What is limiting how we imagine climate change adaptation?

A ailable online a www.sciencedi ec .com Re iew Wha is limi ing how we imagine clima e change adap a ion? Ma a Olazabal 1,2 , Ana T Amo im-Maia 1 , Cecilia Alda-Vidal 1 and Sean Goodwin 1 Imagina ies o adap a ion a e cu en ly domina ed by echnoc a ic, homogenous, op-down app oaches ha hinde sus ainable, jus , and e ec i e adap a ion wo ldwide. We ha e iden i ied h ee p ac ices ha con ibu e o his p oblem: (1) an assump ion o uni e sali y in adap a ion; (2) a neglec o plu alis ic knowledge sys ems and alues; and (3) an o e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses. These h ee p ac ices ha e been ound o lead o ep oduc ions o ulne abili ies, unsus ainable ou comes, o epheme al changes. New ways o concep ualising and doing adap a ion a e necessa y o expand imagina ies and isions a ound wha adap a ion can and canno be. Th ough wo examples (e e yday adap a ions and na u e-based solu ions), ou e iew indica es ha expanding o adop ing al e na i e imagina ies o adap a ion can help localise adap a ion p ac ice, pa icula ly by acknowledging he need o mul iple o ms o knowledge and he i e a i e na u e o adap a ion go e nance p ocesses. Add esses 1 Basque Cen e o Clima e Change, BC3, Bilbao, Spain 2 Ike basque Science Founda ion, Bilbao, Spain Co esponding au ho : Olazabal, Ma a ([email p o ec ed]) Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 This e iew comes om a hemed issue on Social Limi s To Adap a ion Edi ed by Daniel Puig Fo comple e o e iew o he sec ion, please e e o he a icle collec ion, “Social Limi s To Adap a ion” A ailable online 9 Sep embe 2024 Recei ed: 25 Ap il 2024; Re ised: 16 Augus 2024; Accep ed: 19 Augus 2024 h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.cosus .2024.101476 1877–3435/© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC license (h p:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). In oduc ion Indi idual and collec i e isions and social expec a ions o a clima e-adap ed u u e (also called imagina ies) in luence ins i u ional a angemen s o how adap a ion is planned and execu ed, wi h eal-li e implica ions o policy p ocesses and in es men p ac ices [1]. How u- u e isions and imagina ies a e p oduced and who ge s o be pa o his p ocess is c i ical o de ining success ul adap a ion and lea ning om on- he-g ound p ac ice [2–4]. Wi hou ca e ul conside a ion o whose and which iews a e included wi hin adap a ion planning and e a- lua ion p ocesses, he e is a isk o p i ileging ce ain ways o seeing he wo ld ha can u he c ea e and ein o ce s uc u al inequali y, ulne abili y, and ma - ginalisa ion wi hin adap a ion p ocesses. Plu alis ic and inclusi e imagina ies eme ge om collec i e p ocesses o e lec ion, solida i y, and expe imen a ion ha ac- knowledge mul iple isions o he u u e as well as ex- pe iences om he pas [4]. Howe e , socie al capabili y o u u e hinking aces nume ous challenges, bo h cul u al and cogni i e, pa icula ly in ha human con- sciousness (o sel and o he s) and ins i u ional con ex s a ec he way we imagine he u u e [5]. P e ious li e a u e on he social cons ain s and limi s o adap a ion [6–8] has ela ed hem o ou main de- e minan s: (1) psychological p ocesses and hough p ocesses ela ed o unce ain y, eluc ance o accep aid, and isk a e sion; (2) li ed alues and cul u al no ms in ol ing a achmen o place, iden i y, and he i age; (3) socie al no ms shaped by expec a ions o p epa edness, in as uc u e eliabili y and esou ce a ailabili y; and (4) go e nance a angemen s, including ins i u ional capa- ci ies, alignmen o p io i ies, and decision-making p o- cesses. This e iew, in pa icula , discusses he implica ions o he p esen dominance o echnoc a ic, homogenous, and op-down app oaches wi hin adap a- ion go e nance, policy, and managemen and how hey can limi imagina ies o clima e change adap a ion. These app oaches a e no a bi a y bu oo ed in in- di idual and collec i e expe iences and p ac ices cul i- a ed in an e a o neolibe alism ha emphasises ideas o indi idualism, economic g ow h, globalisa ion, epo ing, and benchma king among o he s [9]. Despi e calls o mo e bo om-up and inclusi e ways o doing adap a ion, adap a ion imagina ies a e pe pe ua ed by he so-called adap a ion expe s, s ongly in luencing indi idual and collec i e alues and expec a ions o an adap ed u u e [10]. We a gue ha hese es ic i e app oaches, hus, dic a e wha adap a ion can and canno be and how o ]]]] ]]]]]] www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 pu sue i , o en limi ing adap a ions o o - he-shel so- lu ions and poli ical ixes [11] a he han as lexible con ex -speci ic managemen in e en ions ha depend on local esou ces and ins i u ions and ha should look a e ol ing local needs, ulne abili ies and socie al ex- pec a ions. Wi hin hese dominan