17
eISSN 0495-4548 – eISSN 2171-679X
T H E O R I A
Theo ia, 2025, 40(1), 17-28
h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.27512
*
Co espondence o: John Dup é. Egenis, Cen e o he S udy o Li e Sciences; Depa men o Sociology, Philosophy and An h opology; Uni e si y o Exe e ; By-
ne House; S . Ge man’s Road; Exe e EX4 4PJ – [email p o ec ed] – h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7451-2127
How o ci e: Dup é, John (2025). «P ocess»; Theo ia. An In e na ional Jou nal o Theo y, His o y and Founda ions o Science, 40(1), 17-28.
(h ps://doi.o g/10.1387/ heo ia.27512).
Recei ed: 10 July, 2024; Final e sion: 27 Janua y, 2025.
ISSN 0495-4548 - eISSN 2171-679X / © 2025 UPV/EHU P ess
This wo k is licensed unde a
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es 4.0 In e na ional License
P ocess
(P oceso)
John Dup é*
Uni e si y o Exe e
h ps://o cid .o g/0000-0002-7451-2127
Acco ding o he heo y o he co ela i es, he na u e o a being is some hing de ined by i s ac-
i i y . The e o e, being and ac i i y a e insepa able and iden i ied .
S an o d Encyclopedia o Philosophy on Ramon Llull (P iani 2021)
Keywo ds
P ocess on ology
O ganism
Me aphysical diso de
Human condi ion
Pe sonal iden i y
F ee will
Sex
Gende
Race
ABSTRACT: In his pape I discuss he p ocess on ology ha has been he cen al ocus o my esea ch o almos 20
yea s . I explain wha his is, and illus a e how i applies o biology h ough he example o he o ganism . I also aim o
show how na u ally p ocess on ology i s wi h he diso de ed wo ld I desc ibed in he p eceding a icle . Finally, I show
how p ocess philosophy illumina es a numbe o opics ela ing o he human condi ion, including pe sonal iden i y and
eedom o he will, and p o ides a deepe unde s anding o he issues a ound human classi ica ion, no ably by sex and
gende and by ace .
Palab as cla e
On ología de p ocesos
O ganismo
Deso den me a ísico
Condición humana
Iden idad pe sonal
Lib e albed ío
Sexo
Géne o
Raza
RESUMEN: En es e a ículo discu o la on ología de p ocesos que ha cons i uido el oco cen al de mi in es igación du-
an e casi 20 años . Explico en qué consis e e ilus o cómo se aplica a la biología a a és del ejemplo del o ganismo . Tam-
bién me p opongo mos a cómo la on ología de p ocesos encaja de o ma na u al con el mundo deso denado desc i o en
el a ículo que p ecede a es e . Finalmen e, mues o cómo la on ología de p ocesos ilumina una se ie de cues iones elacio-
nadas con la condición humana, incluyendo la iden idad pe sonal y el lib e albed ío, y p opo ciona una comp ensión más
p o unda del p oblema de las clasi icaciones humanas, en pa icula po sexo y géne o y po aza .
John Dup é
18 Theo ia, 2025, 40/1, 17-28
1. In oduc ion
In he las lec u e (Dup é 2025b) I desc ibed some o he hinking ha led me o see he wo ld as la gely diso de ed, a
wo ld in which he pe ec o de some imes assumed by philosophe s was, a om being omnip esen , a a e and ag-
ile hing . Aspec s o pa ial o de made possible a a ie y o di e en ways o ca ego ising, hese ca ego isa ions hem-
sel es being ways o imposing o de . I also explo ed some o he mo e alue- ela ed implica ions o his iew .
My gene al assump ion a his poin was ha his iew o he wo ld was simply an empi ical one; i was wha ca e ul ob-
se a ion and ou bes science showed o be he case . I nei he included no equi ed any deepe explana ion o why i
was like ha . I jus was . Howe e , o a pe iod now app oaching 20 yea s I ha e been d awn o a mo e sys ema ic un-
de s anding o he chao ic uni e se .1 I belie e ha he eason ha he diso de ed, chao ic uni e se seems so coun e -
in ui i e o many is ha we a e commi ed o a undamen ally misguided me aphysics . Whe eas he wo ld iew I ha e
been c i icizing —wha I some imes call, abusi ely, he billia d ball iew— assumes a wo ld o disc e e and au onomous
hings, I now see he wo ld as composed solely o p ocesses . While he hings in he billia d ball wo ld a e au onomous,
ha e easonably clea bounda ies, and gene ally possess essen ial p ope ies ha make hem he kinds o hings hey a e,
none o his is ue o p ocesses . A p ocess is always only pa ially and empo a ily s able, as i s s abili y depends on ac-
i i y ha sus ains i . In ac , I de ine a p ocess as equi ing change o i s con inued exis ence .
A wo ld o p ocess, hen, is a wo ld o cons an change . In he wo ds a ibu ed in an iqui y o He acli us, ‘E e y hing
Flows’ . Much o his p ocess, like he swi ls o ai in he wind o he B ownian mo ion o pa icles in a luid is di ec ion-
less and chao ic . The challenge o a p ocess philosophe is o explain he appea ance o cohe en and pe sis en pa -
e ns in his low ha has led so many philosophe s o p opose a wo ld o hings . The s a ing poin o my p ocessual-
ism comes om he obse a ion ha such explana ions a e wha a la ge pa o biology is conce ned wi h .
