A ailable online a www.sciencedi ec .com
Re iew
Wha is limi ing how we imagine clima e change
adap a ion?
Ma a Olazabal
1,2
, Ana T Amo im-Maia
1
, Cecilia Alda-Vidal
1
and
Sean Goodwin
1
Imagina ies o adap a ion a e cu en ly domina ed by
echnoc a ic, homogenous, op-down app oaches ha hinde
sus ainable, jus , and e ec i e adap a ion wo ldwide. We ha e
iden i ied h ee p ac ices ha con ibu e o his p oblem: (1) an
assump ion o uni e sali y in adap a ion; (2) a neglec o
plu alis ic knowledge sys ems and alues; and (3) an
o e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses. These h ee
p ac ices ha e been ound o lead o ep oduc ions o
ulne abili ies, unsus ainable ou comes, o epheme al changes.
New ways o concep ualising and doing adap a ion a e
necessa y o expand imagina ies and isions a ound wha
adap a ion can and canno be. Th ough wo examples
(e e yday adap a ions and na u e-based solu ions), ou e iew
indica es ha expanding o adop ing al e na i e imagina ies o
adap a ion can help localise adap a ion p ac ice, pa icula ly by
acknowledging he need o mul iple o ms o knowledge and
he i e a i e na u e o adap a ion go e nance p ocesses.
Add esses
1
Basque Cen e o Clima e Change, BC3, Bilbao, Spain
2
Ike basque Science Founda ion, Bilbao, Spain
Co esponding au ho : Olazabal, Ma a
([email p o ec ed])
Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476
This e iew comes om a hemed issue on Social Limi s To
Adap a ion
Edi ed by Daniel Puig
Fo comple e o e iew o he sec ion, please e e o he a icle
collec ion, “Social Limi s To Adap a ion”
A ailable online 9 Sep embe 2024
Recei ed: 25 Ap il 2024; Re ised: 16 Augus 2024;
Accep ed: 19 Augus 2024
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.cosus .2024.101476
1877–3435/© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie B.V. This is
an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC license (h p://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
In oduc ion
Indi idual and collec i e isions and social expec a ions
o a clima e-adap ed u u e (also called imagina ies)
in luence ins i u ional a angemen s o how adap a ion
is planned and execu ed, wi h eal-li e implica ions o
policy p ocesses and in es men p ac ices [1]. How u-
u e isions and imagina ies a e p oduced and who ge s
o be pa o his p ocess is c i ical o de ining success ul
adap a ion and lea ning om on- he-g ound p ac ice
[2–4]. Wi hou ca e ul conside a ion o whose and which
iews a e included wi hin adap a ion planning and e a-
lua ion p ocesses, he e is a isk o p i ileging ce ain
ways o seeing he wo ld ha can u he c ea e and
ein o ce s uc u al inequali y, ulne abili y, and ma -
ginalisa ion wi hin adap a ion p ocesses. Plu alis ic and
inclusi e imagina ies eme ge om collec i e p ocesses
o e lec ion, solida i y, and expe imen a ion ha ac-
knowledge mul iple isions o he u u e as well as ex-
pe iences om he pas [4]. Howe e , socie al capabili y
o u u e hinking aces nume ous challenges, bo h
cul u al and cogni i e, pa icula ly in ha human con-
sciousness (o sel and o he s) and ins i u ional con ex s
a ec he way we imagine he u u e [5].
P e ious li e a u e on he social cons ain s and limi s o
adap a ion [6–8] has ela ed hem o ou main de-
e minan s: (1) psychological p ocesses and hough
p ocesses ela ed o unce ain y, eluc ance o accep aid,
and isk a e sion; (2) li ed alues and cul u al no ms
in ol ing a achmen o place, iden i y, and he i age; (3)
socie al no ms shaped by expec a ions o p epa edness,
in as uc u e eliabili y and esou ce a ailabili y; and (4)
go e nance a angemen s, including ins i u ional capa-
ci ies, alignmen o p io i ies, and decision-making p o-
cesses. This e iew, in pa icula , discusses he
implica ions o he p esen dominance o echnoc a ic,
homogenous, and op-down app oaches wi hin adap a-
ion go e nance, policy, and managemen and how hey
can limi imagina ies o clima e change adap a ion.
These app oaches a e no a bi a y bu oo ed in in-
di idual and collec i e expe iences and p ac ices cul i-
a ed in an e a o neolibe alism ha emphasises ideas o
indi idualism, economic g ow h, globalisa ion, epo ing,
and benchma king among o he s [9]. Despi e calls o
mo e bo om-up and inclusi e ways o doing adap a ion,
adap a ion imagina ies a e pe pe ua ed by he so-called
adap a ion expe s, s ongly in luencing indi idual and
collec i e alues and expec a ions o an adap ed u u e
[10]. We a gue ha hese es ic i e app oaches, hus,
dic a e wha adap a ion can and canno be and how o
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www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476
pu sue i , o en limi ing adap a ions o o - he-shel so-
lu ions and poli ical ixes [11] a he han as lexible
con ex -speci ic managemen in e en ions ha depend
on local esou ces and ins i u ions and ha should look
a e ol ing local needs, ulne abili ies and socie al ex-
pec a ions.
Wi hin hese dominan adap a ion go e nance, policy
and managemen app oaches, we ind h ee p ac ices
ha wo k o cons ain cu en imagina ies o adap a ion.