adap a ion go e nance, policy and managemen app oaches, we ind h ee p ac ices ha wo k o cons ain cu en imagina ies o adap a ion. Fi s , he e is a endency o s anda dise p ocesses, ac o s and solu ions, which con lic s wi h he accep ed wisdom ha adap a ion should be local and con ex speci ic [12]. Second, he neglec o plu alis ic o ms o knowledge in he gene a ion o adap a ion p ocesses exace ba es s uc u al ulne abili ies and limi s he adap a ion solu- ion space [13]. Thi d, in a wo ld expe iencing un- p eceden ed c ises and unce ain change, adap a ion canno be unde s ood as a linea p ocess wi h a de ini e endpoin . Ins ead, adap a ion belongs o a messy loop o go e nance and managemen p ocesses in which c ea- i i y, imagina ion, lea ning and expe imen a ion a e c i ical [14]. In he ollowing sec ions, we unpack hese h ee e- duc ionis p ac ices based on eme gen heo e ical and empi ical li e a u e connec ed o con ibu ing o he ield o clima e change adap a ion go e nance and de- cision-making, using a c i ical e iew app oach [15] and backwa d ci a ion acking ools (namely, Ci a- ionchase 1 and Inci e ul 2 ). This e iew app oach is mo e use ul in a con ex whe e he e is a need o b idge disciplines and unde s andings and ex ac conclusions ega ding one common heme: clima e change adap a- ion. We use ecen empi ical and heo e ical wo k as a base o e idence o he concep ual app oach and he selec ion o examples — and depa om his o c i ically e iew he mos ecen li e a u e in he ield o clima e change adap a ion, u ban s udies, en i onmen al go - e nance, poli ical ecology, clima e jus ice and sus ain- abili y s udies. We ela e hese limi ing app oaches o adap a ion imagina ies wi h he ou de e minan s o social cons ain s and limi s o adap a ion. Finally, we use wo di e en modali ies o adap a ion ac ion (e - e yday adap a ions and na u e-based solu ions [NbS]) o demons a e how hese educ ionis app oaches can be o e come. The social limi s and cons ain s o cu en imagina ies Uni e sali y in adap a ion Resea ch o da e shows how he globalisa ion o u ban clima e discou se has no necessa ily led o inno a ion bu a he o he homogenisa ion o u ban na a i es [16]. Howe e , jus as clima e impac s a e no uni e sal, nei he a e adap a ion op ions and pa hways. Despi e ha , he e exis s a p e ailing no ion ha adap a ion measu es and hei managemen app oaches can be s anda dised ac oss di e se con ex s and scales [12]. While we acknowledge he impo ance o lea ning om and ep oducing wha wo ked in he pas and o o he s, s anda dising adap a ion o e looks he inhe en a ia- bili y o en i onmen al, social, and poli ical condi ions ha shape local ulne abili ies and capaci ies o adap- a ion [17]. Fo yea s, esea ch has called o adap a ion s a egies o be oo ed in localised unde s andings o clima e ul- ne abili ies and hei unde lying causes, conside ing he unique socio-ecological dynamics o local ac o s and sys ems [18,19]. To enable a ai p ocess, opical s udies highligh he impe a i e o adap a ion o be locally led in a way ha enhances communi y agency and empow- e men while aking ca e no o exace ba e he bu den and esponsibili ies placed on hose disp opo iona ely a ec ed by clima e change [20,21]. Localising adap a- ion e o s in ol es ailo ed mechanisms o suppo ing local ac o s [22], including no only be e in o ma ion, inance, and echnical suppo bu also app oaches o u u e isioning and al e na i e imagina ies so hey can mo e meaning ully de ine and ac ualise hei desi ed u u e [2,23,24]. In his e iew, we con end ha p e- ailing adap a ion imagina ies o en ail o encompass a ep esen a i e ange o expe iences and p ac ices, leading o po en ial unbalanced powe dynamics and unjus ou comes. While ecognising he alue o local and Indigenous p ac ices, i is c ucial o acknowledge ha hese can also ca y hei own powe imbalances and may no always lead o jus adap a ion. Ensu ing he ep esen a ion o di e se imagina ies is challenging, as engaging wi h di e se o ms o knowledge can b ing con lic s be ween g oups and ade-o s be ween agendas [25]. Thus, i is impo an o ecognise he ension in nego ia ing con lic s among di e ing pe - spec i es and alues. In his sense, we acknowledge ha al hough s anda dised app oaches o adap a ion may o e look con ex -speci ic ulne abili ies, hey hold he po en ial o enhance equali y by le elling pe spec i es ega dless o p i ilege and powe . Nonplu alis ic knowledge sys ems and alues o adap a ion Fo decades, c i ical social science esea ch has ad- oca ed o ecognising clima e adap a ion as a unda- men al human igh , g ounded in he alue sys ems o local popula ions and hei unde s anding o good and bad adap a ion [26]. This ecogni ion en ails acknowl- edging di e se si ua ed knowledge sys ems and alues, he eby challenging colonial and acialised app oaches ha pe pe ua e epis emic injus ice in adap a ion 