My main conce n has always been wi h he li e sciences, and hey will be my ocus oday . Howe e , I shall say jus a ew
wo ds abou physics . Al hough e e yone knows ha he eal wo ld desc ibed by con empo a y physics is no hing like
he billia d ball wo ld pe haps imagined by Laplace, he de e minis ic wo ld, en i ely de e mined by he excep ionless
laws o mic ophysics s ill has many adhe en s among philosophe s .
Abou mic ophysics, I shall say only ha he idea o billia d ball-like a oms is a behind us . Nowadays he undamen-
al cons i uen s o eali y a e seen as wa es, mul i-dimensional s ings, and suchlike . These s ike me, and some I alk
o mo e expe in physics, as much mo e p ocess-like han hing-like . Bu o easons o bo h space and compe ence,
I won’ pu sue ha deba e . I I am w ong, hen he undamen al na u e o s u is e y di e en om he pa s o he
uni e se I am mo e di ec ly conce ned wi h . Fo una ely, howe e , his won’ g ea ly al e much o wha I wan o say
abou biology . Bu pe haps mo e immedia ely ele an han mic ophysics is cosmology . Cu en o hodoxy is ha he
uni e se began wi h a bang .2 O cou se he e a e wo ies abou wha happened be o e his . Pe haps he e has been an
in ini e cycling o simila uni e ses . Bu he e, o una ely, we a e a a le el o specula ion beyond he pay g ade o a me e
philosophe , and I lea e ha o he physicis s . A e he big bang, a any a e, we a e old o an inconcei ably sho pe-
iod o ime o almos comple e chaos, and e en ually, a e a long s e ch o a ound one en housand h o a second s a-
ble i ems such as p o ons and neu ons begin o eme ge . A e a ew 100,000 yea s some o hese cap u ed elec ons and
1 I i s a emp ed o a icula e a p ocess iew o biology in my Spinoza Lec u es a he Uni e si y o Ams e dam, published as Dup é 2008 .
Mo e ecen elabo a ions can be ound in a numbe o essays in Dup é and Nicholson (2018), especially he ex ended in oduc ion, and in
Dup é (2025a) .
2 See h ps://en .wikipedia .o g/wiki/Timeline_o _ he_ea ly_uni e se . I do no es any hing on he de ails o he cu en s o y . Fo exam-
ple, he heo y o in la ion, which claims ha he ea ly uni e se expanded by a ac o o he o de o 1026 o e a ime o he o de o 10−33
o 10−32 seconds, is no easy o ake se iously o he ou side o cosmology, o anyhow o me . Tha he his o y o he uni e se was a p o-
cess du ing which a ious en i ies a many di e en spa ial and empo al scales g adually eme ged and s abilised seems much less con o-
e sial, and is su icien o p esen pu poses .
P ocess
h ps://doi .o g/10 .1387/ heo ia .27512 19
o med he a oms we know oday . Wi hin a couple o million yea s he g a i a ional a ac ions be ween hese a oms
had led o he o ma ion o he i s s a s . And so on .
My poin in e e ing o his s o y is jus o no e ha i is a s o y o eme gence o mo e o less s able en i ies om cha-
o ic and o mless p ocesses . Some a oms ha e expec ed li e spans exceeding he expec ed du a ion o he uni e se, and a e,
he e o e as s able as i ge s . S a s ha e li e cycles, hough hese las o billions o yea s . F om ou poin o iew hey a e
p e y s able mos o he ime, bu o cou se his s abili y is a ma k o he as quan i y o ene gy, ul ima ely exhaus ed, ha
main ains hem in he s a e we now know hem . Bu no hing is absolu ely s able, and no hing has exis ed o e e . Biologi-
cal e olu ion, hough, ce ainly gene a ing as ly mo e complex s uc u es han any ha p eceded i , is e y much o a piece
wi h his s o y o he sel -assembly o mo e complex o ms om p ocesses in which no such o ms exis ed . The ques ion o
how a se o e e nal hings go e ned by p ecise and uni e sal laws, migh e en ually ha e led inexo ably om pu e chaos o
he s uc u es we ind oday is p obably bes answe ed by appeal o an omnipo en c ea o . Bu o una ely o hose who
s uggle o imagine such a c ea o , his is no a ques ion we ha e o answe in he wo ld o p ocess .
2. O ganisms
My iew o his uni ying pic u e o he uni e se did no s a om cosmology, howe e , bu om biology, so ha is
whe e I shall now u n . The na u al place o s a in biology is wi h he o ganism . Though i is no a all easy o de-
ine an o ganism, mo e people a e con iden , o bo ow a ph ase amously used by a US judge o desc ibe po nog aphy,
ha hey know one when hey see one . I you a e s anding by an imp essi e ee, o he e is an elephan in he oom, i
seems easy enough o iden i y he o ganism . On he o he hand, i is easy o show ha hings a e no so simple . Suppose
you a e s anding ins ead, by a amous g o e o quaking aspens known as Pando . Pando is, acco ding o Wikipedia, “ he
wo ld’s la ges ee … A male clonal o ganism, Pando has an es ima ed 47,000 s ems ha appea as indi idual ees, bu
a e connec ed by a oo sys em ha spans 106 ac es” . I I dig one o hese s ems up and plan i in my ga den am I he
p oud owne o a iny ac ion o a ee in U ah, o has i now become a new o ganism?