Fi s , he e is a endency o s anda dise p ocesses, ac o s
and solu ions, which con lic s wi h he accep ed wisdom
ha adap a ion should be local and con ex speci ic [12].
Second, he neglec o plu alis ic o ms o knowledge in
he gene a ion o adap a ion p ocesses exace ba es
s uc u al ulne abili ies and limi s he adap a ion solu-
ion space [13]. Thi d, in a wo ld expe iencing un-
p eceden ed c ises and unce ain change, adap a ion
canno be unde s ood as a linea p ocess wi h a de ini e
endpoin . Ins ead, adap a ion belongs o a messy loop o
go e nance and managemen p ocesses in which c ea-
i i y, imagina ion, lea ning and expe imen a ion a e
c i ical [14].
In he ollowing sec ions, we unpack hese h ee e-
duc ionis p ac ices based on eme gen heo e ical and
empi ical li e a u e connec ed o con ibu ing o he
ield o clima e change adap a ion go e nance and de-
cision-making, using a c i ical e iew app oach [15] and
backwa d ci a ion acking ools (namely, Ci a-
ionchase
1
and Inci e ul
2
). This e iew app oach is
mo e use ul in a con ex whe e he e is a need o b idge
disciplines and unde s andings and ex ac conclusions
ega ding one common heme: clima e change adap a-
ion. We use ecen empi ical and heo e ical wo k as a
base o e idence o he concep ual app oach and he
selec ion o examples — and depa om his o c i ically
e iew he mos ecen li e a u e in he ield o clima e
change adap a ion, u ban s udies, en i onmen al go -
e nance, poli ical ecology, clima e jus ice and sus ain-
abili y s udies. We ela e hese limi ing app oaches o
adap a ion imagina ies wi h he ou de e minan s o
social cons ain s and limi s o adap a ion. Finally, we
use wo di e en modali ies o adap a ion ac ion (e -
e yday adap a ions and na u e-based solu ions [NbS]) o
demons a e how hese educ ionis app oaches can be
o e come.
The social limi s and cons ain s o cu en
imagina ies
Uni e sali y in adap a ion
Resea ch o da e shows how he globalisa ion o u ban
clima e discou se has no necessa ily led o inno a ion
bu a he o he homogenisa ion o u ban na a i es
[16]. Howe e , jus as clima e impac s a e no uni e sal,
nei he a e adap a ion op ions and pa hways. Despi e
ha , he e exis s a p e ailing no ion ha adap a ion
measu es and hei managemen app oaches can be
s anda dised ac oss di e se con ex s and scales [12].
While we acknowledge he impo ance o lea ning om
and ep oducing wha wo ked in he pas and o o he s,
s anda dising adap a ion o e looks he inhe en a ia-
bili y o en i onmen al, social, and poli ical condi ions
ha shape local ulne abili ies and capaci ies o adap-
a ion [17].
Fo yea s, esea ch has called o adap a ion s a egies o
be oo ed in localised unde s andings o clima e ul-
ne abili ies and hei unde lying causes, conside ing he
unique socio-ecological dynamics o local ac o s and
sys ems [18,19]. To enable a ai p ocess, opical s udies
highligh he impe a i e o adap a ion o be locally led
in a way ha enhances communi y agency and empow-
e men while aking ca e no o exace ba e he bu den
and esponsibili ies placed on hose disp opo iona ely
a ec ed by clima e change [20,21]. Localising adap a-
ion e o s in ol es ailo ed mechanisms o suppo ing
local ac o s [22], including no only be e in o ma ion,
inance, and echnical suppo bu also app oaches o
u u e isioning and al e na i e imagina ies so hey can
mo e meaning ully de ine and ac ualise hei desi ed
u u e [2,23,24]. In his e iew, we con end ha p e-
ailing adap a ion imagina ies o en ail o encompass a
ep esen a i e ange o expe iences and p ac ices,
leading o po en ial unbalanced powe dynamics and
unjus ou comes. While ecognising he alue o local
and Indigenous p ac ices, i is c ucial o acknowledge
ha hese can also ca y hei own powe imbalances and
may no always lead o jus adap a ion. Ensu ing he
ep esen a ion o di e se imagina ies is challenging, as
engaging wi h di e se o ms o knowledge can b ing
con lic s be ween g oups and ade-o s be ween
agendas [25]. Thus, i is impo an o ecognise he
ension in nego ia ing con lic s among di e ing pe -
spec i es and alues. In his sense, we acknowledge ha
al hough s anda dised app oaches o adap a ion may
o e look con ex -speci ic ulne abili ies, hey hold he
po en ial o enhance equali y by le elling pe spec i es
ega dless o p i ilege and powe .
Nonplu alis ic knowledge sys ems and alues o
adap a ion
Fo decades, c i ical social science esea ch has ad-
oca ed o ecognising clima e adap a ion as a unda-
men al human igh , g ounded in he alue sys ems o
local popula ions and hei unde s anding o good and
bad adap a ion [26]. This ecogni ion en ails acknowl-
edging di e se si ua ed knowledge sys ems and alues,
he eby challenging colonial and acialised app oaches
ha pe pe ua e epis emic injus ice in adap a ion
1
h ps://es ech.shinyapps.io/ci a ionchase / (Las accessed 14/03/24)
2
h ps://inci e ul.xyz/ (Las accessed 14/03/24)
2Social Limi s To Adap a ion
www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476
esea ch and p ac ice [27,28]. Epis emic injus ice p io -
i ises he echnoc a ic expe ise and he ma ginalisa ion
o exclusion o ce ain o ms o knowledge, such as In-
digenous, adi ional, and expe ien ial knowledge sys-
ems [29,30]. The exclusion o plu alis ic knowledge
sys ems no only o e looks aluable insigh s de i ed
om local pe spec i es bu also unde mines he legi i-
macy and e ec i eness o igh ul adap a ion in e en-
ions. To add ess his, we d aw on longs anding calls o
c i ical social science app oaches o adap a ion, aiming o
di e si y oices in esea ch and inco po a e his o ically
neglec ed pe spec i es, including adi ional knowledge.