1 h ps://es ech.shinyapps.io/ci a ionchase / (Las accessed 14/03/24) 2 h ps://inci e ul.xyz/ (Las accessed 14/03/24) 2Social Limi s To Adap a ion www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 esea ch and p ac ice [27,28]. Epis emic injus ice p io - i ises he echnoc a ic expe ise and he ma ginalisa ion o exclusion o ce ain o ms o knowledge, such as In- digenous, adi ional, and expe ien ial knowledge sys- ems [29,30]. The exclusion o plu alis ic knowledge sys ems no only o e looks aluable insigh s de i ed om local pe spec i es bu also unde mines he legi i- macy and e ec i eness o igh ul adap a ion in e en- ions. To add ess his, we d aw on longs anding calls o c i ical social science app oaches o adap a ion, aiming o di e si y oices in esea ch and inco po a e his o ically neglec ed pe spec i es, including adi ional knowledge. Local and Indigenous communi ies possess in aluable knowledge abou ecosys em dynamics, adi ional land managemen p ac ices, and adap i e s a egies honed o e gene a ions o educe ulne abili y o clima e change [31,32]. An al eady well-es ablished schola ship highligh s nume ous ways in which Indigenous and local knowledge play a c ucial ole in enhancing clima e change adap a ion e o s. Fo example, hey p o ide obus con ex ual knowledge whe e local da a a e sca ce [32,33] and en ich local unde s andings o ulne abili y, esilience, and well-being, which a e absen om mains eam adap a ion pa adigms [34]. Mo eo e , an enhanced sense o owne ship and ac i e in ol emen o local and Indigenous communi ies in adap a ion p ojec s helps o add ess he cu en hegemonic lack o ac- knowledgemen o Indigenous ju isdic ion, so e eign y, and sel -de e mina ion [35–37]. O e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses A poli ical, social, and echnical space ha allows o expe imen a ion and lea ning is c ucial o achie ing e - ec i e adap a ion in he long un. Adap a ion manage- men is a complex p ocess o knowledge managemen ha is o en ansla ed in o o e simpli ied policies and plans as well as linea and igid decision-making en- i onmen s ha ail o p o ide i e a i e spaces o lea ning. As a esul , he e is a po en ial o igno e un- ce ain ies and local knowledge [17] and o e look he in ica e connec ions o clima e change wi h o he u ban social, economic, poli ical and en i onmen al ulne - abili ies and c ises [27,38]. Fo example, e idence om go e nmen epo s ac oss sec o s and scales poin s o a clea lack o e alua ion and lea ning mechanisms in adap a ion s a egies and plans ha could in o m whe- he hose s a egies a e ac ually pe o ming e ec- i ely [39,40]. Expe imen al adap a ion can also se e as a c adle o adical in e en ions ha a e inc easingly necessa y o add ess eme gen and u gen socie al and ecological isks [41]. Howe e , he e is deba e abou how o mo e om expe imen a ion o up-scaled adap a ion [14]. While some au ho s a gue ha expe imen al adap a ion is ine i ably and c ucially pa o adap a ion p ocesses [39], o he s poin ou po en ially ine ec i e adap a ions when expe imen al adap a ion is dissocia ed om op- down p og ammes [42] o ep oduc ions o inequali y and exclusion amed as de elopmen oppo uni ies [9,43]. Ei he way, expe imen s and inno a ion a e s ill essen ial no only o alida e assump ions bu also o ‘ ecalib a e’ go e nmen al app oaches o adequa ely ace he e ol ing and unce ain sociopoli ical, economic and en i onmen al condi ions [14] p o ided hey a e co- he en wi h hei local poli ical economic con ex s [43]. Likewise, expe imen a ion is c ucial o iden i y and e- cognise new ac o s and knowledge sys ems ha can in- use meaning ul in o ma ion, ision, and c ea i i y in o an i e a i e decision-making p ocess [44]. Aligning limi s o adap a ion imagina ies and he de e minan s o social cons ain s o adap a ion While ou e iew discusses limi s o adap a ion imagin- a ies cen ed on p ac ices wi hin adap a ion go e nance, policy and managemen , i is also possible o ela e ou h ee iden i ied p ac ices (see Uni e sali y in adap a ion o O e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses abo e) o each o he ou de e minan s o social cons ain s and limi s o adap a ion iden i ied in he li e a u e (discussed in In oduc ion): (1) psychological p ocesses and hough p ocesses; (2) li ed alues and cul u al no ms; (3) soci- e al no ms; and (4) go e nance a angemen s. Based on he e iew abo e, Table 1 below o e s some examples o illus a e how limi s o adap a ion imagina ies can expand ac oss di e en social sphe es in concep and p ac ice h ough a se o belie s and pe cep ions oo ed in indi idual and collec i e expe iences and p ac ices ha ul ima ely a ec alues and expec a ions. In wha ollows, we desc ibe wo modali ies o adap a- ion (e e yday adap a ions and NbS) and how hese can o e come he h ee es ic i e p ac ices no ed o limi adap a ion imagina ies. Each