I’ll e u n o he ques ion o de ining o ganisms, bu i s I wan o mo e o a mo e abs ac le el, me aphysics . Assume I am
con iden ha he elephan in my oom is an o ganism . Wha kind o an en i y is an o ganism? The adi ional philosophi-
cal answe , da ing om A is o le, is a subs ance . Un o una ely his is a echnical e m wi h se e al di e en meanings, bu a
ough mo e amilia equi alen is a hing — he wo d I shall gene ally use . Wha is a hing, in his philosophical sense?
All hings bu he e y smalles a e made o o he hings, ul ima ely molecules and a oms, hemsel es made o elemen-
a y pa icles . A hing ypically has clea bounda ies, and i s exis ence is no dependen on o he hings; i is au onomous .
Things do, o cou se, some imes change, so one ques ion ha has been impo an in he me aphysical heo y o hings is
wha changes a e consis en wi h he con inued exis ence o a hing . The gene al answe o his, which again s ems om
A is o le is ha hings ha e p ope ies ha di ide be ween he essen ial and he acciden al . Acciden al p ope ies may
change, bu o he hing o pe sis i mus e ain i s essen ial p ope y o p ope ies . The essen ial p ope y is wha makes
he hing he hing i is, in John Locke’s wo ds, “ he being o any hing whe eby i is wha i is” .3
No e ha while I ha e been alking abou indi idual essences, no he essences o a kind ha I c i icised ex ensi ely in
my ea lie wo k, hese a e closely connec ed . In ac wha makes he hing he hing i is is gene ally equa ed wi h wha
makes i he kind o hing i is . Fo he indi idual essence o Dumbo is gene ally assumed o be he p ope y o being
an elephan , which is o say, he possession o he essen ial p ope y o elephan s . As discussed in my las lec u e, I do
no belie e he e a e any such essences o biological kinds, so he e is a p oblem o he subs an ialis , o hing heo is .
A na u al esponse migh be o appeal o he (o en) unique gene ic sequence o he indi idual . The e a e many p ob-
3 Locke (1689/1975), bk .III, chap .3, sec .15, p .417 .
John Dup é
20 Theo ia, 2025, 40/1, 17-28
lems wi h his idea, which I won’ go in o de ail on he e .4 I will only no e he cu ious consequence ha i you ha e a
monozygo ic (i .e . iden ical) win, you only become a sepa a e en i y om he win when you genome i s mu a es in a
unique way . Only h ough change, he e o e, do you become an indi idual . Bu o he p oblems wi h he subs an ialis
iew o he o ganism a e clea e , and o hese I now u n .
While an o ganism may look s able, au onomous and sha p-bounda ied, we now know well ha none o his is he case .
Fi s , we know ha he s able o m o an o ganism, a dog o an oak ee, is no jus a de aul condi ion, bu is main ained
by illions o chemical and physiological e en s happening e e y second inside i , he p ocesses we call me abolism . I men-
ioned abo e ha I like o de ine a p ocess as an en i y equi ing change o i o pe sis . This is ob iously ue o a cha-
o ic p ocess such as B ownian mo ion, which jus is mo emen , bu i is equally ue o he dog o he ee . Though he
changes ha sus ain i may no be ob ious, hey a e ce ainly eal . An unchanging dog is a dead dog — hough in u h a
dog does no cease o unde go change when i dies, i me ely mo es om li e-sus aining ac i i y o he p ocesses o decay .5
Second, o ganisms ha e li e cycles . To ake one amilia example, he li e cycle o a bee le con ains pe iods o ime as an
egg, a la a, de o ed o ea ing, a pupa only me amo phosing, and an imago, o adul , mainly conce ned wi h ma ing . These
s ages o he li e cycle ake on d as ically di e en s uc u es . Is a bee le egg a bee le? As a seman ic ques ion I assume li -
le u ns on his . Bu wha is su ely ue is ha i is he same o ganism as he bee le i la e becomes (i i ’s lucky) . I a hing
is dis inguished as a pa icula s uc u e o i s mo e undamen al elemen s, as adi ional subs an ialism assumes, i is e y
ha d o belie e ha an egg and a bee le could be he same hing . Bu o cou se hey a e s ages in he same p ocess .
Finally, and I hink mos impo an ly, o ganisms a e no au onomous because, as we ha e inc easingly come o un-
de s and, symbiosis is e e ywhe e . We ha e all hea d ha 50% o mo e o he cells in ou bodies a e bac e ial; and we
a e inc easingly old o he bene i s ha we gain om ha ing he igh symbio ic mic obes . As we become inc eas-
ingly awa e o he ex en o which such symbion s a e essen ial o ou well-being, se e al philosophe s a e ques ion-
ing whe he hese should no be hough o as me e collabo a o s in ou li es, bu as eal pa s o us (e .g ., T i iño and
Suá ez 2020) . Ha king back o a e m gene ally a ibu ed o he g ea champion o symbiosis, Lynn Ma gulis,6 hey
sugges we a e eally holobion s, composi e o ganisms de i ing om many e olu iona y lineages . In u he suppo o
such a iew i is beginning o appea ha e en i uses, which ou numbe he cells in ou bodies by a ac o o en, a
om being po en ial enemies held in check by ou e e - igilan immune sys ems, may play essen ial oles in he symbi-
o ic whole (Dup é and Gü inge 2016) . Some p o ec agains genuinely pa hological agen s; o he s s o e DNA ha
may be needed by ou bac e ial symbion s; and, mos impo an ly, hey may egula e he numbe s o hese bac e ia .
