs o he Eu opean Commission (DG TRADE, DG INTPA, DG EMPL, and DG JUST), and by
ep esen a i es om he Eu opean Ex e nal Ac ion Se ice. A e he mee ing, he EO websi e epo ed a
summa y o he discussion.
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
40
www. sjeu os udies.eu
The EO’s s a egic inqui y p o ides an oppo uni y o ques ion he inc easingly ac i e
ole o he EO in moni o ing he beha io o EU ins i u ions and bodies in hei ex e nal
ac i i ies. The EO asce ains he p ocedu al co ec ness, in eg i y, and ai ness o he EU
adminis a i e unc ions and e i ies h ough which p ocedu es and ins umen s he
Eu opean Union con ibu es o he p o ec ion o human igh s in i s ex e nal policies
3
.
Ac i i ies such as impac assessmen , de ini ion o nego ia ing guidelines, moni o ing,
p epa a ion and implemen a ion o p ojec s, in luence he way in which ex e nal policy
objec i es a e a ained
4
.When ca ying ou hese ac i i ies, EU ins i u ions and bodies a e
bound o ollow obliga ions p o ided o in EU law (including in e na ional obliga ions
5
),
o espec he ule o law, p inciples o good adminis a ion (a icle 41 o he Cha e ) and
human igh s.
This a icle will discuss, in gene al e ms, he unc ions and manda e o he EO
(pa ag aph 2) and how, in some selec ed cases, she
6
has in e p e ed he ole (pa ag aph
3). The con ex and scope o he EO’s inqui y, he ques ions aised by he EO, and he
answe s p o ided by he Commission will hen be deba ed (pa ag aph 4). Some
conclusions will inally be d awn (pa ag aph 5).
2. Eu opean Ombudsman’s s a egic inqui ies and ini ia i es: an o e iew
The EO manda e is de ined in a icle 228, pa ag aph 1, TFEU. This p o ision
es ablishes ha he EO is “empowe ed o ecei e complain s om any ci izen o he
Union o any na u al o legal pe son esiding o ha ing i s egis e ed o ice in a Membe
S a e conce ning ins ances o maladminis a ion in he ac i i ies o he Union ins i u ions,
bodies, o ices o agencies, wi h he excep ion o he Cou o Jus ice o he Eu opean
Union ac ing in i s judicial ole. He o she shall examine such complain s and epo
3
M. CREMONA, P. LAINO, Is The e an Accoun abili y Gap in EU Ex e nal Rela ions? Some Ini ial
Conclusions, in Eu opean Pape s, 2017, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 699-708. The Au ho s no ed ha “Ex e nal
ac ion is in ac a ich ield in he applica ion o adminis a i e law”. I. VIANELLO, Acknowledging he
Impac o Adminis a i e Powe in he EU Ex e nal Ac ion, in Eu opean Pape s, Vol. 2, 2017, No 2, pp.
597-616; M. INGLESE, EU Agencies Ex e nal Ac i i ies and he Eu opean Ombudsman, in H. C.H.
HOFMANN, E. VOS, M. CHAMON, The Ex e nal Dimension o EU Agencies and Bodies Law and Policy,
Edwa d Elga , Chel enham, No hamp on, 2019, pp. 164-181. C. HARLOW, R. RAWLINGS, P ocess and
P ocedu e in EU Adminis a ion, Ox o d: Ha Publishing, 2014, p. 1.
4
I. VIANELLO, EU Ex e nal Ac ion and he Adminis a i e Rule o Law. A Long-O e due Encoun e , PHD
Thesis, EUI, Flo ence, 2016: “P epa a o y and ule-making ins umen s a guably belong o some o he
mos in luen ial a eas o adminis a i e ac i i y…P epa a o y ac s in o m inal decisions and indica e which
opic shall be pu on he policy agenda”, p. 76. In he Guidelines on he analysis o human igh s impac s
in impac assessmen s o ade- ela ed policy ini ia i es he Commission speci ied: “impac assessmen s
and e alua ions a e policy ools which p o ide a s uc u ed app oach o ga he ing and analysing e idence
ha will be used o suppo policy making”.
5
Case 530/98/JMA on he handling o a p ojec unded by he Eu opean De elopmen Fund, case opened
2.7.1998.
6
The EO in cha ge a he ime o w i ing is Emily O’Reilly. She was i s elec ed in July 2013, and she was
e-elec ed in Decembe 2014 and again in Decembe 2019. P e iously, he posi ion o Eu opean
Ombudsman was held by N. Diamandou os (2003-2010) and J. Sode man (1995-2003).
F ancesca Ma ines
41
on hem”
7
. Maladminis a ion is no de ined in he T ea y, bu i has been b oadly
in e p e ed
8
. Signi ican ly, he Eu opean Ombudsman, since 1995, has linked
maladminis a ion, in e alia, o a lack o espec o undamen al igh s. The en y in o
o ce o he Eu opean Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s along wi h he Lisbon T ea y has
unques ionably ein o ced he EO ole as he Cha e ecognizes he undamen al igh o
good adminis a ion (a icle 41) and quali ies he ecou se o he EO as a undamen al
igh (a icle 43). The Cha e also s eng hens he EO’s b oad in e p e a ion o
maladminis a ion o co e human igh s. The p esen Ombudsman, Emily O’Reilly has
in e p e ed he EO’s ole ex ensi ely, as she in ends he EO’s ask as con ibu ing o
ein o cing anspa ency, human igh s, accoun abili y, he e hical beha iou o he EU
adminis a ion. To ca y ou his mission, she appoin ed an own-ini ia i e in es iga ion
coo dina o and es ablished a dedica ed Uni on sys emic inqui ies
9
.
A icle 228, second pa ag aph o he TFEU empowe s he EO o conduc inqui ies
based on a complain
10
o on he own ini ia i e. The Ombudsman’s independen powe
o in es iga ion (own-ini ia i e inqui y) is no u he cla i ied in he T ea y. A icle 3,
pa ag aph 1 o he Ombudsman S a u e
11
ep oduces (almos li e ally) he wo ding o he
T ea y. A icle 3, pa ag aph 3 speci ies he condi ions unde which he Ombudsman can
conduc own-ini ia i e inqui ies
12
. This happens “whene e he o she inds g ounds, and
7
This means ha a e he en y in o o ce o he Lisbon T ea y he manda e o he EO ex ends o he
ac i i ies o he Eu opean Council and agencies and o ices. See Annual Repo o he EO 2005, p. 38. See
also R. MASTROIANNI, New pe spec i es o he Eu opean Ombudsman opened by he Lisbon T ea y, in
C.H. H. HOFMANN; J. ZILLER (eds.), Accoun abili y in he EU, Edwa d Elga Publishing, 2017, p. 178-197.
The aboli ion o pilla s by he Lisbon ea y ex ended he EO manda e o ac ions unde aken in he o me
second pilla .
8
As poin ed ou by Sode man, he hen Ombudsman, in his i s Repo (1995): “ he expe ience o na ional
ombudsmen shows ha i is be e no o a emp a igid de ini ion o wha may cons i u e
maladminis a ion. Indeed, he open-ended na u e o he e m is one o he hings ha dis inguishes he ole
o he Ombudsman om ha o a judge.” See he Eu opean Code o Good Adminis a i e Beha iou whe e
i is speci ied ha “maladminis a ion is b oade han illegali y”. The Ombudsman p oposed he ollowing
de ini ion o maladminis a ion in his 1997 Repo : “Maladminis a ion occu s whe e a public au ho i y
ails o ac in acco dance wi h a ule o p inciple ha is binding upon i ”. See also he Speech by he
Eu opean Ombudsman, in o ice a he ime, N. DIAMANDOUROS, 17.9. 2007, So ia, a ailable a
ombudsman.eu opa.eu. See A. AVTONOMOV, Ac i i ies o he Eu opean Ombudsman unde he Cha e
o Fundamen al Righ s: P omo ing Good Adminis a ion h ough Human Righ s Compliance, in Laws
2021, a ailable a h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/laws10030051. See R. MASTROIANNI, op. ci ., p. 189.