Local and Indigenous communi ies possess in aluable
knowledge abou ecosys em dynamics, adi ional land
managemen p ac ices, and adap i e s a egies honed
o e gene a ions o educe ulne abili y o clima e
change [31,32]. An al eady well-es ablished schola ship
highligh s nume ous ways in which Indigenous and local
knowledge play a c ucial ole in enhancing clima e
change adap a ion e o s. Fo example, hey p o ide
obus con ex ual knowledge whe e local da a a e sca ce
[32,33] and en ich local unde s andings o ulne abili y,
esilience, and well-being, which a e absen om
mains eam adap a ion pa adigms [34]. Mo eo e , an
enhanced sense o owne ship and ac i e in ol emen o
local and Indigenous communi ies in adap a ion p ojec s
helps o add ess he cu en hegemonic lack o ac-
knowledgemen o Indigenous ju isdic ion, so e eign y,
and sel -de e mina ion [35–37].
O e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses
A poli ical, social, and echnical space ha allows o
expe imen a ion and lea ning is c ucial o achie ing e -
ec i e adap a ion in he long un. Adap a ion manage-
men is a complex p ocess o knowledge managemen
ha is o en ansla ed in o o e simpli ied policies and
plans as well as linea and igid decision-making en-
i onmen s ha ail o p o ide i e a i e spaces o
lea ning. As a esul , he e is a po en ial o igno e un-
ce ain ies and local knowledge [17] and o e look he
in ica e connec ions o clima e change wi h o he u ban
social, economic, poli ical and en i onmen al ulne -
abili ies and c ises [27,38]. Fo example, e idence om
go e nmen epo s ac oss sec o s and scales poin s o a
clea lack o e alua ion and lea ning mechanisms in
adap a ion s a egies and plans ha could in o m whe-
he hose s a egies a e ac ually pe o ming e ec-
i ely [39,40].
Expe imen al adap a ion can also se e as a c adle o
adical in e en ions ha a e inc easingly necessa y o
add ess eme gen and u gen socie al and ecological
isks [41]. Howe e , he e is deba e abou how o mo e
om expe imen a ion o up-scaled adap a ion [14].
While some au ho s a gue ha expe imen al adap a ion
is ine i ably and c ucially pa o adap a ion p ocesses
[39], o he s poin ou po en ially ine ec i e adap a ions
when expe imen al adap a ion is dissocia ed om op-
down p og ammes [42] o ep oduc ions o inequali y
and exclusion amed as de elopmen oppo uni ies
[9,43]. Ei he way, expe imen s and inno a ion a e s ill
essen ial no only o alida e assump ions bu also o
‘ ecalib a e’ go e nmen al app oaches o adequa ely ace
he e ol ing and unce ain sociopoli ical, economic and
en i onmen al condi ions [14] p o ided hey a e co-
he en wi h hei local poli ical economic con ex s [43].
Likewise, expe imen a ion is c ucial o iden i y and e-
cognise new ac o s and knowledge sys ems ha can in-
use meaning ul in o ma ion, ision, and c ea i i y in o
an i e a i e decision-making p ocess [44].
Aligning limi s o adap a ion imagina ies and he
de e minan s o social cons ain s o adap a ion
While ou e iew discusses limi s o adap a ion imagin-
a ies cen ed on p ac ices wi hin adap a ion go e nance,
policy and managemen , i is also possible o ela e ou
h ee iden i ied p ac ices (see Uni e sali y in adap a ion
o O e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses abo e) o each
o he ou de e minan s o social cons ain s and limi s
o adap a ion iden i ied in he li e a u e (discussed in
In oduc ion): (1) psychological p ocesses and hough
p ocesses; (2) li ed alues and cul u al no ms; (3) soci-
e al no ms; and (4) go e nance a angemen s. Based on
he e iew abo e, Table 1 below o e s some examples
o illus a e how limi s o adap a ion imagina ies can
expand ac oss di e en social sphe es in concep and
p ac ice h ough a se o belie s and pe cep ions oo ed
in indi idual and collec i e expe iences and p ac ices
ha ul ima ely a ec alues and expec a ions.
In wha ollows, we desc ibe wo modali ies o adap a-
ion (e e yday adap a ions and NbS) and how hese can
o e come he h ee es ic i e p ac ices no ed o limi
adap a ion imagina ies. Each subsec ion is s uc u ed o
explain (1) wha hese modali ies a e, (2) he complex-
i ies and ensions when o e coming hese p ac ices and
(3) how hey con ibu e o expanding imagina ies.