I don’ wan o en e he e in o he deba es abou whe he he o ganism is he holobion . The impo an poin o p e-
sen pu poses is jus he di icul y o seeing a clea answe o his ques ion . I we a e in e es ed in he o ali y o p o-
cesses ha p omo e he s abili y and su i al o he human, hen i is ha d o see wha sense he e could be in exclud-
ing hese i al pa s o he o al sys em . On he o he hand, he e is a plausible a gumen ha o e olu iona y pu poses
we may need o conside he disc e e lineage ha cons i u es human cells, and ha may sha e li le o hei his o y wi h
many o hei symbio ic pa ne s . Echoing he p omiscuous ealism ha I ad oca ed in my ea lie ca ee , I ha e mo e
ecen ly p oposed a p omiscuous indi idualism . This is he idea ha he e may be no unique op imal way o ca ing in-
di iduals om he deeply en angled p ocesses o li e; only he bes way o doing so o speci ic pu poses .
This e lec s a mo e gene al poin abou he en anglemen o p ocesses . Two en i ies in e ac ing in such an in ima e
way ha i is unclea whe he he e is one en i y o wo is a si ua ion e y ha d o make sense o in a wo ld o au ono-
4 Bu see Dup é (2010) .
5 One migh wonde , I suppose, whe he a dead dog was a dog . Happily, his is e y much a p oblem o he subs an ialis , o whom he ex-
is ence o a hing is expec ed o ha e sha p bounda ies bo h spa ially and empo ally . Fo he p ocessualis , such bounda ies need be d awn
only i and when hey a e equi ed .
6 Bu inco ec ly so, acco ding o Baedke e al. (2020) who ace he e m o he Ge man heo e ical biologis Adol Meye -Abich in he
1940s .
P ocess
h ps://doi .o g/10 .1387/ heo ia .27512 21
mous, ha d-bounda ied hings . Think, o ins ance, o a ela i ely simple symbio ic sys em, such as a lichen . This is a
unc ional whole composed o a ungus and a popula ion o pho osyn he ic mic obes .7 Is his one hing, wo hings, o
many hings? Some imes he in e ac ing pa ne s can su i e on hei own, some imes no ; bu he pa icula mode o
exis ence o he lichen is qui e dis inc om ha o i s cons i uen s e en when hey ha e one . Indi idual p ocesses, e-
call, a e no ypically au onomous, since dependen on in e ac ions wi h hei en i onmen s o hei pe sis ence, and
seldom ha e sha p bounda ies . The e is no p oblem a all in hinking o he lichen as a li ing p ocess wi hin which con-
s i uen li ing p ocesses may be iden i ied as dis inc indi iduals as we wish .
I should now be possible o see why a plu alis ic me aphysics and epis emology i s so na u ally wi h a p ocess me aphys-
ics . Plu alism is g ounded in he obse a ion ha he e is no unique way o di iding he wo ld in o kinds, and di e en
p ojec s o enqui y may call o di e en axonomies . A simple way o unde s anding his is jus o no e ha , a leas in bi-
ology, e e y indi idual is di e en om e e y o he and a en ion o di e en p ope ies will dis inguish di e en se s o
i ems . The kinds dis inguished a e no un eal —hence he ealism in my p omiscuous ealism— bu hey a e no unique .
App ecia ion o he p ocessual and en angled na u e o biological indi iduals adds ano he dimension o his plu alism,
wha I ha e e e ed o as p omiscuous indi idualism . The way we dis inguish indi iduals om he complex and in e con-
nec ed low o biological p ocess is also de e mined by he ques ions we a e ying o answe o he goals we hope o pu sue .
I we a e in e es ed in he e olu iona y his o y o a ungus ha is some imes pa o a lichen, some imes no , we will ea
popula ions o ungal cells as he ele an uni s o analysis, only con ingen ly connec ed o pho osyn he ic symbion s a
pa icula imes . Bu i we a e in e es ed in he physiology o he lichen, he ungus is me ely a pa o ha whole .
We migh hink ha his las example i s pe ec ly well wi h he now s anda d on ology o hings and mechanisms .
Things a e composed o smalle hings, and he in e ac ions be ween hem cons i u e mechanisms ha explain he be-
ha iou o he composi e . A lichen, hen, is a mechanism composed o ungal and mic obial pa s . In de ence o such
an in e p e a ion, i is o en ema ked ha scien is s o en hink o hemsel es as looking o mechanis ic explana ions,
and his pe spec i e has been highly ui ul . The success o mechanis ic hinking is a leas some hing ha he p oces-
sualis had be e gi e some accoun o .