9
She cla i ied how she sees he ole o he EO in se e al documen s See, o example, Eu opean
Ombudsman S a egy Towa ds 2019, o 17.11.2014, and Eu opean Ombudsman S a egy Towa ds 2024 o
7.12.2020.
10
The EO shall i s e alua e he admissibili y o he complain acco ding o he ules con ained in he
S a u e. I he complain is no admissible he EO may decide o s a an in es iga ion mo u p op io. See
case OI/11/2010/AN on he e usal o he EU Delega ion o Sie a Leone ( he ‘Delega ion’) o eimbu se
he a el expenses o an expe in ol ed in Eu ope Aid p ojec , decision o 17.1.2013.
11
Regula ion 2021/ 1163 o he Eu opean Pa liamen o 24 June 2021 laying down he egula ions and
gene al condi ions go e ning he pe o mance o he Ombudsman’s du ies (S a u e o he Eu opean
Ombudsman) and epealing Decision 94/262/ECSC, EC, Eu a om, O.J. L 253, 16.7.2021, p. 1.
12
The Commission ag eed wi h he Eu opean Pa liamen p oposals, “as long as he Ombudsman ac s wi hin
he limi s o i s manda e, i.e. maladminis a ion”. See Commission Communica ion COM (2019) 533 inal
o 6.5.19, on a d a Regula ion o he Eu opean Pa liamen laying down he egula ions and gene al
condi ions go e ning he pe o mance o he Ombudsman's du ies (S a u e o he Eu opean Ombudsman
and epealing Decision 94/262/ECSC, EC, Eu a om, p. 9.
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
42
www. sjeu os udies.eu
in pa icula in epea ed, sys emic o pa icula ly se ious ins ances o maladminis a ion,
in o de o add ess hose ins ances as an issue o public in e es ”. The inqui ies a e
unc ional o a p oac i e in e en ion o he EO, who “may also make p oposals and
ini ia i es o p omo e adminis a i e bes p ac ices wi hin Union ins i u ions, bodies,
o ices and agencies”. Thus, he ask o he EO is no only o add ess cases o
maladminis a ion bu also o sugges how a c i ical s uc u al si ua ion can be ed essed
13
.
The i s hypo hesis men ioned in a icle 3, pa ag aph 3 o he Ombudsman S a u e,
co esponds o a consolida ed p ac ice ha allows he EO o s a inqui ies when she/he
ecei es complain s on he same issue
14
. Repea ed cases o maladminis a ion can be
indica i e o a deep and widesp ead p oblem ha equi es in es iga ion. When ca ying
ou inqui ies he EO can launch consul a ions
15
, has he powe o in es iga e and has
access o he iles o he ins i u ions. As an illus a ion, one can men ion inqui ies on
anspa ency in he p epa a o y bodies o he Council
16
, in ialogues
17
, in he Council
du ing he COVID-19 c isis; he EO also s a ed an inqui y in o he unc ioning o he
Eu opean ci izens’ ini ia i e (ECI) p ocedu e
18
.
A sepa a e ca ego y o he EO’s own-ini ia i es consis s o s a egic ini ia i es
19
,
which a e also de ined wi h e e ence o hei objec i e: S a egic ini ia i es aim a
“sha ing sugges ions wi h he ins i u ions on impo an opics, o d aw a en ion o ma e s
o public in e es o o ind ou mo e abou a pa icula issue be o e deciding whe he i
is necessa y o open an inqui y”
20
. The Ombudsman “pu sues impo an opics o
encou age he EU adminis a ion o be as open, accoun able, e hical and esponsi e o
13
Fo example: “The pu pose o his inqui y is o see o i ha he Commission does all in i s powe o
ensu e ha EU unds do no inance ac ions which iola e undamen al igh s”. OI/8/2014/AN ega ding
he ex en o he compliance o he Eu opean Commission EU cohesion policy wi h he undamen al igh s
ensh ined in he Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s, decision o 5.5.2015. Fo he ex-pos con ol on he ways
he ins i u ions in ol ed esponded o p oposals made in EO’s inqui ies, see Pu ing i Righ ! How he
Ins i u ions Responded o he Ombudsman, epo s annually published in he EO websi e.
14
Fo example, he signi ican numbe o indi idual complain s alleging maladminis a ion in he use o
age limi s o ec ui men jus i ied he Eu opean Ombudsman's inqui y 626/97/BB, decision o 4.11.1998.
15
The EO can also ca y ou a ge ed consul a ions. The Commission in he abo e ci ed Communica ion
on he Ombudsman S a u e, sugges ed he d awing up o speci ic c i e ia o cases whe e public
consul a ions a e expec ed and o wha pu pose, see COM (2019) 533, op. ci ., p. 8.
16
S a egic ini ia i e on anspa ency o Council p epa a o y bodies in he nego ia ion o EU legisla i e
ac s. Case OI/2/2017/TE, decision o 15.5.2018; s a egic ini ia i e on he anspa ency o he h ee
p epa a o y bodies ha a e in ol ed in p epa ing Eu og oup mee ings OI/1/2019/MIG, decision o
3.12.2019.
17
Case OI/8/2015/JAS on he anspa ency o ilogues, decision o 2.7.2016 con aining speci ic p oposals.
Fo a mo e ecen case on a complain ega ding access o ilogue see case 360/2021/TE on he Council o
he EU’s e usal o p o ide ull public access o documen s ela ed o ilogue nego ia ions on mo o ehicle
emissions, decision o 20.10.2021.
18
The Ombudsman opened he own-ini ia i e inqui y a e ecei ing a numbe o complain s om ci izens
who had ied o launch ECIs. OI/9/2013/TN on he Eu opean Ci izens Ini ia i e. The aim was o encou age
and o suppo e o s o imp o e he p ocedu e. On 15 July 2014, he Ombudsman sen he esul s o i s
inqui y, oge he wi h he con ibu ions ecei ed in eply o i s consul a ion, o he Commission, which la e
issued guidelines o amelio a e he ECI.
19
These a e classi ied as p oac i e wo k, see o example, he EO Annual Repo 2020.
20
See Eu opean Union Ombudsman Repo , Pu ing i Righ ? How he EU ins i u ions esponded o he EO
in 2019, p. 13.
F ancesca Ma ines
43
ci izens as possible, wi hou necessa ily launching an inqui y”
21
. A s a egic ini ia i e is
concei ed as a less “in usi e ac ion han an inqui y and allows he EO o collec
in o ma ion, o o m a clea e pic u e o he si ua ion also wi h a iew o a possible u u e
inqui y.
S a egic ini ia i es espond o public in e es , especially in cases whe e p i a e
indi iduals canno make a complain , ha is when no al e na i e ools exis in he EU
legal o de o conside he issue. They migh ha e a “an icipa o y” unc ion
22
, as in he
s a egic ini ia i e equi ing he p oac i e publica ion o key nego ia ing documen s in he
con ex o B exi nego ia ions
23
. A simila unc ion is pe o med by he s a egic ini ia i e
in he con ex o he upcoming e ision o EU legisla ion ela ed o obacco p oduc s
(SI/1/2021/KR
24
). I is also possible ha s a egic ini ia i es accomplish a guiding
unc ion when he EO comes up wi h ecommenda ions
25
.
These ac i i ies ha e been con es ed because hey would no be linked o complain s
add essed o he EO and hey would con lic wi h he p inciple o con e al
26
. The p esen
au ho does no conside s a egic ini ia i es and inqui ies incompa ible wi h he a ionale
o he EO’s ask o con ibu ing o he s eng hening o good adminis a ion in he EU, as
long as hey conce n “adminis a i e ac i i y”. Fo example, he Council opposed he
abo e-men ioned EO ilogue inqui y as no alling wi hin he manda e o he EO as “ he
o ganiza ion o he legisla i e p ocess canno be conside ed an adminis a i e ac i i y”
27
.