subsec ion is s uc u ed o explain (1) wha hese modali ies a e, (2) he complex- i ies and ensions when o e coming hese p ac ices and (3) how hey con ibu e o expanding imagina ies. Al e na i e imagina ies o clima e change adap a ion E e yday adap a ions E e yday adap a ions a e “small, inc emen al changes made in ou daily li es o accommoda e he shi ing ecologies in which we li e […] hese agg ega ed ac ions cons i u e la ge scale socie al esponses o clima e change” ([45], p. 2). These spon aneous mic oscale ac- ions happen au onomously om o mal ins i u ions, s a e ac o s and planned p ocesses and ha e been documen ed ac oss socio-economic condi ions, u ban and u al con ex s and in esponse o a ious ypes o clima e haza ds in in e sec ion wi h o he social dy- namics (e.g. [46–48]). We a gue ha a en ion o e - e yday adap a ions can help o e-imagine adap a ion Limi s o clima e change adap a ion imagina ies Olazabal e al. 3 www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 p axis and o expand cu en adap a ion imagina ies in wo di e en ways. Fi s , ecen wo k wi h an e e yday app oach p o ides in e es ing examples o how he assump ion o uni- e sali y in adap a ion solu ions, he neglec o plu alis ic knowledge, and he o e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses a e es ic ing eme gen si ua ed ways o knowing and doing adap a ion. Abou he assump ion o uni e sali y in adap a ion solu ions, schola ship on e - e yday adap a ions has demons a ed how op-down o - he-shel ini ia i es ha e o en ended up unde mining locally d i en adap a ions and inc easing he ulne - abili y o local popula ions. In Malawi, la ge-scale homogenous wa e in as uc u es ha e been shown o es ic con ex -speci ic solu ions de eloped h ough a long- e m household expe ience o dealing wi h u ban wa e unce ain y [49]. In ela ion o he neglec o plu alis ic knowledge, s udies on e e yday adap a ions ha e e ealed he epis emic cons ain s o planned adap a ion p ocesses and ad oca ed o he in eg a ion o mul iple, locally g ounded, expe ien ial, and embodied knowledge in he design o adap a ion plans [50]. In he Sunda bans (Bay o Bengal), an explo a ion o how e- siden s expe ience and espond o salini y in usion on e e yday basis has been key o e ealing he limi a ions o common planned adap a ion solu ions, such as he cons uc ion o conc e e embankmen s and he p omo- ion o b ackish aquacul u e. These solu ions ha a e deeply in o med by Wes e n expe knowledge do li le o elie e he embodied su e ing o local esiden s [50]. Finally, conce ning he o e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses, s udies o e e yday adap a ions demons a e he impo ance o expe ien ial knowledge, mu ual lea ning, expe imen a ion and inno a ion o e ec i e adap a ion. Fo example, in E hiopia, Kenya and Uganda, he oppo uni ies o i e a ed lea ning om ellow a me s and expe imen a ion wi h ecommended seeds o echnologies we e ound o be key elemen s o he success o a me s’ e e yday adap a ions, ye absen in planned in e en ions. This inding highligh ed he need o planned in e en ions o concep ualise adap- a ion as a dynamic lea ning p ocess and o accommoda e hese p e e ed lea ning ac ics o a me s [48]. These examples show how a deepe and mo e nuanced un- de s anding o how di e en indi iduals employ c ea- i ely hei knowledge and skills o na iga e socio- ecological changes, amids mul iple injus ices and lim- i a ions, can p o ide insigh s in o how mo e localised, imagina i e, and inclusi e ways o doing adap a ion can come abou . Second, as some schola s ha e s a ed o show, a en ion o peoples’ li ed expe iences can b oaden cu en adap a ion imagina ies by e ealing he al e na i e i- sions o he u u e ha a e p oduced h ough p esen peoples’ e e yday e o s o espond o clima e change [51,52]. Fo example, Cele maje e al. [51] ound ha h ough hei e e yday adap a ions, communi ies in India and Aus alia a e ma e ialising nonhegemonic cli- ma e imagina ies based on ans o med ela ions “wi hin he communi y, wi h he mo e han human and wi h ime” (p. 15). Though he li e a u e on wha has been called ‘g ounded imagina ies’ [51] o ‘ u u e-making p ac ices’ [52] is s ill eme ging, we see his as a ui ul a enue owa ds he expansion o cu en adap a ion imagina ies om he bo om-up. Jus because e e yday adap a ions a e oo ed in local knowledge and expe iences, i does no mean hey a e necessa ily inclusi e o egali a ian. Examples o e - e yday adap a ions ha a e sel -cen ed, exclusiona y, o Table 1 De e minan s o social limi s and cons ain s o adap a ion o clima e change and hei ela ion o he h ee iden i ied es ic i e p ac ices o adap a ion imagina ies. De e minan s o social limi s and cons ain s o adap a ion (below) Uni e sali y in adap a ion Nonplu alis ic knowledge sys ems and alues O e simpli ica ion o adap a ion p ocesses Psychological and