Fo una ely, his is easily done . Mechanism explains biological phenomena, concei ed as he beha iou o an en i y, as e-
sul ing om he beha iou and in e ac ions o he pa s o which ha en i y is composed . Bo h he en i y e e ed o in
he explanandum and he pa s in he explanans a e concei ed o as hings . The mos amous mode n s a emen o mecha-
nism, he essay “Thinking abou Mechanisms”, by Pe e Machame , Lindley Da den and Ca l C a e (2000) is explici ly
on ologically dualis . Wha I ha e called “ hings” hey e e o as “en i ies” and hei beha iou and in e ac ions a e p o-
cesses . I p e e o use he wo d “en i y” as on ologically non-commi al, bu he poin is clea enough . Fo me hei en i-
ies a e s abilised p ocesses . The condi ion o hei mechanis ic explana ions o be success ul, in my iew o he ma e , is
jus ha he hings should be su icien ly s able o he ime pe iod o e which hey con ibu e o he mechanism (Dup é
2013) . This is no doub highly a iable . I we a e in e es ed in he mechanism o con inen al d i , en i ies such as con i-
nen s mus be s able o e many millennia . In he mechanisms o molecula biology some imes milliseconds a e su icien .
I mechanism is ansla able in o p ocess language, does he di e ence be ween hese pe spec i es ma e ? Yes . I can
ma e e y much i he heo is loses sigh o he empo a y na u e o he s abili y o i s objec s and impo an dimen-
sions o ins abili y . Sabina Leonelli and I ha e gi en a de ailed accoun o how jus his ea men o e y uns able p o-
cesses as objec s led o se ious mis akes in he unde s anding and consequen policy ela ing o he Co id-19 pandemic
(Dup é and Leonelli 2022) .
Vi uses, o begin wi h, a e ascina ing p ocesses (Dup é and Gü inge 2016) . I is emp ing o iden i y he i us wi h
he pa icles, i ions, ha we ind on doo handles and in he ai we b ea he, bu his is qui e w ong . The i us has a li e
7 Unsu p isingly, he e a e o he symbion s in ol ed in a leas some lichens (Hodkinson e al. 2006), so he simplici y o he sys em should
no be exagge a ed .
John Dup é
22 Theo ia, 2025, 40/1, 17-28
cycle and he mos in e es ing pa o he li e cycle is ha which occu s a e a cell has been in ec ed . Du ing ha ime,
he e is ac ually no indi idual en i y ha has a s ong claim o be he i us; he e is jus a sequence o chemical ac i i ies
in he cell . Bu mo e ele an o he pandemic is he epidemiology o a i us and, as we all came o unde s and du ing
he pandemic, a his ime scale i uses e ol e apidly . One p oblem o which his ga e ise was wi h he naming o i us
s ains, which o en ga e people license o hink ha he e was a name o a ixed kind o en i y . In ac , his was ne e
mo e han a phase in he e olu ion o a pa icula popula ion; di e en names we e gi en o ela i ely simila en i ies,
and he same name was some imes applied o e y di e en en i ies .
A second p oblem conce ned he scale a which we hink o i al in ec ion . I we we e dealing wi h a homogeneous
popula ion o iden ical objec s, his migh no ma e much . Bu he he e ogenei y u ns ou o ma e a lo . The se e -
i y o a i al in ec ion appea s o en o u n p ecisely on he di e si y o i al genomes, and he p ope objec o a pa -
icula in ec ion is a di e se popula ion, some imes e e ed o as a quasispecies . Mo e di e se popula ions can e ol e
mo e apidly and hus mo e e ec i ely e ade he immune sys em . On he o he hand i i al mu a ion is oo apid his
may p e en he es ablishmen o a s able in ec ing popula ion, which has led o he in es iga ion o mu agenic agen s
as possible he apies o i al in ec ions .
All his aises a i al epis emological o me hodological p oblem o main aining he connec ion be ween changes in he
phenomena and changes in he ep esen a ions ha a emp o ack he phenomena . Bo h o hese in ol e wha we
called ei ica ions,8 ea ing a phase o a p ocess as a ixed en i y, and ei ica ions a e essen ial o he scien i ic in es i-
ga ion o phenomena . Bu enabling he heo e ical ei ica ions o ack he phenomenal ei ica ions is a e y di icul
p oblem . F equen ly he pandemic was desc ibed in e ms ha no longe adequa ely acked he phenomena, and his
led o p oblems in naming, as jus men ioned, in es ing, in moni o ing in ec ion a es, and in de eloping he apies and
accines . In scien i ic managemen o such a apidly changing p ocess i is essen ial o de elop me hodologies ha a e
i mly g ounded in awa eness o he dynamic cha ac e o he phenomena .
So a I ha e been conce ned wi h a guing ha p ocess on ology be e desc ibes ou scien i ic unde s anding and can
lead o be e science and science-based policy . Bu he implica ions ex end beyond his . Humans a e, o cou se, o gan-
isms, and I ha e been especially in e es ed in ecen yea s in explo ing some o he implica ions o p ocessualism o pa -
icula p oblems o human li e, and i is o hese ha I now u n .9
3. Pe sonal Iden i y
Le me s a wi h a e y adi ional philosophical p oblem, ha o pe sonal iden i y . As mos o you will know, his is
he p oblem o unde s anding wha i is o a pe son o pe sis o e ime . In wha sense am I now he same pe son as
he child who g ew up in England in he middle o he las cen u y? The p oblem is o en se up wi h a p oblem such
as John Locke’s s o y o he p ince and he cobble (o shoemake ) . These wo people, acco ding o he s o y, wake up
one day each wi h all he memo ies and hough s o he o he . The s o y indica es he ension be ween wo iews o he
p oblem . One ha has much immedia e appeal is ha my con inued iden i y is a men al ma e ; I ha e a con inuous se-
ies o in e connec ed memo ies s e ching in o my dis an pas . On his iew he p ince now esides in he body o he
cobble , and ice e sa . On a mo e ma e ialis ic iew, bo h ha e unde gone some biza e psychological b eak .