Indeed, he inqui y did no conce n he o ganisa ion o he legisla i e p ocess bu he issue
o access o documen s and hus i ully i ed wi hin he EO’s compe encies. Th ough
s a egic ini ia i es he EO con ols “ he adminis a ion in gene al, o enhance i s
accoun abili y and o help imp o e i s quali y”
28
. Thus, as long as he EO does no ge
21
Eu opean Ombudsman, Own ini ia i e inqui ies, Thema ic Pape , 9.10.2017, a ailable a
h ps://www.ombudsman.eu opa.eu/en/ hema ic-pape /en/84478. Acco ding o he Annual Repo 2020,
op. ci ., “In addi ion o he Ombudsman’s co e wo k on complain s, he Ombudsman also conduc s wide
s a egic inqui ies and ini ia i es in o sys emic issues wi h EU ins i u ions”, p. 27.
22
In he speech o 30.5.2012, The Role o he Eu opean Ombudsman in he P o ec ion and P omo ion o
Human igh s, he EO speci ied ha “P oac i i y means (a) aking ac ion o an icipa e he needs o ci izens
and o he s akeholde s, (b) pu ing in place policies and p ocedu es capable o channelling beha iou in
app op ia e ways and (c) p e en ing p oblems om a ising”.
23
SI/1/2017/KR, decision o 11.2.2019, whe e he EO asked he Eu opean Commission “ o ensu e
anspa ency du ing he upcoming B exi nego ia ions”.
24
SI/1/2021/KR, case closed he 12.7.2021.
25
The s a egic ini ia i e on mul ilingualism closed wi h a se o ‘p ac ical ecommenda ions’, o guide he
EU adminis a ion on he use o o icial EU languages when communica ing wi h he public.
SI/98/2018/DDJ. S a egic ini ia i e SI/7/2021D deli e ed a sho guide o he EU adminis a ion on
policies and p ac ices o gi e e ec o he igh o public access o documen s. See also he ini ia i e on
ECI, OI/9/2013/TN, op. ci .
26
T. STEIN, “A Supe iso y Agency o I s Own Making?: The Ques ionable Poli ical Agenda o he Cu en
Eu opean Ombudsman, Ve Blog, 2019/9/01, h ps:// e assungsblog.de/a-supe iso y-agency-o -i s-own-
making/, Acco ding o he au ho S a egic ini ia i es wi h no eal link o complain s look like a poli ical
agenda.
27
h ps://www.poli ico.eu/a icle/emma-o eilly-ombudsman-eu-juncke - anspa ency/.
28
A. PETERS, The Eu opean Ombudsman and he Eu opean Cons i u ion, in Common Ma ke Law Re iew,
2005, 42, 3, pp. 697-743.
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
50
www. sjeu os udies.eu
condi ionali y ( es ic i e measu es) which can ake he o m o human igh s clauses
con ained in EU ag eemen s. The EO’s Human igh s clause inqui y examined in his
pape conce ns he second pe spec i e as he EO equi es he Commission o explain how
i manages human igh s clauses included in EU ag eemen s in he p epa a o y and
en o cemen phases. Al hough he EO’s s a egic ini ia i e discussed in his pape mainly
conce ns human igh s clauses, some o he ques ions add essed o he Commission also
ela e o T ade and Sus ainable De elopmen (TSD) chap e s in ee ade ag eemen s
concluded by he EU since 2009 (FTA wi h Sou h Ko ea). In i s answe , he Commission
also e e s o he GSP mechanism o condi ionali y
59
.
The “essen ial elemen clause” – usually con ained in he i s pa o an ag eemen ,
de o ed o gene al p inciples – de ines espec o non- ade alues such as HR,
democ acy, he ule o law
60
, as an essen ial elemen o he ag eemen
61
. Taken by i sel
his p o ision can be e e ed o as a legal basis o discussing issues ela ed o non- ade
alues be ween he con ac ing pa ies. The Commission has de ined he essen ial elemen
clause as a “pla o m o discussion” wi h i s pa ne s. Indeed, he inco po a ion o an
HRC in an ag eemen concluded by a hi d S a e wi h he EU makes i impossible o he
Con ac ing Pa ies o claim ha human igh s, democ a ic p inciples, and he ule o law,
a e domes ic issues and hus all wi hin he exclusi e ju isdic ion o he S a e. Fo he
Commission he inclusion o an HRC in o an ag eemen “is no a way o imposing EU
s anda ds on hi d coun ies bu p omo ing compliance wi h in e na ional con en ions and
ag eemen s on ma e s such as human igh s”. This means ha no new s anda ds a e added
bu ha an HRC is a ool o u he compliance o in e na ional obliga ions ha al eady
bind he EU and i s pa ne (s). The essen ial elemen clause is complemen ed by a non-
execu ion clause es ablishing he igh o one o he Pa ies o ake “app op ia e
59
See also Regula ion (EU) No 978/2012 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 25 Oc obe
2012 applying a scheme o gene alised a i p e e ences and epealing Council Regula ion (EC)
No 732/2008, OJ L 303, 31.10.2012, p. 1.
60
Fo an example o nego ia ing di ec i es including an HRC see Council o Minis e s (2018) Nego ia ing
Di ec i es o a Pa ne ship Ag eemen be ween he Eu opean Union and I s Membe S a es on he One
Pa , and wi h Coun ies o he A ican, Ca ibbean and Paci ic G oup o S a es, on he O he Pa ,
8094/18, 21 June. A ailable a : h ps://da a.consilium.eu opa.eu/doc/documen /ST-8094-2018-ADD-
1/en/pd . See also Recommenda ion o a Council Decision o au ho ise he Commission o open
nego ia ions on behal o he Eu opean Union o he amendmen o he Fishe ies Pa ne ship Ag eemen
and conclusion o a P o ocol wi h he Kingdom o Mo occo, COM (2018) 151 inal.
61
The unde lying p emise is o en e in o a ela ionship wi h S a es ha sha e he EU’s undamen al alues.
The clause seems o assume ha a he ime o concluding he ag eemen no se ious iola ion occu s. In
Janua y 1995 he Eu opean Pa liamen called o he suspension o he Pa ne ship Ag eemen wi h Russia
because o human igh s iola ions commi ed by he Russian go e nmen in Chechnya, making di ec
e e ences o he human igh s clause. In 1997 he EU Pa liamen consen ed o he ea y because o he
con inuing cease- i e in Chechnya. HRC seems hus only conce ned wi h he beha iou o he pa ies o he
ag eemen a e i s en y in o o ce. See he Opinion o AG Whe ele deli e ed on 13 Sep embe 2016 in
case 104/16, Council . F on Populai e pou la libé a ion de la Saguia-el-Ham a e du Rio de o o (F on
Polisa io), ECLI:EU:C:2016:677: “In my iew, nei he he Council no he Commission no any o he
in e ene s pu o wa d a con incing eason why, gi en hese equi emen s, he EU ins i u ions a e no
equi ed, be o e he conclusion o an in e na ional ag eemen , o examine he human igh s si ua ion in he
o he pa y o he ag eemen and he impac which he conclusion o he ag eemen a issue could ha e he e
in his ega d”, pa a. 262.
F ancesca Ma ines
51
measu es”, meaning ha i can e mina e ully o pa ially suspend he ag eemen
(unila e ally) i i conside s ha he o he Pa y has commi ed a se ious b each o an
essen ial elemen
62
. These measu es a e adop ed a e consul a ion wi h he o he pa y,
excep in cases o ex eme u gency, ha is in case o e y se ious b eaches o non- ade
alues. The combina ion o he wo p o isions allows he EU (o he o he Con ac ing
Pa y) o suspend he ag eemen o decla e i s e mina ion acco ding o he ules o he
Vienna Con en ion on he law o T ea ies (a icle 60).