hough p ocesses Belie ha wha wo ks in one con ex should wo k in ano he di e en con ex . Belie in he supe io i y o expe adap a ion knowledge. Pe cep ion o adap a ion being a linea p ocess o achie e a sho - e m end poin . Li ed alues and associa ed cul u al no ms Belie ha communi y con ex , iden i y and idiosync asy will no change how an adap a ion solu ion wo ks. Belie ha alues a e uni e sal and common ac oss communi ies and knowledge sec o s. Belie ha nei he clima e change no adap a ion will change human se lemen s, na u e o cul u al he i age. Socie al no ms Expec a ion ha all human sys ems ha e equal in e es s, abili y and esou ces o adop a gi en adap a ion solu ion. Belie ha local and Indigenous knowledge is no su icien o p epa e o clima e isks and ha hey equi e scien i ic expe knowledge, bu no he o he way a ound. Expec a ion ha once an adap a ion is implemen ed, i should wo k. Go e nance a angemen s Belie in o - he-shel ins i u ional s uc u es dis ega ding poli ical, economic, and planning con ex s. Exclusi e use o quan i a i e objec i e da a o assess ulne abili ies o ack he p og ess o adap a ion. Dis ega d o longe ime ames o adap a ion and clima e change impac s. 4Social Limi s To Adap a ion www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 ha inc ease isks o o he communi y membe s abound in he li e a u e [25]. Ye , wi h hei con a- dic ions, po en ially con lic ing agendas, and embedded injus ices, a en ion o and in eg a ion o e e yday adap a ions can lead o a mo e imagina i e adap a ion p axis and plu alis ic adap a ion imagina ies. Na u e-based solu ions NbS encompass s a egies aimed a p o ec ing, sus ain- ably managing, o es o ing na u al o modi ied ecosys- ems o bene i human well-being and biodi e si y, including clima e change adap a ion [53]. The e is a g ea di e si y o app oaches o NbS, hough hei main applica ions cu en ly ocus on he c ea ion o es o a ion o o es s o u ban pa ks in e es ial ecosys ems, o ena u alisa ion o i e s, lakes and we lands in aqua ic ecosys ems bu include also app oaches such as dune s abilisa ion o a i icial ee cons uc ion in coas al eco- sys ems [54,55]. Owing o in e connec ions be ween he d i e s, eedback and impac s o biodi e si y loss, cli- ma e change, and ela ed social jus ice issues, NbS a e a gued o p esen a unique oppo uni y o add ess he h ee di e en es ic i e p ac ices iden i ied he e in an in e connec ed way o c ea e mul iple bene i s [55–57]. Howe e , his oppo uni y also p esen s challenges o he design and implemen a ion o NbS as an adap a ion s a egy because o he si e-speci ic na u e o he socio- ecological sys ems ha unde pin hem and he deep unce ain y abou he esul s o in e ening wi hin hem. Fo example, human geog aphy and poli ical ecology li e a u e highligh s how clima e ulne abili y is a unc ion o sociona u al change, which is unde pinned by con ex -speci ic, local human–na u e ela ionships ha a e o en unde alued in adap a ion design and im- plemen a ion [58]. The g ow h o sil opas o alism as an adap a ion s a egy agains d ough wi hin Masai com- muni ies in Tanzania is an o en ci ed example, as i wo ks wi h, a he han opposes, exis ing ela ionships wi h he land ha addi ionally add esses inc easing cli- ma e ulne abili y ha a ies g ea ly ac oss ime and space [56]. In his way, he in eg a ion o di e se o ms o knowledge in o NbS design and implemen a ion is c i ical o no only ensu ing success bu u he a oiding as much as possible unexpec ed nega i e ou comes — wha many e e o as maladap a ion in a spec um whe e we can s i e o push adap a ion e o s owa ds mo e equi able ou comes [59]. This in ol es blending local knowledge o si e-speci ic con ex ual ac o s wi h sci- en i ic and echnical knowledge h ough pa icipa o y p ocesses ha empowe local knowledge holde s [60]. In eg a ing mul iple knowledge, hough, mus be done wi h ca e a s ages o he adap a ion managemen p o- cess whe e i is mos salien . E idence in Lilongwe (Malawi) shows, o example, he need o in eg a e local knowledge and knowledge holde s a speci ic ( hough no all) s ages o he p ocess o a oid de ia ions om local needs and p io i ies while also a oiding o e - bu dening local popula ions [61]. Cen al o NbS is expe imen a ion, which has been a - gued o p o ide e ile g ound o shi ing adap a ion p axis away om an h opocen ic, ‘o - he-shel ’ in a- s uc u al adap a ion s a egies owa ds ailo ed, local app oaches ha in eg a e bo h human and mo e- han- human needs [56,57]. Indeed, NbS a e cu en ly se ing as li e al ‘li ing labs’ wo ldwide, no malising adap a ion go e nance h ough expe imen a ion [62] and empha- sising lea ning ac oss ins i u ional se ings [63]. An il- lus a i e example o lea ning om adap a ion p ocesses is he Connec ing Na u e amewo k, which eme ged om a p ojec linking mul iple Eu opean ci ies and s akeholde s ac oss he ields o