Al e na i e imagina ies o clima e change
adap a ion
E e yday adap a ions
E e yday adap a ions a e “small, inc emen al changes
made in ou daily li es o accommoda e he shi ing
ecologies in which we li e […] hese agg ega ed ac ions
cons i u e la ge scale socie al esponses o clima e
change” ([45], p. 2). These spon aneous mic oscale ac-
ions happen au onomously om o mal ins i u ions,
s a e ac o s and planned p ocesses and ha e been
documen ed ac oss socio-economic condi ions, u ban
and u al con ex s and in esponse o a ious ypes o
clima e haza ds in in e sec ion wi h o he social dy-
namics (e.g. [46–48]). We a gue ha a en ion o e -
e yday adap a ions can help o e-imagine adap a ion
Limi s o clima e change adap a ion imagina ies Olazabal e al. 3
www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476
p axis and o expand cu en adap a ion imagina ies in
wo di e en ways.
Fi s , ecen wo k wi h an e e yday app oach p o ides
in e es ing examples o how he assump ion o uni-
e sali y in adap a ion solu ions, he neglec o plu alis ic
knowledge, and he o e simpli ica ion o adap a ion
p ocesses a e es ic ing eme gen si ua ed ways o
knowing and doing adap a ion. Abou he assump ion o
uni e sali y in adap a ion solu ions, schola ship on e -
e yday adap a ions has demons a ed how op-down o -
he-shel ini ia i es ha e o en ended up unde mining
locally d i en adap a ions and inc easing he ulne -
abili y o local popula ions. In Malawi, la ge-scale
homogenous wa e in as uc u es ha e been shown o
es ic con ex -speci ic solu ions de eloped h ough a
long- e m household expe ience o dealing wi h u ban
wa e unce ain y [49]. In ela ion o he neglec o
plu alis ic knowledge, s udies on e e yday adap a ions
ha e e ealed he epis emic cons ain s o planned
adap a ion p ocesses and ad oca ed o he in eg a ion o
mul iple, locally g ounded, expe ien ial, and embodied
knowledge in he design o adap a ion plans [50]. In he
Sunda bans (Bay o Bengal), an explo a ion o how e-
siden s expe ience and espond o salini y in usion on
e e yday basis has been key o e ealing he limi a ions
o common planned adap a ion solu ions, such as he
cons uc ion o conc e e embankmen s and he p omo-
ion o b ackish aquacul u e. These solu ions ha a e
deeply in o med by Wes e n expe knowledge do li le
o elie e he embodied su e ing o local esiden s [50].
Finally, conce ning he o e simpli ica ion o adap a ion
p ocesses, s udies o e e yday adap a ions demons a e
he impo ance o expe ien ial knowledge, mu ual
lea ning, expe imen a ion and inno a ion o e ec i e
adap a ion. Fo example, in E hiopia, Kenya and
Uganda, he oppo uni ies o i e a ed lea ning om
ellow a me s and expe imen a ion wi h ecommended
seeds o echnologies we e ound o be key elemen s o
he success o a me s’ e e yday adap a ions, ye absen
in planned in e en ions. This inding highligh ed he
need o planned in e en ions o concep ualise adap-
a ion as a dynamic lea ning p ocess and o accommoda e
hese p e e ed lea ning ac ics o a me s [48]. These
examples show how a deepe and mo e nuanced un-
de s anding o how di e en indi iduals employ c ea-
i ely hei knowledge and skills o na iga e socio-
ecological changes, amids mul iple injus ices and lim-
i a ions, can p o ide insigh s in o how mo e localised,
imagina i e, and inclusi e ways o doing adap a ion can
come abou .
Second, as some schola s ha e s a ed o show, a en ion
o peoples’ li ed expe iences can b oaden cu en
adap a ion imagina ies by e ealing he al e na i e i-
sions o he u u e ha a e p oduced h ough p esen
peoples’ e e yday e o s o espond o clima e change
[51,52]. Fo example, Cele maje e al. [51] ound ha
h ough hei e e yday adap a ions, communi ies in
India and Aus alia a e ma e ialising nonhegemonic cli-
ma e imagina ies based on ans o med ela ions “wi hin
he communi y, wi h he mo e han human and wi h
ime” (p. 15). Though he li e a u e on wha has been
called ‘g ounded imagina ies’ [51] o ‘ u u e-making
p ac ices’ [52] is s ill eme ging, we see his as a ui ul
a enue owa ds he expansion o cu en adap a ion
imagina ies om he bo om-up.
Jus because e e yday adap a ions a e oo ed in local
knowledge and expe iences, i does no mean hey a e
necessa ily inclusi e o egali a ian. Examples o e -
e yday adap a ions ha a e sel -cen ed, exclusiona y, o
Table 1
De e minan s o social limi s and cons ain s o adap a ion o clima e change and hei ela ion o he h ee iden i ied es ic i e p ac ices
o adap a ion imagina ies.
De e minan s o social
limi s and cons ain s o
adap a ion (below)
Uni e sali y in adap a ion Nonplu alis ic knowledge sys ems and
alues
O e simpli ica ion o adap a ion
p ocesses
Psychological and
hough p ocesses
Belie ha wha wo ks in one
con ex should wo k in ano he
di e en con ex .
Belie in he supe io i y o expe
adap a ion knowledge.
Pe cep ion o adap a ion being a
linea p ocess o achie e a sho - e m
end poin .
Li ed alues and
associa ed cul u al no ms
Belie ha communi y con ex ,
iden i y and idiosync asy will no
change how an adap a ion
solu ion wo ks.
Belie ha alues a e uni e sal and
common ac oss communi ies and
knowledge sec o s.