Some o he ques ions add essed by he EO o he Commission ela ed o T ade and
Sus ainable De elopmen (TSD) chap e s in ee ade ag eemen s concluded by he EU
since 2009 (FTA wi h Sou h Ko ea). T ade and Sus ainable De elopmen (TDS) chap e s
a e a dis inc i e ea u e o he EU’s mo e ecen F ee T ade ag eemen s
63
. The a ionale
o hose p o isions is ha ade is a d i e o sus ainable de elopmen , which, acco ding
o he UN app oach, includes labou igh s and en i onmen al p o ec ion. Unde TDS
p o isions, Con ac ing Pa ies a e equi ed o apply in e na ional labou and
en i onmen al s anda ds by a i ying some ILO con en ions and Mul ila e al
En i onmen al Ag eemen s (MEAs). Pa ies shall also abs ain om lowe ing he
en i onmen al and labou legisla ion equi emen s o encou age in e na ional in es men
and a e compelled o p og essi ely inc ease he le el o p o ec ion. TDS chap e s
ep esen a p omo ional model
64
as hey es ablish coope a ion and dialogue be ween he
pa ies and ci il socie y. Dispu e se lemen is p o ided o , which can e en ually lead o
a Panel epo (as i happened wi h Sou h Ko ea) bu he winning Pa y canno (ye )
impose sanc ions
65
.
62
L. BARTELS, A Model Human Righ s Clause o he EU's In e na ional T ade Ag eemen s, (Feb ua y 1,
2014). Ge man Ins i u e o Human Righ s, 2014, A ailable a SSRN: h ps://ss n.com/abs ac =2405852.
63
Eu opean Economic and Social Commi ee, T ade and sus ainable de elopmen chap e s in EU F ee
T ade Ag eemen s a ailable on he websi e o he EESC. Fo he di e en in e p e a ions o he aims
pu sued by he TSD chap e s see J. HARRISON M. BARBU, L. CAMPLING, F. EBERT, Labou S anda ds
P o isions in EU F ee T ade Ag eemen s: Re lec ions on he Eu opean Commission’s Re o m Agenda, in
Wo ld T ade Re iew, 8(4), 2019, pp. 635-657. The applica ion o hese p o isions can posi i ely a ec he
li es o wo ke s in pa ne s coun ies; imp o e he condi ions o wo ke s in in e na ionally aded goods
and se ices. Such a eading is suppo ed by he ac ha all TSD chap e s con ain an obliga ion o moni o
he impac o he ade ag eemen i sel on sus ainable de elopmen .
64
M. MOORE, C. SCHERRER, Condi ional o P omo ional T ade Ag eemen s - Is En o cemen Possible?
How In e na ional Labou S anda ds Can Be En o ced h ough US and EU Social Chap e s, Co e Labou
S anda ds Plus, F ied ich Ebe S i ung, 2017, www.academia.eu.
65
See in a on he new app oach o he Commission owa ds TDS. The dispu e se lemen p ocess
es ablished wi h e e ence o p o isions in TDS Chap e s can be none heless e ec i e. A e he Panel
conclusions in he dispu e wi h Sou h Ko ea, his coun y a i ied h ee ou o ou undamen al In e na ional
Labou O ganiza ion (ILO) con en ions P. MAZZOTTI, Sus ainable De elopmen Chap e s in he Eu opean
Union’s F ee T ade Ag eemen s: Reconside ing he Deba e on Sanc ions, Eu opean Law ins i u e pape s
2021, h ps://www.eu opeanlawins i u e.eu. Some conside TDS implemen a ion one o he weakes
elemen s o hese chap e s. J. HARRISON ET AL., Go e ning Labou S anda ds h ough FTAs, in Jou nal o
Common Ma ke S udies, 2019 Volume 57. Numbe 2. pp. 260-277; K. HRADILOVÁ, O. SVOBODA,
Sus ainable De elopmen Chap e s in he EU F ee T ade Ag eemen s: Sea ching o E ec i eness, in
Jou nal o Wo ld T ade 2018, p. 1019- 1042; hey a gue ha TSD chap e en o cemen should be
s eng hened h ough ci il socie y pa icipa ion, coope a ion be ween he Pa ies and moni o ing. See also
G. MARIN DURÀN, Sus ainable de elopmen chap e s in EU ee ade ag eemen s: Eme ging compliance
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
52
www. sjeu os udies.eu
4.2. The Eu opean Ombudsman’s ques ions ega ding he p epa a o y s age o
human igh s clauses
The EO ques ions o he Commission on he p epa a o y s age o human igh s clauses
ocus on he p inciples and c i e ia o de e mine whe he o include a human igh s clause
in an in e na ional ag eemen and on he con en o he clause.
The decision o inco po a e an HRC in all EU in e na ional ag eemen s does no seem
o aise any speci ic issue in he s age o p e-nego ia ion. In ac , HRCs a e a well-
es ablished componen o he EU ex e nal ela ions policy. Acco ding o se e al
Commission communica ions da ing back o 1995
66
, HRCs ha e o be included in all EU
ag eemen s. Howe e , an examina ion o he p ac ice ells us ano he s o y. Fi s , EU
sec o al ag eemen s do no usually con ain an HRC. The eason is ha HRCs a e
conside ed “poli ical clauses” and, as such, hey do no seem “app op ia e” o sec o al
ag eemen s, acco ding o a non-published documen epo ing he Commission’s
posi ion
67
. One can unde s and he easons o such exclusion, since an HRC o en mee s
he opposi ion o he EU pa ne s. The EU insis s on he inco po a ion o he clause when
an ex ensi e ela ionship is being nego ia ed. The omission o an HRC in a sec o al
ag eemen can be compensa ed by he so-called passe elle clause which links he sec o al
(especially ade) ag eemen o he amewo k coope a ion ag eemen concluded wi h he
same pa ne and which con ains an HRC ( he essen ial elemen and he non-execu ion
p o isions), hus making i possible o he pa ies o adop “app op ia e measu es” unde
he sec o al/ ade ag eemen
68
as a consequence o se ious iola ions o he alues
indica ed in he essen ial elemen p o ision included in he Coope a ion/associa ion
ag eemen . The inclusion o he “passe elle clause” in sec o al ag eemen s is a
comp omise solu ion ha is, howe e , no always a ailable, as he e a e sel -s anding
sec o al ag eemen s. Un o una ely, he EO did no ask he Commission o cla i y i i
in ends o apply a mo e consis en app oach as ega ds he o mula ion o he passe elle
clauses, as some ag eemen s, such as he F amewo k Coope a ion ag eemen wi h Ko ea,
issues, in Common Ma ke Law Re iew, 2020, n. 4, p. 1031-1066, who c i icizes a sanc ions-based solu ion
o imp o e en o cemen o TSD chap e s.
66
Commission Communica ion, Inclusion o espec o democ a ic p inciples and human igh s in
ag eemen s be ween he Communi y and hi d coun ies, COM (95) 216 inal, 23.5.1995. Council o he
Eu opean Union, Conclusions on human igh s clauses in Communi y ag eemen s wi h non-membe
coun ies o 29 May 1995, Bulle in o he Eu opean Communi ies, 5/1995, 9, poin 1.2.3. See also he
Eu opean Pa liamen Resolu ion on he Communica ion om he Commission on he inclusion o espec
o democ a ic p inciples and human igh s in ag eemen s be ween he Communi y and hi d coun ies
(COM (95)0216 - C4-0197/95), OJ C 320, 28.10.1996, p. 261.
67
This unpublished documen is men ioned by L. BARTELS, BENOIT-ROHMER ET AL, Human Righ s
Mains eaming in he EU’s Ex e nal Rela ions, Eu opean Pa liamen S udy, EXPO/B/DROI/2008/66,
Sep embe 2009.
68
See he ag eemen wi h I aq OJ L 204 del 2012. See on he e ec i eness o he linking clause, he EO
inqui y on he lack o an IA o he Vie nam ade coope a ion ag eemen , ci ed abo e.
F ancesca Ma ines
53
a e a he ague on he ela ionship be ween he ade ag eemen and he amewo k
coope a ion ag eemen
69
.
I is wo h men ioning ha an HRC is no included in In es men ag eemen s. This
si ua ion has isen conce n on he pa o non-in e go e nmen al o ganisa ions
70
.
Recen ly, hi y- i e ci il socie y o ganiza ions issued a Join Appeal
71
on he Inclusion
o En o ceable Human Righ s clauses in he Eu-China Comp ehensi e Ag eemen on
In es men
72
. Howe e , he inclusion o an HRC does no seem an app op ia e ool o
human igh s p o ec ion in he amewo k o hose ag eemen s, because he suspension o
an in es men ag eemen as a o m o sanc ion o HR iola ion by he S a e o in es men
migh be de imen al o he in es o s o he Con ac ing Pa y which suspends he
ag eemen
73
.