The p oblem wi h he men alis ic iew o pe sonali y is ha i seems o assume a mind-body dualism ha many now
ind inc edible . The mind o he p ince seems o be en i ely de achable om his body and, he e o e, p esumably, some-
hing imma e ial . Such a iew li es on in he a he biza e idea ha we migh pe haps su i e o e e in a compu e
8 In Dup é and Leonelli (2022), we e e ed o he o me as a ge ei ica ions and he la e as means ei ica ions .
9 The implica ions o seeing humans as p ocesses a e conside ed in mo e de ail in Dup é 2025a .
P ocess
h ps://doi .o g/10 .1387/ heo ia .27512 23
p og amme, bu o he mo e ma e ialis ically inclined, including mysel , he men al is a ea u e o he o ganism, and
no so easily de ached . I is wo h ema king ha in he case Locke desc ibes, a cobble who wakes up and decla es he
is a p ince is gene ally conside ed o ha e gone mad, and is p obably in conside able dange o his li e; sa e o say he
is Napoleon o Jesus Ch is . The p ince who has gone mad can p obably expec mo e sympa he ic ea men . I is im-
po an o ecognise ha i is only he simul anei y o hese sudden onse s o insani y as he s o y is old ha makes he
mind exchange in e p e a ion immedia ely plausible .
Inc easingly o e ecen yea s, i has become mo e popula o accep he ma e ialis ic answe o he ques ion, and pe -
sonal iden i y has been associa ed wi h a spa io- empo ally con inuous body . A na u al de elopmen o his idea has
been o say ha he iden i y o a pe son is jus he iden i y o e ime o a pa icula (human) animal . This idea uns in o
p oblems, howe e , wi h he adi ional iew ha an animal is a kind o hing . Fo he iden i y o a hing equi es he
con inui y o ce ain p ope ies, some o which a e essen ial o ha con inui y . Bu he animal was once a zygo e, a e -
ilised egg . I doub whe he I ha e many p ope ies in common wi h a e ilized egg . The solu ion, o cou se, is o ecog-
nise ha he animal is a p ocess . I s con inui y inhe es in he causal connec ions be ween i s empo al s ages, no in any
conse ed essen ial p ope y . Jus as one s age o he o ganism Rana empo a ia, he Common F og, is a adpole, bu a
adpole is no a og, so some pa he li e cycle o Homo sapiens is, o may be, a pe son .
This is impo an , because he e a e hings we do, such as scien i ic esea ch on emb yos, ha we would ind qui e in-
app op ia e o do o a pe son . In he con ex o s anda d me aphysics his has led o some uly biza e a gumen a ion .
The cu en policy in he UK is ha i is pe missible o expe imen on human emb yos un il hey a e 14 days old . A
common jus i ica ion o his is ha is he la es s age a which winning can occu , when he emb yo may di ide in o
wo pa s, bo h o which may de elop in o human pe sons . I we conside ed he human li e o ha e begun be o e his
we ha e a po en ial con adic ion: bo h wins would ha e been iden ical o he same emb yo and, he e o e, as iden i y
is ansi i e (i A=B, and B=C, hen A=C), o one ano he . Bu hey a en’ .
I he p oposal ha he poin a which I began depends on an un ealised possibili y seems odd, i is because i is . Fo u-
na ely, all o his ouble goes away when we mo e o a p ocess on ology . Many p ocesses di ide: i e s, cells, species, po-
li ical pa ies and much else . Iden i y o p ocesses is ce ainly no ansi i e, o all li e on ea h would belong o he same
species . How we name pa s o a bi u ca ing p ocess is a ma e o con en ion a he han me aphysical ac . I am he
same animal as my o igina ing zygo e, bu no mo e he same pe son han I am he same adul : a zygo e is nei he a pe -
son no an adul . The decision o designa e pa o he human li e cycle as a pe son is a con en ional decision based on
wha e e pu poses we ha e in mind as a aching o ha designa ion . And as I ha e al eady men ioned, dis inguishing
indi idual o ganisms om he lux o li e is always pa ly con en ional . The claim ha Pando is one ee is exac ly pa -
allel o he a gumen ha homozygo ic, o iden ical, wins a e one o ganism; hank ully, we ha e no o e whelming ea-
son o adop he la e —o o ha ma e he o me — con en ion .