Belie ha nei he clima e change no
adap a ion will change human
se lemen s, na u e o cul u al
he i age.
Socie al no ms Expec a ion ha all human
sys ems ha e equal in e es s,
abili y and esou ces o adop a
gi en adap a ion solu ion.
Belie ha local and Indigenous
knowledge is no su icien o p epa e
o clima e isks and ha hey equi e
scien i ic expe knowledge, bu no he
o he way a ound.
Expec a ion ha once an adap a ion
is implemen ed, i should wo k.
Go e nance
a angemen s
Belie in o - he-shel ins i u ional
s uc u es dis ega ding poli ical,
economic, and planning con ex s.
Exclusi e use o quan i a i e objec i e
da a o assess ulne abili ies o ack
he p og ess o adap a ion.
Dis ega d o longe ime ames o
adap a ion and clima e change
impac s.
4Social Limi s To Adap a ion
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ha inc ease isks o o he communi y membe s
abound in he li e a u e [25]. Ye , wi h hei con a-
dic ions, po en ially con lic ing agendas, and embedded
injus ices, a en ion o and in eg a ion o e e yday
adap a ions can lead o a mo e imagina i e adap a ion
p axis and plu alis ic adap a ion imagina ies.
Na u e-based solu ions
NbS encompass s a egies aimed a p o ec ing, sus ain-
ably managing, o es o ing na u al o modi ied ecosys-
ems o bene i human well-being and biodi e si y,
including clima e change adap a ion [53]. The e is a
g ea di e si y o app oaches o NbS, hough hei main
applica ions cu en ly ocus on he c ea ion o es o a ion
o o es s o u ban pa ks in e es ial ecosys ems, o
ena u alisa ion o i e s, lakes and we lands in aqua ic
ecosys ems bu include also app oaches such as dune
s abilisa ion o a i icial ee cons uc ion in coas al eco-
sys ems [54,55]. Owing o in e connec ions be ween he
d i e s, eedback and impac s o biodi e si y loss, cli-
ma e change, and ela ed social jus ice issues, NbS a e
a gued o p esen a unique oppo uni y o add ess he
h ee di e en es ic i e p ac ices iden i ied he e in an
in e connec ed way o c ea e mul iple bene i s [55–57].
Howe e , his oppo uni y also p esen s challenges o
he design and implemen a ion o NbS as an adap a ion
s a egy because o he si e-speci ic na u e o he socio-
ecological sys ems ha unde pin hem and he deep
unce ain y abou he esul s o in e ening wi hin hem.
Fo example, human geog aphy and poli ical ecology
li e a u e highligh s how clima e ulne abili y is a
unc ion o sociona u al change, which is unde pinned by
con ex -speci ic, local human–na u e ela ionships ha
a e o en unde alued in adap a ion design and im-
plemen a ion [58]. The g ow h o sil opas o alism as an
adap a ion s a egy agains d ough wi hin Masai com-
muni ies in Tanzania is an o en ci ed example, as i
wo ks wi h, a he han opposes, exis ing ela ionships
wi h he land ha addi ionally add esses inc easing cli-
ma e ulne abili y ha a ies g ea ly ac oss ime and
space [56]. In his way, he in eg a ion o di e se o ms
o knowledge in o NbS design and implemen a ion is
c i ical o no only ensu ing success bu u he a oiding
as much as possible unexpec ed nega i e ou comes —
wha many e e o as maladap a ion in a spec um whe e
we can s i e o push adap a ion e o s owa ds mo e
equi able ou comes [59]. This in ol es blending local
knowledge o si e-speci ic con ex ual ac o s wi h sci-
en i ic and echnical knowledge h ough pa icipa o y
p ocesses ha empowe local knowledge holde s [60].
In eg a ing mul iple knowledge, hough, mus be done
wi h ca e a s ages o he adap a ion managemen p o-
cess whe e i is mos salien . E idence in Lilongwe
(Malawi) shows, o example, he need o in eg a e local
knowledge and knowledge holde s a speci ic ( hough
no all) s ages o he p ocess o a oid de ia ions om
local needs and p io i ies while also a oiding o e -
bu dening local popula ions [61].
Cen al o NbS is expe imen a ion, which has been a -
gued o p o ide e ile g ound o shi ing adap a ion
p axis away om an h opocen ic, ‘o - he-shel ’ in a-
s uc u al adap a ion s a egies owa ds ailo ed, local
app oaches ha in eg a e bo h human and mo e- han-
human needs [56,57]. Indeed, NbS a e cu en ly se ing
as li e al ‘li ing labs’ wo ldwide, no malising adap a ion
go e nance h ough expe imen a ion [62] and empha-
sising lea ning ac oss ins i u ional se ings [63]. An il-
lus a i e example o lea ning om adap a ion p ocesses
is he Connec ing Na u e amewo k, which eme ged
om a p ojec linking mul iple Eu opean ci ies and
s akeholde s ac oss he ields o u ban design, biodi-
e si y conse a ion, and clima e ac ion in designing,
implemen ing, and managing local NbS [64]. This in-
i ia i e emba ked on he ‘di icul , ye [wo hwhile]’ ask
o in eg a ing oppo uni ies o e lexi e lea ning in o
he design and implemen a ion p ocesses o NbS, bo h
a he local le el and among pa icipa ing ci ies. C ea ing
NbS ‘communi ies o p ac ice’, o example, has been
no ed o i s po en ial o ca alyse pa adigma ic shi s in
how adap a ion is done locally by s eng hening oppo -
uni ies o lea ning ha a e sys ema ically in eg a ed
in o u u e p ac ice [65].