Human igh s (o o he alues such as heal h, p o ec ion o he en i onmen , e c.) can
be a ec ed by in es o s’ ac i i ies. Thus, a e e ence o human igh s, en i onmen al
p o ec ion, labou igh s, igh s o indigenous people, heal h, e c. can be included in
in es men ea ies
74
o es ablish ha in es men s shall be consis en wi h hose alues.
In es o s do no ha e posi i e obliga ions – in he absence o a p o ision con ained in he
s a e-in es o ea y – o espec human igh s o he hos S a e popula ion
75
and his is
why he Eu opean Pa liamen has called o he inclusion o a co po a e social
esponsibili y clause in in e na ional ag eemen s concluded by he EO
76
. The abo e-
69
L. BARTELS, The Eu opean Pa liamen ’s Role in Rela ion o Human Righ s in T ade and In es men
Ag eemen s, Expo/B/D oi/2012-09 Feb ua y 2014, Pe 433.751.
70
h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/commission/p essco ne /de ail/es/ip_20_2542. The 2013 impac assessmen
en isaged he inclusion o an HRC (see Final IA on EU-China ade and in es men ela ions, au ho izing
he opening o nego ia ions on an in es men ag eemen be ween he Eu opean Union and he People's
Republic o China, SWD(2013) 185 p. 48. The EU-China Ag eemen on geog aphical indica ion in o ce
since Ma ch 1, 2021, does no con ain a e e ence o human igh s o an HRC. See Eu opean Pa liamen
non-legisla i e esolu ion o 11 No embe 2020 on he d a Council decision on he conclusion o he
ag eemen be ween he Eu opean Union and he Go e nmen o he People’s Republic o China on
coope a ion on, and p o ec ion o , geog aphical indica ions (08359/2020 – C9-0298/2020 –
2020/0089M(NLE)).
71
The ex is a ailable in he FIDH websi e h ps://www. idh.o g/en/in e na ional-ad ocacy/eu opean-
union/join -appeal-on- he-inclusion-o -en o ceable-human- igh s-clauses-in, 15.01.2021.
72
The ag eemen in p inciple was inalized in Decembe 2020. The Ag eemen a i ica ion was suspended
due o Chinese sanc ions agains membe s o he EU Pa liamen . The Ag eemen in p inciple con ains a
e e ence o he Uni e sal decla a ion o human igh s in he p eamble. L. COTULA, EU–China
Comp ehensi e Ag eemen on In es men : An App aisal o i s Sus ainable De elopmen Sec ion, in
Business and Human Righ s Jou nal, 2021, 6(2), pp. 360-367.
73
In es men p o ec ion ag eemen s migh add ess human igh s issues by including a Co po a e Social
esponsibili y clause, as he one con ained in he Comp ehensi e Economic and T ade Ag eemen (CETA)
nego ia ed be ween he EU and Canada.
74
F. G. SANTACROCE, The Applicabili y o Human Righ s Law in In e na ional In es men Dispu es”,
ICSID Re iew, Fo eign In es men Law Jou nal, 2, 34, 1, 2019, p. 136-155. B. CHOUDHURY, Human Righ s
P o isions in In e na ional In es men T ea ies and In es o -S a e Con ac s, in S. SCHILL ET AL., eds.,
In es men P o ec ion, Human Righ s, and In e na ional A bi a ion, Edwa d Elga July 4, 2020, a ailable
a h ps://ss n.com/abs ac =3643407 o h p://dx.doi.o g/10.2139/ss n.3643407.
75
U base SA and Conso cio de Aguas Bilbao Bizkaia, Bilbao Biskaia U Pa zue goa . República
A gen ina (ICSID Case NoARB/07/26), Awa d o 8 Decembe 2016, pa a. 1209.
76
S a es’ pa ies can unde ake he obliga ion o encou age and p omo e CSR schemes, hus a ec ing
p i a e companies’ beha iou . P o isions in ee ade and in es men ag eemen s a e no add essed o
p i a e companies bu CRS obliga ions ecognize he e ec ha p i a e companies’ beha iou can ha e on
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
54
www. sjeu os udies.eu
men ioned Join Appeal on he Inclusion o En o ceable Human Righ s clauses in he Eu-
China Comp ehensi e Ag eemen on In es men also equi ed he inclusion in a TDS chap e
o a p o ision ea i ming he obliga ions o S a e pa ies o p o ec human igh s, as se
ou in in e na ional law. This chap e should include he egula ion o companies and he
p o ision o e ec i e access o emedies and ibunals when hey iola e human igh s,
cause de imen o o con ibu e o ha ming hem.
F om a di e en pe spec i e, in es men ea ies migh also be p oblema ic o human
igh s because hey migh limi he egula o y space o he hos S a e. F om his angle, a
possible solu ion could be modelled on he CETA (EU and Canada ee ade
ag eemen
77
) which exemp s he pa ies om in es men ea y obliga ions i hey in end
o p o ec heal h, en i onmen o human igh s.
The issue o he inclusion o an HRC can also be conside ed in ela ion o
Readmission ag eemen s (RA) concluded by he EU wi h a hi d S a e (a ques ion no
add essed by he EO). Readmission ag eemen s do no p o ide o such clauses, and
conce n o human igh s iola ions in RA ma e ializes in a non-a ec ion clause
78
con ained in he p eamble
79
o in a dedica ed p o ision
80
. Among EU in o mal
eadmission ag eemen s, only he Join Way Fo wa d wi h A ghanis an con ains a non-
a ec ion clause. The inclusion o he non-a ec ion clause seems a solu ion o
comp omise which accommoda es he in e es o he EU and i s membe S a es o ensu e
a e u n o illegal mig an s om he e i o y o he EU o hei coun y o o igin, he
e ec i eness o eadmission p ocedu es and he p o ec ion o human igh s. The inclusion
o an HRC and a suspension clause in an RA is highly p oblema ic. Fi s he aim o he
HRC is o allow he Eu opean Union o eac o se ious iola ions o human igh s o o
o he non- ade alues commi ed by he o he Pa y and i is no an app op ia e ool o
labou and en i onmen al s anda ds. See ILO Resea ch Pape 13. J. WALESON, Co po a e Social
Responsibili y in EU Comp ehensi e F ee T ade Ag eemen s: Towa ds Sus ainable T ade and In es men s,
in Legal Issues o Economic In eg a ion, 42, 2, 2015, pp. 143-174. See also F. ROMANIN JACUR, Co po a e
Social Responsibili y in Recen Bila e al and Regional F ee T ade Ag eemen s: an Ea ly Assessmen , in
Eu opean Fo eign A ai s Re iew, 23, 4, 2018, pp. 465-483.
77
See he “EU-Canada Comp ehensi e Economic and T ade Ag eemen (CETA)” page o he o icial
websi e o he Eu opean Commission, a ailable a : h ps://policy. ade.ec.eu opa.eu/eu- ade- ela ionships-
coun y-and- egion/coun ies-and- egions/canada/eu-canada-ag eemen _en.
78
See o example a icle 18 o he Readmission ag eemen be ween he EU and Bela us: “This Ag eemen
shall be wi hou p ejudice o he igh s, obliga ions and esponsibili ies o he Union, i s Membe S a es and
Bela us a ising om in e na ional law including om in e na ional con en ions o which hey a e pa y, in
pa icula om he in e na ional ins umen s lis ed in A icle 2, and om: in e na ional con en ions
de e mining he S a e esponsible o examining applica ions o asylum lodged; in e na ional con en ions
on ex adi ion and ansi ; and mul ila e al in e na ional con en ions and ag eemen s on he eadmission o
o eign na ionals”. OJ L 181, 9.6.2020, p. 3.