The p ocess pe spec i e, inciden ally, has u he in e es ing implica ions o he me aphysics o mammalian p eg-
nancy .10 This, i seems o me, is a pa adigma ic ins ance o p ocess bi u ca ion . The e a e in e es ing s ages in his
bi u ca ion ha we may ind ele an o a ious concep ual decisions . The p ocess o a human li e su ely begins a
e ilisa ion o he egg, hough mos such e en s do no lead a lo u he . Implan a ion is impo an a leas in ma k-
ing a g ea inc ease in he p obabili y o con inua ion o he p ocess . Viabili y o he oe us is impo an in p o iding
mo e op ions o he con inua ion o he li e cycle, ou side he mo he ’s body . And bi h is impo an in p o iding
a massi e educ ion in he in e dependence o he mo he and child, hough su ely no a o al one unless we equa e
in e dependence wi h necessa y in e dependence . This pe spec i e gi es us much mo e ac able, hough no doub
s ill di icul , app oaches o ques ions abou abo ion, oe al and ma e nal igh s and much else including emb yo e-
sea ch .
10 Fo a de ailed elabo a ion o a p ocessual iew o p egnancy, see Meincke (2022) .
John Dup é
24 Theo ia, 2025, 40/1, 17-28
4. Human de elopmen and classi ica ion
Ano he se o ques ions o which a p ocess pe spec i e is ans o ma i e a e hose a ising in he o en highly con o-
e sial classi ica ion o humans, a opic I discussed in he p e ious a icle . A deepe unde s anding o he di icul ies
aced by human classi ica ion comes om he ecogni ion ha humans a e no hings wi h essences bu de elopmen al
p ocesses, and de elopmen al p ocesses wi h huge sensi i i y o bo h ex e nal and in e nal in luences . This esul s in a
g ea di e si y o p ope ies among adul humans . I say adul humans, because he di e si y de elops as he p ocess con-
inues .
A pe haps su p ising hinke o ecognise his poin clea ly, one o he mos misunde s ood o philosophe s, was Adam
Smi h . Smi h is, o cou se, amous o his emphasis on wha is undoub edly a c ucial ea u e o he human species, he
di ision o labou . Especially among igh wing en husias s o his wo k, his is o en connec ed wi h di e ences in in-
na e abili y, aken o jus i y di e ences in s a us and weal h . Bu as Smi h w i es in The Weal h o Na ions:
The di e ence o na u al alen s in di e en men, is … much less han we a e awa e o ; and he
e y di e en genius which appea s o dis inguish men o di e en p o essions … is no … so
much he cause, as he e ec o he di ision o labou . The di e ence be ween … a philosophe
and a common s ee po e , o example, seems o a ise no so much om na u e, as om habi ,
cus om, and educa ion . … [F]o he i s six o eigh yea s o hei exis ence, hey we e, pe haps,
e y much alike … Abou ha age … hey come o be employed in e y di e en occupa ions .
The di e ence o alen s … widens by deg ees, ill a las he ani y o he philosophe is willing
o acknowledge sca ce any esemblance . (Smi h 1776, bk .1, ch .2, pa a4 .)
The poin has e y wide applica ions o human kinds . Gene ally we should look o an unde s anding o he di e ences
be ween humans o di e en kinds in he di e si y o de elopmen al his o ies, much o which is due o di e en en i-
onmen al condi ions . This insigh p o ides a deepe unde s anding o he complexi ies o sex and gende and o ace
ha I discussed in he p e ious pape , and I shall now b ie ly e u n o hese .
I men ioned in my las pape ha we should see sex and gende classi ica ions as he ou comes o a complex and mul i-
causal de elopmen al p ocess, and I hope in his pape o ha e made he g ounding o his claim clea e . The co e bio-
logical dis inc ion o p oduc ion o game es o di e en sizes, as well as o he biological dis inc ions based on physiol-
ogy, genes o ho mones all gene a e hei own, some imes di e gen classi ica ions, and social ac o s add ano he le el
o complexi y . The di e si y o ele an kinds o people is well-cap u ed by he e e -g owing ac onym, LGBTIQA+ . I
hink i is help ul o ollow eminis biologis Anne Faus o-S e ling (2012) in a ibu ing o people a sex/gende a he
han ei he a sex o a gende ou cou . This lea es us open, in ou mo e ca e ul alk, o use s ic ly sex- e e ing e ms,
male and emale, in he sense ecommended by Paul G i i hs (2021), o e e o a p ope y o some o ganisms a pa -
icula s ages o hei li e cycles, as hey p oduce game es o a pa icula size . I say “ou mo e ca e ul alk”; I assume we
can s ill use he wo ds male and emale o e e o he p ima y way mos —bu no all— people choose o p esen hem-
sel es, bu he mo e echnical usage eminds us ha hese e ms g oup oge he a g ea a ie y o de elopmen al ou -
comes . Any ine-g ained classi ica ion o sex/gende is di icul , a iable and imp ecise . And we should, as I s essed in
he p e ious pape , always be p epa ed o ask exac ly why i is necessa y o impo an o classi y people a all .