While NbS ha e been c i icised as being applied as op-
down o - he-shel app oaches [66], he examples p o-
ided he e p o ide clea e idence o how NbS ha e also
con ibu ed owa ds an expansion o imagina ies o
adap a ion by o eg ounding he impo ance o he in-
e play o bo h local social and ecological dimensions o
clima e change wi hin adap a ion. These examples o
NbS highligh he impo ance o con ex -speci ic hu-
man–na u e ela ionships as a key le e age poin o al-
le ia e clima e ulne abili y, a he han o - he-shel
in as uc u al and design-based adap a ion s a egies. I
is hen he e an oppo uni y o he eme gence o e -
e yday na u e-based adap a ions. Buil in o his ela-
ional ocus is he impo ance o inco po a ing local
o ms o knowledge and exis ing on- he-g ound adap-
a ion p ac ices ha ela e o he socio-ecological sys-
ems whe e adap a ion is done. Because o he dynamic
and con inuously changing na u e o socio-ecological
sys ems, expe imen a ion and lea ning become pa icu-
la ly impo an o adap a ion h ough NbS. NbS he eby
u he expand he ield o wha kind o sys em dy-
namics a e lea ned abou , pa icula ly hose ela ing o
socio-ecological in e ac ions and ela ionships.
Conclusions
Clima e adap a ion imagina ies a e a p oduc o in-
di idual and collec i e hough p ocesses abou wha
good o bad adap a ion is o can be. Cu en echnoc a ic,
Limi s o clima e change adap a ion imagina ies Olazabal e al. 5
www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476

op-down, and homogenised app oaches a ec in-
di idual and collec i e alues and expec a ions, leading
o limi s on ou imagina ies o wha adap a ion can o
canno be, ha is, how we pe cei e, expe ience, and do
adap a ion o clima e change. We explain hese con-
s ain s and limi s h ough h ee educ ionis p ac ices
ha cu en ly domina e adap a ion go e nance p o-
cesses: assuming he uni e sali y o adap a ion, using
nonplu alis ic knowledge sys ems and alues o adap-
a ion, and o e simpli ying adap a ion p ocesses. We
ela e hese educ ionis p ac ices wi h ou de e mi-
nan s o social cons ain s o adap a ion. To illus a e
how hese es ic i e p ac ices can be o e come and how
al e na i e p ac ices can expand imagina ies o adap a-
ion, we use wo modali ies o adap a ion (e e yday
adap a ions and NbS) and a selec ion o examples om
hei p ac ice on he g ound. Common o hese examples
is he impo ance o engaging wi h he speci ici ies o
local con ex s, conside ing and in eg a ing mul iple
o ms o knowledge along adap a ion p ocesses, and
expe imen ing and lea ning in he p ac ice o adap ing.
We conclude ha unde s anding and in eg a ing hese
elemen s in o highe -le el imagina ies and discussions is
c ucial o expanding he adap a ion solu ion space and
o p oducing a mo e jus and e ec i e adap a ion e-
sea ch and p axis.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
MO: Concep ualiza ion; In es iga ion; Me hodology;
W i ing – o iginal d a ; W i ing – e iew & edi ing;
Funding acquisi ion. CAV/SG/ATAM: In es iga ion;
W i ing – o iginal d a ; W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
Da a A ailabili y
No da a we e used o he esea ch desc ibed in he a -
icle.
Decla a ion o Compe ing In e es
Ma a Olazabal epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by
Eu opean Commision. Ana Te a Amo im-Maia epo s
inancial suppo was p o ided by Eu opean
Commission. Cecilia Alda-Vidal epo s inancial suppo
was p o ided by Eu opean Commission. Sean Goodwin
epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Eu opean
Commission. Ma a Olazabal epo s inancial suppo
was p o ided by S a e Agency o Resea ch. Ana Te a
Amo im-Maia epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by
S a e Agency o Resea ch. Cecilia Alda-Vidal epo s was
p o ided by S a e Agency o Resea ch. Sean Goodwin
epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by S a e Agency
o Resea ch. Ma a Olazabal epo s inancial suppo
was p o ided by Basque Go e nmen . Ana Te a
Amo im-Maia epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by
Basque Go e nmen . Cecilia Alda-Vidal epo s inancial
suppo was p o ided by Basque Go e nmen . Sean
Goodwin epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by
Basque Go e nmen . I he e a e o he au ho s, hey
decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e ap-
pea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen s
This wo k is unded by he Eu opean Union (ERC, IMAGINE adap a ion,
101039429). This esea ch is also suppo ed by Ma ía de Maez u Excellence
Uni 2023-2027 Re . CEX2021-001201-M, unded by he Spanish
Go e nmen MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033; and by he Basque
Go e nmen h ough he BERC 2022-2025 p og amme. CAV acknowledges
unding om he Spanish Go e nmen MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033
and Eu opean Union “Nex Gene a ionEU”/PRTR (g an e e ence:
JDC2022-049002-I).
Re e ences and ecommended eading
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been highligh ed as:
•• o special in e es
•• o ou s anding in e es
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in e en ions o clima e-impac ed sys ems. Na Clim Chang
2022, 12:1100-1106.
42. Qama MU, A ch ield SA: Conside he isks o bo om-up
app oaches o clima e change adap a ion. Na Clim Chang
2023, 13:2-3.