79
The RA wi h Russia e e s o he Uni e sal decla a ion on Human Righ s, o he UN ci il and poli ical
igh s co enan , o he Re ugees’ S a us Con en ion, o he Con en ion agains o u e, OJ L 129 17.5.2007,
p. 40; he RA wi h Pakis an makes a gene al e e ence o igh s and obliga ions o he Pa ies unde
in e na ional law. See OJ L 287/52, 4.11.2010 p. 52. A lis o eadmission ag eemen s is epo ed on he
EU Websi e, h ps://home-a ai s.ec.eu opa.eu/policies/mig a ion-and-asylum/i egula -mig a ion-and-
e u n/ e u n-and- eadmission_en.
80
RA wi h Cape Ve de, a icle 17, OJ L 282, 24.10.2013, p. 15; RA wi h Tu key a icle 18, OJ L 134,
7.5.2014, p. 3. RA wi h Aze baijan, a icle 18, OJ L 128, 30.4.2014, p. 17.
F ancesca Ma ines
55
eac o iola ions o human igh s o e u nees by he coun y o o igin o o eadmission.
Bu a he same ime, he non-a ec ion clause does no appea an adequa e solu ion ei he ,
especially i he EU pa ne has no a i ied he key in e na ional human igh s
con en ions o he p o ec ion o e u nees o he Re ugees Con en ion (as in he case o
Pakis an). In his case, o example, he pe son eadmi ed in his coun y isks indi ec
e oulemen
81
.
In syn hesis, wha one can in e om he answe o he Commission, which is
subs an ially desc ip i e o he cu en p ac ice, is a con i ma ion ha he Commission
in ends o p opose he inclusion o HRC in all ade and poli ical amewo k ag eemen s,
while excluding me e sec o al ag eemen s and o con inue he usage o he passe elle
clause. In any case, he de ini ion o HRC as a quali ying ea u e o he EU ex e nal (and
ade) policy and he insis ence o he Eu opean Pa liamen ha all ag eemen s should
include an HRC con i ms ha he issue is a om se led
82
.
As o he subs an i e con en , al hough HRCs ha e a simila s uc u e, he e is no
s anda d HRC e en i he e e ence o he UN Gene al Assembly Uni e sal Decla a ion
o Human Righ s, o democ acy and he ule o law is common o mos HRC. Some HRC
men ion o he ins umen s such as he UN Cha e he Helsinki Final Ac o 1975 o he
Con e ence on Secu i y and Coope a ion in Eu ope and he Cha e o Pa is o a New
Eu ope o 1990; o ma ke economy (ag eemen s wi h o me So ie s a es). A e e ence
o e i o ial in eg i y is ound in he Associa ion ag eemen wi h Uk aine
83
. The 2009
Common App oach p o ides o he inclusion o a e e ence o non-p oli e a ion o WMD
and coun e e o ism, he In e na ional C iminal Cou and small a ms and ligh weapons.
These, howe e , a e no quali ied as an “essen ial elemen ” which e e s only o HR, he
ule o law, non-p oli e a ion. This is a ele an di e ence since only he iola ion o
essen ial elemen s can igge “app op ia e measu es”.
In he pe spec i e o he e olu ion o he con en o he Clause, he Commission s a es
ha i will p opose he inclusion o “ espec o he Pa is Ag eemen on Clima e Change
84
81
C. MOLINARI, The EU Readmission Policy o he Tes o Subsidia i y and Ins i u ional Balance: F aming
he Exe cise o a Peculia Sha ed Compe ence, in Eu opean Pape s, Vol. 7, 2022, No 1, pp. 151-170.
82
EP is a s ong suppo e o he inclusion o HRC in all ag eemen s, especially in ade and coope a ion
ag eemen s. This posi ion has been ei e a ed in he Annual epo on human igh s and democ acy in he
wo ld and he Eu opean Union’s policy on he ma e – annual epo 2021 (pa a 42) (PE696.496 02-00)
(Sep embe 2021). See also Human igh s and democ acy in he wo ld and he EU’s policy on he ma e
– annual epo 2019, pa a 39.
83
The inal pa o he HRC (a icle 2 o he Associa ion Ag eemen ) speci ies: “P omo ion o espec o
he p inciples o so e eign y and e i o ial in eg i y, in iolabili y o bo de s and independence, as well as
coun e ing he p oli e a ion o weapons o mass des uc ion, ela ed ma e ials and hei means o deli e y
also cons i u e essen ial elemen s o his Ag eemen . OJ L 161 o 29.5.2014, p. 3. See N. GHAZARYAN, A
New Gene a ion o Human Righ s Clauses? The Case o Associa ion Ag eemen s in he Eas e n
Neighbou hood, in Eu opean Law Re iew, 2015, n. 3, pp. 391-410.
84
The commi men o a i y and en o ce he Pa is Ag eemen on Clima e Change ep esen s an inno a ion.
On he necessi y o ein o ce he nexus be ween ade ag eemen s and he Clima e change Pa is ag eemen
see Council o he Eu opean Union, S eng hening cohe ence be ween EU ee ade ag eemen s and he
Pa is Ag eemen on clima e change - In o ma ion om he F ench, Spanish and Luxembou g delega ions,
doc. 7016/19, 1 Ma ch 2019 conside ing he inclusion o commi men s on igh ing clima e change in he
HRC. See he Commission Communica ion T ade Policy Re iew – an Open, Sus ainable and Asse i e
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
56
www. sjeu os udies.eu
as an essen ial elemen in all u u e ag eemen s concluded by he EU”
85
as p o ided o
in he EU-UK T ade and Coope a ion Ag eemen
86
. A he end o he day, as he
Commission speci ies in he answe gi en o he EO, “ he inal wo ding (o he clause) is
a p oduc o nego ia ion be ween wo pa ne s” bu he Commission ies o adap he
HRC o he di e en si ua ions o he EU Pa ne .
4.3. The Eu opean Ombudsman’s ques ions ega ding he moni o ing and
implemen a ion s ages o human igh s clauses
The implemen a ion o human igh s clauses and o he human igh s obliga ions
equi es he de ini ion o benchma ks (a)
87
, a p ocess o moni o ing (b), and he
applica ion o en o cemen mechanisms (c).
a) Benchma ks.
Benchma ks
88
can e e o speci ic a ge s, and imeline indica o s; o example, i
he goal o he p o ision ( he condi ionali y mechanism in he GSP sys em
89
) is he
T ade Policy, B ussels, 18 Feb ua y 2021 COM(2021) 66 inal. In ecen ag eemen s, he issue has been
egula ed in a p o ision ad hoc, which does no c ea e eal obliga ions and does no ake he o m o he
HRC. See o example a icle 12.6 o he FTA be ween he EU and Singapo e: “The Pa ies a i m hei
commi men o eaching he ul ima e objec i e o he UN F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change
(he eina e e e ed o as ‘UNFCCC’), and o e ec i ely implemen ing he UNFCCC, i s Kyo o P o ocol,
and he Pa is Ag eemen o 12 Decembe 2015 in a manne consis en wi h he p inciples and p o isions
o he UNFCCC. They commi o wo k oge he o s eng hen he mul ila e al, ules-based egime unde
he UNFCCC building on he UNFCCC's ag eed decisions, and o suppo e o s o de elop a pos -2020
in e na ional clima e change ag eemen unde he UNFCCC applicable o all pa ies”.
85
See COM (2021) 66 inal p. 14, op. ci .
86
This is he i s ag eemen concluded by he EU o include he commi men o igh agains Clima e
change as an essen ial elemen . The EU-UK ade and coope a ion ag eemen ollows a mo e complex
s uc u e as a as he essen ial elemen clause is conce ned. Ti le II: “Basis o he coope a ion” con ains
p o isions on sha ed “ alues”: democ acy and he ule o law (a icle 763); Figh agains clima e change
(a icle 764) Coun e ing p oli e a ion o weapons o mass des uc ion (a icle 765) Small a ms and ligh
weapons and o he con en ional weapons (766); The mos se ious c imes o conce n o he in e na ional
communi y (a icle 767) Coun e - e o ism (768); Pe sonal da a p o ec ion (769); Global coope a ion on
issues o sha ed economic, en i onmen al and social in e es (a icle 770); a icle 771 named essen ial
elemen clause speci ies ha “A icle 763(1), A icle 764(1) and A icle 765(1) cons i u e essen ial
elemen s o he pa ne ship es ablished by his Ag eemen and any supplemen ing ag eemen .”. a icle 772
(Ful ilmen o obliga ions desc ibed as essen ial elemen s) is he clause ha p o ides o he e mina ion o
suspension o he ag eemen o any supplemen ing ag eemen in whole o in pa , in case o “a se ious and
subs an ial ailu e by he o he Pa y o ul il any o he obliga ions ha a e desc ibed as essen ial elemen s”.