A inal look a he concep o ace equi es me o dig ess a li le and in oduce mo e explici ly ano he concep ha
is cen al o a p ocessual biology, ha o lineage . Fo ace is no an essen ial p ope y o indi iduals bu , i any hing, a
g oup le el cha ac e is ic o he human species as a whole, a di ision o he human lineage in o sublineages . A lineage
is an ances al/descendan sequence o popula ions, connec ed o one ano he , and mo e o less sepa a ed om o he
popula ions . I may be a e y long-las ing p ocess, s abilised by na u al selec ion bu also by sexual ep oduc ion, which
connec s he indi idual membe s o a lineage and en o ces bounda ies be ween lineages, and in some cases by coope -
a ion be ween he o ganisms ha make up he popula ions . Lineages a e now he i al con ex in which mos e olu-
P ocess
h ps://doi .o g/10 .1387/ heo ia .27512 25
ion akes place . They a e no , howe e , essen ial o e olu ion, a leas in he o m we now know hem; indeed hey a e
hemsel es e ol ed and e ol ing p ocesses . Sexual ep oduc ion, which p o ides he bounda ies o many o he mos
success ul cu en ly exis ing lineages, is some hing ha e ol ed . Simila ly coope a ion, he ea u e ha does mos o ex-
plain he g ea success o ou own species, is a a iable ea u e o lineages, la gely absen om many o mos .11
Lineages, I ha e said, a e p ocesses —like o ganisms, s uc u es mo e o less s abilised wi hin he low o li e . Philoso-
phe s o biology will be eminded o he once shocking and con o e sial claim by Da id Hull and e olu iona y biolo-
gis Michael Ghiselin, ha species, assumed o be lineages, b anches o he ee o li e, we e indi iduals . The shocking
na u e o his claim, I sugges , de i ed om he assump ion ha his consigned species o he ca ego y o hing, and in
many ways his seemed biza e .
Bu he ealisa ion ha hey a e p ocesses ha can pe sis o e long pe iods o ime, emo es much o his conce n . I also
has g ea posi i e bene i s . I is no su p ise ha , as p ocesses, lineages should lack clea bounda ies and equi e p agma ic
and pa ly con en ional decisions as o how hey a e dis inguished wi hin he gene al low o biological ep oduc ion and
change . We now know ha hyb idisa ion is ex emely common be ween ela ed species, and all kinds o empo a ily mo e
o less isola ed cu en s can exis wi hin hem . Deba es be ween so-called lumpe s and spli e s on he co ec ineness o
g ain o ou classi ica ions a e gene ally ques ions o p agma ics a he han deba es abou he na u e o eali y .12
And so inally back o ace . The human species is e y nume ous and widely sp ead geog aphically . Though gene ically e-
ma kably homogeneous, i is pheno ypically and cul u ally di e se . The e a e ba ie s wi hin i such as oceans and moun-
ain anges, as well as dis inc cul u es, mo e o less impe meable o one ano he . Ine i ably his implies many ansi o y
subcu en s wi hin he o e all e olu iona y —b oadly cons ued o include cul u al as well as biological ac o s— ajec-
o y o he whole . As no ed in he p eceding pape , some supe icial ea u es, no ably skin colou , change apidly in e-
sponse o en i onmen al condi ions, and such ea u es can p o ide easily applied ma ke s o empo a y human cu en s .
Bu c ucially, i is also a species ha is gene ically su p isingly homogeneous, and highly mig a o y . Mig a ing humans c oss
oceans and climb moun ains . Human g oups adop cul u al inno a ions om o he g oups wi h which hey in e ac .
So wi hin he u bulen low o he human lineage i is possible, i we wish, o pick ou coun less empo a y subcu -
en s . We dis inguish one ano he by eligion, na ionali y, language, cul u al and a is ic adi ion, and much else be-
sides as well as ace . These subcu en s, p o iding a as di e si y o echnologies, a s, philosophies and much else, o e
huge po en ial bene i s o he species as a whole . Bu , as I emphasised in he p e ious pape , we mus always ask o such
dis inc ions wha pu pose hey se e . The ouble wi h ace as a ca ego y o dis inc ion, is ha hese pu poses ha e
been almos uni o mly malign, an excuse o he exploi a ion o and exp op ia ion om as numbe s o people . Seeing
aces as no mo e han empo a y eddies wi hin he low o human change unde mines any possible biological jus i ica-
ion o hese ills . And, as I no ed in he las pape , he appa en s abili y o hese eddies is la gely explained p ecisely by
he malign pu poses o which hey a e pu , acism .
I is some imes assumed ha his kind o denial o sha p bounda ies be ween kinds is a kind o an i ealism abou dis-
inc ions . Bu he poin is no ha he e a e no bounda ies, bu he e a e many, and hese a e complexly nes ed and
c oss-cu ing .13 We can ind eal dis inc ions be ween kinds o people, bu hese a e no dis inc ions be ween di e en
kinds o hing, dema ca ed by hei unique essences, bu one o many ways o di iding people in o di e en ca ego ies
o pa icula pu poses . The eal ques ion o ask abou bo h sex/gende and ace dis inc ions is wha exac ly hese pu -
poses a e . O en he answe o his ques ion is dis inc ly unedi ying .
11 Coope a ion, oge he wi h massi e di e si y o de elopmen al ajec o ies, is wha makes possible he di ision o labou ha , in u n, ena-
bles he as ly complex socie ies in which we li e . I would lo e o say mo e he e abou he absu di y o he equen a emp s o g ound in
biology he compe i i e indi idualism ha has so disas ously domina ed so much ecen social and poli ical hough , bu limi s o space
dic a e ha I lea e ha o ano he ime and place . The opic is discussed, s ill oo b ie ly, in Dup é 2025a .
12 Lineages as p ocesses a e discussed in de ail in Dup é 2025a, chap .2 .
13 The “ ealism” in “p omiscuous ealism” is in ended o be aken se iously .