u ban design, biodi- e si y conse a ion, and clima e ac ion in designing, implemen ing, and managing local NbS [64]. This in- i ia i e emba ked on he ‘di icul , ye [wo hwhile]’ ask o in eg a ing oppo uni ies o e lexi e lea ning in o he design and implemen a ion p ocesses o NbS, bo h a he local le el and among pa icipa ing ci ies. C ea ing NbS ‘communi ies o p ac ice’, o example, has been no ed o i s po en ial o ca alyse pa adigma ic shi s in how adap a ion is done locally by s eng hening oppo - uni ies o lea ning ha a e sys ema ically in eg a ed in o u u e p ac ice [65]. While NbS ha e been c i icised as being applied as op- down o - he-shel app oaches [66], he examples p o- ided he e p o ide clea e idence o how NbS ha e also con ibu ed owa ds an expansion o imagina ies o adap a ion by o eg ounding he impo ance o he in- e play o bo h local social and ecological dimensions o clima e change wi hin adap a ion. These examples o NbS highligh he impo ance o con ex -speci ic hu- man–na u e ela ionships as a key le e age poin o al- le ia e clima e ulne abili y, a he han o - he-shel in as uc u al and design-based adap a ion s a egies. I is hen he e an oppo uni y o he eme gence o e - e yday na u e-based adap a ions. Buil in o his ela- ional ocus is he impo ance o inco po a ing local o ms o knowledge and exis ing on- he-g ound adap- a ion p ac ices ha ela e o he socio-ecological sys- ems whe e adap a ion is done. Because o he dynamic and con inuously changing na u e o socio-ecological sys ems, expe imen a ion and lea ning become pa icu- la ly impo an o adap a ion h ough NbS. NbS he eby u he expand he ield o wha kind o sys em dy- namics a e lea ned abou , pa icula ly hose ela ing o socio-ecological in e ac ions and ela ionships. Conclusions Clima e adap a ion imagina ies a e a p oduc o in- di idual and collec i e hough p ocesses abou wha good o bad adap a ion is o can be. Cu en echnoc a ic, Limi s o clima e change adap a ion imagina ies Olazabal e al. 5 www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 op-down, and homogenised app oaches a ec in- di idual and collec i e alues and expec a ions, leading o limi s on ou imagina ies o wha adap a ion can o canno be, ha is, how we pe cei e, expe ience, and do adap a ion o clima e change. We explain hese con- s ain s and limi s h ough h ee educ ionis p ac ices ha cu en ly domina e adap a ion go e nance p o- cesses: assuming he uni e sali y o adap a ion, using nonplu alis ic knowledge sys ems and alues o adap- a ion, and o e simpli ying adap a ion p ocesses. We ela e hese educ ionis p ac ices wi h ou de e mi- nan s o social cons ain s o adap a ion. To illus a e how hese es ic i e p ac ices can be o e come and how al e na i e p ac ices can expand imagina ies o adap a- ion, we use wo modali ies o adap a ion (e e yday adap a ions and NbS) and a selec ion o examples om hei p ac ice on he g ound. Common o hese examples is he impo ance o engaging wi h he speci ici ies o local con ex s, conside ing and in eg a ing mul iple o ms o knowledge along adap a ion p ocesses, and expe imen ing and lea ning in he p ac ice o adap ing. We conclude ha unde s anding and in eg a ing hese elemen s in o highe -le el imagina ies and discussions is c ucial o expanding he adap a ion solu ion space and o p oducing a mo e jus and e ec i e adap a ion e- sea ch and p axis. CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen MO: Concep ualiza ion; In es iga ion; Me hodology; W i ing – o iginal d a ; W i ing – e iew & edi ing; Funding acquisi ion. CAV/SG/ATAM: In es iga ion; W i ing – o iginal d a ; W i ing – e iew & edi ing. Da a A ailabili y No da a we e used o he esea ch desc ibed in he a - icle. Decla a ion o Compe ing In e es Ma a Olazabal epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Eu opean Commision. Ana Te a Amo im-Maia epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Eu opean Commission. Cecilia Alda-Vidal epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Eu opean Commission. Sean Goodwin epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Eu opean Commission. Ma a Olazabal epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by S a e Agency o Resea ch. Ana Te a Amo im-Maia epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by S a e Agency o Resea ch. Cecilia Alda-Vidal epo s was p o ided by S a e Agency o Resea ch. Sean Goodwin epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by S a e Agency o Resea ch. Ma a Olazabal epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Basque Go e nmen . Ana Te a Amo im-Maia epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Basque Go e nmen . Cecilia Alda-Vidal epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Basque Go e nmen . Sean Goodwin epo s inancial suppo was p o ided by Basque Go e nmen . I he e a e o he au ho s, hey decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e ap- pea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape . Acknowledgemen s This wo k is unded by he Eu opean Union (ERC, IMAGINE adap a ion, 101039429). This esea ch is also suppo ed by Ma ía de Maez u Excellence Uni 2023-2027 Re . CEX2021-001201-M, unded by he Spanish Go e nmen MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033; and by he Basque Go e nmen h ough he BERC 2022-2025 p og amme. CAV acknowledges unding om he Spanish Go e nmen MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and Eu opean Union “Nex Gene a ionEU”/PRTR (g an e e ence: JDC2022-049002-I). Re e ences and ecommended eading Pape s o pa icula in e es , published wi hin he pe iod o e iew, ha e been highligh ed as: •• o special in e es •• o ou s anding in e es 1. Wes man L, Cas an B o o V: U ban clima e imagina ies and clima e u banism. In Clima e U banism: Towa ds a C i ical Resea ch Agenda. Edi ed by Cas án B o o V, Robin E, While A. Sp inge In e na ional Publishing; 2020:83-95. 2. Olazabal M, Lo oño-Le u iondo M, Amo im-Maia AT, Lewis W, U u ia J: In eg a ing science and he a s o deglobalise clima e change adap a ion. Na Commun 2024, 15:2971. 3. 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The book engages wi h he global poli ics o clima e adap a ion o show how in Bangladesh in e na ional and local eli es a e c a ing a no ion o adap a ion based on neolibe al de elopmen , g ow h and u baniza ion ha ul ima ely dispossesses he u al poo om hei li elihoods and has maladap a i e e ec s o hese communi ies. 10. •• Falzon D: Expe ise and exclusi i y in adap a ion decision- making. Cu Opin En i on Sus ain 2021, 51:95-100. 6Social Limi s To Adap a ion www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 Despi e inc easing calls o inclusion o local communi ies in decision- making, policy and implemen a ion p ocesses a e domina ed by so- called adap a ion expe s o en om he global No h. The pape p o- poses he concep o ‘adap a ion ield’ as a ool o unde s and his unequal dis ibu ion o powe among adap a ion ac o s globally. 11. 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In his pape he au ho p esen s expe imen a ion as a pa adigm shi wi h i s own no ms and p ac ices. The au ho a gues agains he exis ing no ma i i y in mo ing beyond expe imen a ion and pu s he poli ics and possibili ies o expe imen a ion a he cen e o u ban clima e go - e nance. 15. Snyde H: Li e a u e e iew as a esea ch me hodology: an o e iew and guidelines. J Bus Res 2019, 104:333-339. 16. •Wes man L, Cas án B o o V, Huang P: The homogeniza ion o u ban clima e ac ion discou ses. Glob En i on Poli 2023, 23:102-124. The au ho s e alua e he e olu ion o u ban na a i es in global clima e go e nance h ough he analysis o 463 in e na ional policy documen s issued be ween 1946 and 2020. Thei analysis shows ha he p o- li e a ion o ac o s is accompanied by a g owing homogeniza ion o u ban na a i es. 17. Ma ín-Puig A, A iza E, Casellas A: Una ended gap in local adap a ion plans: he quali y o ulne abili y knowledge in clima e isk managemen . Clim Risk Manag 2022, 38:100465. 18. •Ky h eo is AP, Hanna o d M, Howa h C, Boswo h G: T ansla ing clima e isk assessmen s in o mo e e ec i e adap a ion decision-making: he impo ance o social and poli ical aspec s o place-based clima e isk. En i on Sci Policy 2024, 154:103705. This a icle c i iques he UK Clima e Change Risk Assessmen ’s aming o clima e isk as p edominan ly elian on educ i e me hods, ad- oca ing o a b oade conside a ion o social, poli ical, and place-based ac o s o mo e e ec i e isk assessmen s and adap a ion policies. 19. Reyes-Ga cía V, Ga cía-del-Amo D, Ál a ez-Fe nández S, Benyei P, Cal e -Mi L, Junquei a AB, Labey ie V, Li X, Miña o S, Po che V, e al.: Indigenous peoples and local communi ies epo ongoing and widesp ead clima e change impac s on local social-ecological sys ems. Commun Ea h En i on 2024, 5:1-10. 20. •• Rahman MF, Falzon D, Robinson S, Kuhl L, Wes oby R, Omuku i J, Schippe ELF, McNama a KE, Resu ección BP, M i umukiza D, e al.: Locally led adap a ion: p omise, pi alls, and possibili ies. Ambio 2023, 52:1543-1557, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/S13280-023- 01884-7. This pape ad oca es o locally led adap a ion (LLA) as a i al shi in clima e planning, emphasising communi y empowe men and jus ice conside a ions o en o e looked. I u ges empi ical es ing o alida e i s e ec i eness. 21. •Vincen K: De elopmen geog aphy II: communi y-based adap a ion and locally-led adap a ion. P og Hum Geog 2023, 47:604-612. The au ho e iews he concep o communi y-led adap a ion and locally led adap a ion o a gue how he la e has eme ged o e- ocus on he local agency and o gua an ee a local ocus beyond he communi y le el. 22. Fün geld H, Fila D, Dahlmann H: Upscaling clima e change adap a ion in small- and medium-sized municipali ies: cu en ba ie s and u u e po en ials. Cu Opin En i on Sus ain 2023, 61:101263. 