87
M. VIVONA, I. MEIER, V APOSTOLOVSKI, M. MÖSTL, K. STARL, EU p ac ices on measu ing human igh s,
in Eu opean Yea book on Human Righ s, 2015, pp. 307-316.
88
Fo he no ion o benchma k, see A. MIHR, Human Righ s Benchma ks o EU's Ex e nal Policy
Publica ions O ice o he Eu opean Union, EXPO/B/DROI/2011/15, PE 457.059, 2011.
89
One can no e ha he Commission’s p oposal o he new GSP b oadens he con en ions ha bene icia y
coun ies mus a i y in o de o bene i om GSP+. These a e: The Con en ion on he Righ s o People
wi h Disabili ies; he Op ional P o ocol o he Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child on he In ol emen in
A med Con lic ; he ILO Con en ion on Labou Inspec ion No. 81; he ILO Con en ion on T ipa i e
Consul a ions No. 144; and he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion agains T ansna ional O ganised C ime. See
Commisison Communica ion, P oposal o a egula ion o he Eu opean Pa liamen and he Council on
F ancesca Ma ines
57
a i ica ion o some con en ions by a S a e, he benchma k is he numbe o a i ica ions
wi hin a ce ain pe iod o ime. Bu in HRC benchma ks a e no de ined, since he clause
usually e e s o gene al concep s, wi h some excep ions as in he S a egic Pa ne ship
Ag eemen wi h Canada,
90
and in he Co onou ag eemen wi h e e ence o he ule o
law
91
. One canno expec he HRC o con ain a clea de ini ion o measu able s anda ds
and c i e ia, i one conside s ha he HRC ( he essen ial elemen p o ision) is a legal basis
o discussion, coope a ion and dialogue wi h EU pa ne s on he basis o a long- e m
ela ionship. Besides, well-de ined benchma ks would make he nego ia ions wi h EU
pa ne s e en mo e complica ed.
The absence o benchma ks does no seem o be one o he causes o he poo
en o cemen o he HRC as he non-execu ion p o ision is igge ed only in cases o
se ious iola ions o he p inciples e e ed o in he essen ial elemen pa o he clause
when he e a e no doub s ha hose alues ha e been iola ed. This has been con i med
by he Commission in i s answe o he EO’s speci ic ques ion on how “a dec ease in he
le el o human igh s p o ec ion is measu ed and wha ci cums ances would igge he
applica ion o he ‘non-execu ion’ clause”.
An in e es ing ques ion made by he EO e e s o he use by he Commission o he
Cha e o Fundamen al Righ s when e i ying compliance in he con ex o ade
ag eemen s. The ques ion seems misplaced: he Cha e does no p o ide a pa ame e o
compliance applicable o hi d S a es bu only o EU Ins i u ions (and in some cases o
Membe S a es) and bodies. Fo example, he Cha e in 2009 became binding, and, as a
consequence, a new F on ex egula ion
92
was adop ed, which ins i u ed mechanisms and
ins umen s o p omo e and moni o compliance wi h F on ex’s obliga ions o espec
undamen al igh s. The abo e-men ioned i s EO own-ini ia i e inqui y on F on ex was
in ac mo i a ed by he widesp ead in e es by ci il socie y in how his Agency ca ied
ou i s asks in acco dance wi h i s obliga ions unde he Cha e .
applying a gene alised scheme o a i p e e ences and epealing Regula ion (EU) No 978/2012 o he
Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council, COM (2021) 579 inal, 22.9.2021.
90
OJ L 3.12.2016 L 329, p. 45. A icle 2. 4 speci ies: “The Pa ies ecognise he impo ance o he ule o
law o he p o ec ion o human igh s and o he e ec i e unc ioning o go e nance ins i u ions in a
democ a ic s a e. This includes he exis ence o an independen jus ice sys em, equali y be o e he law, he
igh o a ai ial and indi iduals' access o e ec i e legal ed ess”. A icle 28 o he same ag eemen
speci ies ha : “a pa icula ly se ious and subs an ial iola ion o he obliga ions desc ibed in A icles 2(1)
and 3(2) may be add essed as a case o special u gency”.
91
A icle 9.2 o he Pa ne ship ag eemen be ween he membe s o he A ican Ca ibbean and Paci ic
(ACP) G oup o S a es and he EC and i s Membe S a es signed in Co onou on 23 June 2000, OJ (2000)
L 317/3 which de ines he ule o law wi h e e ence o an e ec i e and accessible means o legal ed ess,
an independen legal sys em gua an eeing equali y be o e he law and an execu i e ha is ully subjec o
he law. See L. PECH, P omo ing he Rule o Law Ab oad: On he EU’s Limi ed Con ibu ion o he
Shaping o an In e na ional Unde s anding o he Rule o Law, in D. KOCHENOV, F. AMTENBRINK (eds),
The Eu opean Union’s Shaping o he In e na ional Legal O de , CUP, 2013, pp. 108-129. The Co onou
ag eemen was due o expi e in Feb ua y 2020, bu i s applica ion has been ex ended un il June 2023 unless
he new Pa ne ship ag eemen en e s in o o ce be o e ha da e.
92
Regula ion (EU) No 1168/2011 o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he Council o 25 Oc obe 2011
amending Council Regula ion (EC) No 2007/2004 es ablishing a Eu opean Agency o he Managemen o
Ope a ional Coope a ion a he Ex e nal Bo de s o he Membe S a es o he Eu opean Union, in OJ L
304, 22.11.2011, p. 1.
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
58
www. sjeu os udies.eu
b) Moni o ing.
Moni o ing
93
, ha is he ac ion o ac - inding, ga he ing in o ma ion on human
igh s si ua ions, e i ying and analysing such in o ma ion
94
. Di e en ools may be used
o ca y ou moni o ing which implies sc u iny o he o he S a e’s beha iou , anging
om examina ion o S a e epo s, communica ion by p i a e pa ies, ac - inding
missions
95
.
The no ion o moni o ing is in e p e ed a he ex ensi ely by he EU. The
Commission’s answe o he EO e e s o a ious channels o in o ma ion: le e s,
mee ings, submissions, epo s o in e na ional HR moni o ing bodies, also including
“exchanges o in o ma ion, dialogue and isi s and in ol es a ious s akeholde s,
including ci il socie y”. Ci il socie y plays an inc eased ole – a leas in p inciple – in
he dialogue/moni o ing p ocess
96
, al hough i s moni o ing unc ion may be limi ed by
se e al ac o s, no leas he o en poo o ganisa ional capaci y o moni o he
implemen a ion o he ag eemen
97
.
The EU applies he p ocedu es se ou in he ag eemen s con aining he HRC, bu i
also uses ex e nal moni o ing mechanisms es ablished by in e na ional human
con en ions o by in e na ional o ganisa ions, such as ILO
98
. In he amewo k o GSP
93
J. ZERK, R. BEACOCK, op. ci .
94
UN T aining Manual on Human Righ s, moni o ing “is a b oad e m desc ibing he ac i e collec ion,
e i ica ion and immedia e use o in o ma ion o add ess human igh s p oblems. Human igh s moni o ing
includes ga he ing in o ma ion abou inciden s, obse ing e en s (elec ions, ials, demons a ions, e c.),
isi ing si es such as places o de en ion and e ugee camps, discussions wi h Go e nmen au ho i ies o
ob ain in o ma ion and o pu sue emedies and o he immedia e ollow-ups”. Uni ed Na ions, Gene a,
2001, p. 9.