43. Chu EK: The go e nance o clima e change adap a ion h ough
u ban policy expe imen s. En i on Policy Go 2016, 26:439-451.
44. Olazabal M, B o o VC: Ins i u ionalisa ion o u ban clima e
adap a ion: h ee municipal expe iences in Spain. Build Ci ies
2022, 3:570-588.
45.
•• Cas o B, Sen R: E e yday adap a ion: heo izing clima e
change adap a ion in daily li e. Glob En i on Change 2022,
75:102555.
The au ho s concep ualise e e yday adap a ions and desc ibe wo
heo e ical componen s ha help o unde s and he logic o e e yday
adap a ions. These a e adap a ion labou and alue adap a ion. This is
one o he i s publica ions o app oach e e yday adap a ions om a
heo e ical poin o iew.
46.
•Cobbinah PB, Asibey MO, Boakye AA, Addaney M: The my h o
u ban poo clima e adap a ion idiosync asy. En i on Sci Policy
2022, 128:336-346.
This pape add esses he lack o empi ical documen a ion o e e yday
adap a ions o poo esiden s in A ican ci ies and a gues ha planned
adap a ion s a egies should be designed o complemen hese au on-
omous measu es.
47. Teebken J, Mi chell N, Jacob K, Heimann T: Classi ying Social
Adap a ion P ac ices o Hea S ess — Lea ning om
Au onomous Adap a ions in Two Small Towns in Ge many;
2023, 15.
48.
•• Cuni-Sanchez A, Twinomuhangi I, Aneseyee A, Mwangi B, Olaka L,
Bi a iho R, So omessa T, Cas o B, Za a-Cal o N: E e yday
adap a ion p ac ices by co ee a me s in h ee moun ain
egions in A ica. E&S 2022, 27:a 32.
This pape explo es he e e yday adap a ions o co ee a me s in Eas
A ica. I e a i e mu ual lea ning and expe imen a ion, which a e o en
no inco po a ed in o planned adap a ion in e en ions, a e e ealed as
c ucial elemen s shaping hese e e yday ac ions.
49.
•Alda-Vidal C, B owne AL, Lawhon M, Iossi o a D: Sani a ion
con igu a ions in Lilongwe: e e yday expe iences on and o
he g id. U ban S ud 2024, 61:1773-1788, h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/
00420980231217661.
This pape del es in o he con lic s be ween e e yday and expe u ban
sani a ion imagina ies and calls o explo ing he possibili ies and lim-
i a ions o esiden s’ e e yday adap a ions o add ess di e en in a-
s uc u e isks.
50.
•• Sen R: Sal in he wound: embodied e e yday adap a ions o
salini y in usion in he Sunda bans. E&S 2023, 28:a 10.
This pape e eals he incapaci y o cu en planned in e en ions
amed unde neolibe al de elopmen pa adigms o add ess he pe -
sonal and in ima e e ec s clima e change has on he people o he
Sunda bans. The pape calls a en ion o he e e yday adap a ions o
esiden s o an al e na i e aming o adap a ion ac ion.
51.
•• Cele maje D, Ca doso M, Gowe s J, Induku i D, Khanna P, Nai R,
O lene J, Sambha i V, Schlosbe g D, Shah M, e al.: Clima e
imagina ies as p axis. En i on Plan E Na Space 2024,
7:1015-1033, h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/25148486241230186.
Using he no ion o ‘g ounded imagina ies’, au ho s show how h ough
hei e e yday p ac ices communi ies in India and Aus alia a e chal-
lenging unjus and ex ac i e hegemonic adap a ion imagina ies and
opening-up new isions o clima e-adap ed u u es.
52.
•• Moul on H, Ca ey M: Fu u emaking in a disas e zone: e e yday
clima e change adap a ion amongs Quechua women in he
Pe u ian Co dille a Blanca. En i on Sci Policy 2023, 148:103551.
This pape p oposes he e m ‘ u u emaking p ac ices’ o desc ibe
he ways in which o Quechua women o Pe u ian highland com-
muni ies a e na iga ing he e ec s o clima e change as pa o hei
daily li es. A u u emaking amewo k is help ul o challenge domi-
nan echnoc a ic adap a ion pa adigms applied in glacia ed egions
and cen e he li ed expe iences, needs and desi es o ma ginalized
communi ies.
53. IUCN: Guidance o Using he IUCN Global S anda d o Na u e-
Based Solu ions. 1s edi ion, IUCN, In e na ional Union o
Conse a ion o Na u e; 2020.
54. Chausson A, Tu ne B, Seddon D, Chabaneix N, Gi a din CAJ,
Kapos V, Key I, Roe D, Smi h A, Wo oniecki S, e al.: Mapping he
e ec i eness o na u e‐based solu ions o clima e change
adap a ion. Glob Change Biol 2020, 26:6134-6155.
55.
•Goodwin S, Olazabal M, Cas o AJ, Pascual U: Global mapping o
u ban na u e-based solu ions o clima e change adap a ion.
Na Sus ain 2023, 6:458-469, h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41893-022-
01036-x.
This pape p esen s a comp ehensi e sys ema ic e iew o implemen ed
u ban NbS p ojec s wo ldwide looking o hei con ibu ions beyond
adap a ion o clima e change and wi h a clima e, biodi e si y and so-
cie y nexus lens.
56.
•Seddon N: Ha nessing he po en ial o na u e-based solu ions
o mi iga ing and adap ing o clima e change. Science 2022,
376:1410-1416.
The au ho p esen s a deba e on how NbS o clima e p oblems a e
emb aced o ejec ed by di e en o ganisa ions and communi ies and
e iews hei bene i s and limi s and how hey compa e wi h echnolo-
gical app oaches.
57. Wo oniecki S, Spiegelenbe g FA, Chausson A, Tu ne B, Key I,
I anullah HM, Seddon N: Con ibu ions o na u e-based
solu ions o educing people’s ulne abili ies o clima e change
ac oss he u al Global Sou h. Clim De 2022, 15:590-607,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/17565529.2022.2129954
58.
•Nigh ingale AJ, Gonda N, E iksen SH: A ec i e adap a ion =
e ec i e ans o ma ion? Shi ing he poli ics o clima e
change adap a ion and ans o ma ion om he s a us quo.
WIREs Clim Change 2022, 13:e740.
“This a icle highligh s he impo ance o in e subjec i i y in unde -
s anding e ec i e adap a ion. The au ho s highligh , as adap a ion has
ela ional implica ions (how we ela e o one ano he as humans, and
also wi h na u e), adap a ion canno ans o m he socio-ecological
sys ems hey in e ene in wi hou ega d o in e subjec i i ies.
Inco po a ing in e subjec i i ies means paying close a en ion o he
p ocess o adap a ion and i s implica ions o human – na u e ela ion-
ships, unce ain y, and inco po a ing plu al o ms o knowledge ha
de ine ela ionships and unce ain y wi hin adap a ion p ac ice.”
59. Reckien D, Magnan AK, Singh C, Lukas-Si hole M, O lo e B,
Schippe ELF, Coughlan de Pe ez E: Na iga ing he con inuum
be ween adap a ion and maladap a ion. Na Clim Chang 2023,
13:907-918, h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41558-023-01774-6
60.
•• an de Jag APN, Buijs A, Dobbs C, an Lie op M, Paulei S,
Rand up TB, Wild T: An ac ion amewo k o he pa icipa o y
assessmen o na u e-based solu ions in ci ies. AMBIO A J Hum
En i on 2022, 52:54-67, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s13280-022-
01772-6.
The au ho s highligh oppo uni ies o NbS o e ocus adap a ion e o s
on local ulne abili y needs, social jus ice conside a ions, and imp o ing
8Social Limi s To Adap a ion
www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476
go e nance p ocesses a he han ( e)in en ing and ine- uning in-
di idual indica o s o success.
61.
•• Rochell K, Bulkeley H, Runhaa H: Na u e o esilience
econ igu ed: global- o-local ansla ion o ames in A ica. B&
C 2024, 5.
This pape p o ides nuance o he usual na a i e on he p oblems c ea ed
by he imposi ion o adap a ion and esilience goals om dono agencies on
local bene icia ies in he op-down manne by iden i ying which pa s o he
p ojec cycle a e mos impac ed by a lack o pa icipa ion.
62. Toze L, Bulkeley H, an de Jag A, Toxopeus H, Xie L, Runhaa H:
Ca alyzing sus ainabili y pa hways: na iga ing u ban na u e
based solu ions in Eu ope. Glob En i on Change 2022,
74:102521.
63. Hölsche K, F an zeskaki N, Collie M, Connop S, Kooijman ED,
Lodde M, McQuaid S, Vande ge P, Xidous D, Bešlagić L, e al.:
S a egies o mains eaming na u e-based solu ions in u ban
go e nance capaci ies in en Eu opean ci ies. npj U ban Sus ain
2023, 3:1-11, h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s42949-023-00134-9
64.
•Collie M, F an zeskaki N, Connop S, Dick G, Dumi u A, Dziubała
A, Fle che I, Geo giou P, Hölsche K, Kooijman ED, e al.: An
in eg a ed p ocess o planning, deli e y, and s ewa dship o
u ban na u e-based solu ions: he Connec ing Na u e
F amewo k. Na -Based Solu 2023, 3:100060, h ps://doi.o g/10.
1016/j.nbsj.2023.100060.
The pape p esen s a co-c ea ed, i e a i e, and e lec i e app oach o
mains eaming NbS in ci ies and o o e coming ypical ba ie s ela ed
o inancing, implemen a ion and assessmen . The amewo k is es ed
in Eu opean ci ies, and au ho s o e guidelines on how o eplica e he
app oach elsewhe e.
65. King P, Ma in-O ega J, A ms ong J, Fe é M, Ba k RH:
Mains eaming na u e-based solu ions: wha ole do
Communi ies o P ac ice play in deli e ing a pa adigm shi ?
En i on Sci Policy 2023, 144:53-63.
66.
•Melanidis MS, Hage man S: Compe ing na a i es o na u e-
based solu ions: le e aging he powe o na u e o dange ous
dis ac ion? En i on Sci Policy 2022, 132:273-281.
This is a leading publica ion ha ques ions he seemingly unchallenged
and unc i ical posi i i y a ound he eme gence o NbS ac oss nume ous
a eas o policy. Using empi ical da a, he au ho s p o ide nuance o he
discussion o wha NbS a e o and when hey can be use ul, pa icula ly
ques ioning he con ex - ee applica ion o NbS as an o - he-shel so-
lu ion o clima e change and o he in e connec ed c ises acing
humani y.
Limi s o clima e change adap a ion imagina ies Olazabal e al. 9
www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476