95
The Eu opean Union Agency o Fundamen al Righ s websi e p esen s an o e iew o he di e en
moni o ing mechanisms wi h a human igh s emi unde he auspices o he Uni ed Na ions, he
O ganisa ion o Secu i y and Co-ope a ion in Eu ope, he Council o Eu ope and he EU, see
h ps:// a.eu opa.eu/en/con en /moni o ing-mechanisms. Fo he moni o ing mechanism in he EU see P.
ALSTON, O. DE SCHUTTER (eds.) Moni o ing Fundamen al Righ s in he EU, Ox o d, Po land, 2005.
96
Fo an analysis o ci il socie y pa icipa ion in Eu opean Union (EU) ade policy L. DRIEGHE, J. ORBIE,
D. POTJOMKINA, J. SHAHIN, Pa icipa ion o Ci il Socie y in EU T ade Policy Making: How Inclusi e is
Inclusion? in New Poli ical Economy, 2021, a ailable a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/13563467.2021.1879763.
97
Conclusion o he EU-Vie nam F ee T ade Ag eemen (Resolu ion), 12 Feb ua y 2020, Eu opean
Pa liamen non-legisla i e esolu ion o 12 Feb ua y 2020 on he d a Council decision on he conclusion
o he F ee T ade Ag eemen be ween he Eu opean Union and he Socialis Republic o Vie Nam
(06050/2019 – C9-0023/2019 –2018/0356M(NLE): (pa a 37) “in ol emen o independen ci il socie y
and social pa ne s in moni o ing he implemen a ion o he ag eemen is c ucial, and calls o he
p epa a ion and swi es ablishmen o DAGs ollowing he en y in o o ce o he ag eemen , as well as o
a b oad and balanced ep esen a ion o independen , ee and di e se ci il socie y o ganisa ions wi hin hose
g oups, including independen Vie namese o ganisa ions om he labou and en i onmen al sec o s as well
as human igh s de ende s; suppo s he e o s o ci il socie y o ganisa ions in Vie nam o de elop
p oposals in his ega d, and will suppo capaci y-building e o s”.
98
GSP Plus scheme combines he sc u iny o in e na ional bodies and o EU ins i u ions. A icle 19(6) o
he GSP Regula ion equi es ha he Commission ake accoun o ‘all ele an in o ma ion’ in de e mining
whe he GSP bene icia y coun ies duly comply wi h hei human igh s obliga ions, including in o ma ion
p o ided by ci il socie y. Besides he dialogue ha akes place wi hin bila e al mee ings (wi h he
Commission, EU delega ions; EEAS) which migh include moni o ing isi s, dialogue is based on
sco eca ds, wo king documen s highligh ing sho comings in he implemen a ion. Sco eca ds a e no
accessible o he public.
F ancesca Ma ines
59
he Commission has he powe o in es iga e whe he he bene icia y S a e complies wi h
i s obliga ions including human igh s. The Commission enjoys a disc e iona y powe
whe he o ini ia e such an in es iga ion
99
. The ma e has also been e e ed o he
Ombudsman by ou T ade Unions o ganisa ions
100
on he alleged iola ion o labou
igh s by Bangladesh and he e usal by he Commission o ini ia e an in es iga ion using
he powe i has unde GSP
101
. The claiman s a gued ha he Commission’s ailu e o
in es iga e and he lack o a anspa en and objec i e p ocess o deciding whe he o
sc u inize Bangladesh’s beha io , cons i u ed maladminis a ion. The mos in e es ing
pa o he EO’s assessmen (who concluded o a decision o no maladminis a ion in
his case) was o es ablish whe he he Commission “has p o ided adequa e explana ions
o i s ac ions and he p ocedu es i has in place”. In ac , he Commission’s disc e iona y
powe in his ci cums ance does no exemp he Ins i u ion om gi ing a con incing
explana ion o i s decision
102
. In gene al e ms, he implemen a ion o human igh s ools
equi es ull espec o he limi s posed by Eu opean law including adminis a i e
p inciples.
The moni o ing p ocess is unc ional o he phase o en o cemen and a componen
o his p ocess bu , especially when he use o h ea o coe cion as a esponse o w ong ul
conduc is weak, moni o ing migh acqui e an au onomous alue as a o m o p essu e
owa ds he o he Con ac ing S a e which is eques ed o collabo a e wi h an
in es iga ion and o p o ide he documen a ion equi ed ( he ex en o such coope a ion
depends on he in e na ional obliga ions unde aken by he S a e being moni o ed)
103
. In
o he e ms, e en i he non-execu ion clause is no igge ed, moni o ing has an
independen alue in he ield o human igh s o imp o e S a es’ compliance.
Moni o ing, sc u iny, and supe ision by in e na ional ins i u ions, bu also by p i a e
pa ies, ONG, ci il socie y o ganisa ions, ade unions, e c. a e an in eg al pa o he so
app oach a ou ed by he Commission which p e e s o sugges changes
104
a he han
impose hem. I is also clea ha me e moni o ing wi hou he possibili y o igge ing a
99
A icle 19 o he egula ion in o ce p o ides o he ollowing s eps: a e a 6-mon h moni o ing and
e alua ion pe iod whe e hi d pa ies a e hea d (o ally and in w i ing by he Commission) he Commission
submi s a epo o he bene icia y coun y which i can eply o. I he Commission con i ms ha se ious
iola ions occu ed, i adop s a delega ed ac wi hd awing he p e e ences in whole o in pa .
100
The o ganisa ions iling he complain we e he In e na ional T ade Union Con ede a ion (ITUC), he
Clean Clo hes Campaign (CCC), and he HEC-NYU EU Public In e es Clinic.
101
Cases 1056/2018/JN and 1369/2019/JN on he Eu opean Commission’s ac ions ega ding he espec
o undamen al labou igh s in Bangladesh in he con ex o he EU’s Gene alized Scheme o P e e ences.
The Commission’s main a gumen was ha “The pa ial o ull wi hd awal o ade p e e ences should be
a measu e o las eso , also because he coun ies conce ned a e he leas de eloped coun ies.” The EO
inqui y was closed he 24.03.2020.
102
Cases 1056/2018/JN and 1369/2019/JN on he Eu opean Commission’s ac ions ega ding he espec
o undamen al labou igh s in Bangladesh in he con ex o he EU’s Gene alised Scheme o P e e ences.
Decision adop ed he 24.03.2020.
103
Fo moni o ing wi hou en o cemen in ano he con ex see C. LACATUS, U. SEDELMEIER, Does
moni o ing wi hou en o cemen make a di e ence? The Eu opean Union and an i-co up ion policies in
Bulga ia and Romania a e accession, in Jou nal o Eu opean Public Policy, 2020, n. 8, pp. 1236-1255.
104
On he unc ion o moni o ing see D.L. DONOHO, Human igh s en o cemen in he 21s Cen u y, in
Geo gia Jou nal o In e na ional and Compa a i e Law, 35, 1, 2006, pp. 3-52.
The Eu opean Union Ex e nal Ac ion unde he lens o he EU Ombudsman
66
www. sjeu os udies.eu
o ci il socie y which co ec ly equi es ha in ex e nal ac ions and in e na ional ela ions
he EU ins i u ions and bodies ac in ull espec o p inciples go e ning good
adminis a ion.
In syn hesis, he EO ini ia i e on human igh s in EU ade policy is pa o he e o
o he EO o ein o ce good adminis a ion and he de ence o human igh s in hi d
coun ies in line wi h he Lisbon T ea y obliga ions.
ABSTRACT: This pape examines he inc easingly ac i e ole o he Eu opean
Ombudsman in asce aining by wha p ocedu es and ins umen s he Eu opean Union
con ibu es o he p o ec ion o human igh s in i s ex e nal ac ion. A e an o e iew
o he Eu opean Ombudsman’s compe encies and ac i i ies conce ning he
adminis a i e unc ion o EU ins i u ions, his a icle discusses he con ex and scope
o a ecen Eu opean Ombudsman’s s a egic ini ia i e on he inco po a ion o human
igh s clauses – and o he human igh s ools – in EU in e na ional ade ag eemen s
KEYWORDS: Eu opean Ombudsman – adminis a i e unc ion – human igh s clauses
– moni o ing – en o cemen .