23. Mahony M: Geog aphies o science and echnology III: ca e ul en anglemen s, esponsible u u es. P og Hum Geog 2023, 47:613-623. 24. Nalau J, Cobb G: The s eng hs and weaknesses o u u e isioning app oaches o clima e change adap a ion: a e iew. Glob En i on Change 2022, 74:102527. 25. •Szla sz ein CF, Ba a a, de A aújo AN: Au onomous lood adap a ion measu es in Amazonian ci ies (Belem, B azil). Na Haza ds 2021, 108:1069-1087. The pape p o ides examples o measu es and beha iou s implemen ed o a oid he e ec s o ecu en looding by u ban esiden s in he B azilian ci y o Belem wi hou ex e nal planning and highligh s some o he maladap i e e ec s hese ha e. 26. Bo dne A, Ba ne J, Wa e s E: The human igh o clima e adap a ion. npj Clim Ac ion 2023, 2:1-4. 27. •• Amo im-Maia AT, Anguelo ski I, Chu E, Connolly J: In e sec ional clima e jus ice: a concep ual pa hway o b idging adap a ion planning, ans o ma i e ac ion, and social equi y. U ban Clim 2022, 41:101053. This pape a gues ha engaging wi h in e sec ionali y helps add essing o e lapping social injus ices in adap a ion. Au ho s p opose i e com- ponen s o ope a ionalise in e sec ionali y in adap a ion. This amewo k is empi ically es ed in Ba celona, Spain. 28. Po cuna-Fe e A, Cal e -Mi L, Guille mine T, Al a ez-Fe nandez S, Labey ie V, Po cuna-Fe e E, Reyes-Ga cía V: “So many hings ha e changed”: si ua ed unde s andings o clima e change impac s among he Bassa i, sou h-eas e n Senegal. En i on Sci Policy 2023, 148:103552. 29. Bysko MF, Hyams K: Epis emic injus ice in clima e adap a ion. E hic Theo y Mo al P ac 2022, 25:613-634. 30. •• Mabon L, Ba k ed L, De, B uin K, Shih W-Y: Whose knowledge coun s in na u e-based solu ions? Unde s anding epis emic jus ice o na u e-based solu ions h ough a mul i-ci y compa ison ac oss Eu ope and Asia. En i on Sci Policy 2022, 136:652-664. The au ho s ou line key con ibu ions o in e ci y and in e - egional case s udies (NbS o adap a ion) o explo e hei con ibu ion o epis emic jus ice along h ee key componen s o jus ice: dis ibu ion, p ocedu e, and ecogni ion. 31. Ra ai A, Pa sons M, Nu sey-B ay M, C ease R: Si ua ing clima e change adap a ion wi hin plu al wo lds: he ole o Indigenous and local knowledge in Pen ecos Island, Vanua u. En i on Plan E Na Space 2022, 5:2240-2282. 32. •• Leal Filho W, Ba bi J, Gwenzi J, Ayal D, Simpson NP, Adeleke L, Tilahun B, Chi isa I, Gbedemah SF, Nzengya DM, e al.: The ole o indigenous knowledge in clima e change adap a ion in A ica. En i on Sci Policy 2022, 136:250-260. This pape unde sco es he signi icance o Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK) in clima e change adap a ion ac oss A ica, ad oca ing o i s wide u iliza ion o enhance adap a ion ou comes and p ese e biocul u al he i age. 33. Chanza N, Musakwa W: Indigenous local obse a ions and expe iences can gi e use ul indica o s o clima e change in da a-de icien egions. J En i on S ud Sci 2022, 12:534-546. 34. Menzies AK, Bowles E, Gallan M, Pa e son H, Kozmik C, Chiblow S, McG ego D, Fo d A, Popp JN: “I see my cul u e s a ing o disappea ”: Anishinaabe pe spec i es on he socioecological impac s o clima e change and u u e esea ch needs. FACETS 2022, 7:509-527. 35. Piso AC, Basu o X, Douglass KG, Mach KJ, Ready E, Tylianakis JM, Hazel A, Kline MA, K ame KL, Lansing JS, e al.: E ec i e clima e change adap a ion means suppo ing communi y au onomy. Na Clim Chang 2022, 12:213-215. 36. •Reed G, B une ND, McG ego D, Scu C, Sadik T, La igne J, Longboa S: Towa d Indigenous isions o na u e-based solu ions: an explo a ion in o Canadian ede al clima e policy. Clim Policy 2022, 22:514-533. This pape e alua es Canada’s app oach o NbS, examining i s impac on Indigenous sel -de e mina ion. I p oposes a no el policy lens, Limi s o clima e change adap a ion imagina ies Olazabal e al. 7 www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 highligh ing gaps in ecognising Indigenous ju isdic ion and land e- la ionships. 37. •• Thompson K-L, Ban NC: Tu ning o he e i o y”: a Gi ga’a Na ion case s udy o Indigenous clima e imagina ies and ac ions. Geo o um 2022, 137:230-236. This s udy explo es he clima e pe spec i es o he Gi ga’a Indigenous Na ion in B i ish Columbia, e ealing how hei app oach oo ed in ances al connec ions o he land challenges dominan se le -colonial clima e na a i es. I u ges ecogni ion o di e se knowledge and alue sys ems in clima e adap a ion discou se and s a egies. 38. Wes man L, Pa e son J, Mac o ie R, O CJ, Ashc a CM, Cas án B o o V, Dolan D, Gup a M, an de Heijden J, Hickmann T, e al.: Compound u ban c ises. Ambio 2022, 51:1402-1415. 39. 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Build Ci ies 2022, 3:570-588. 45. •• Cas o B, Sen R: E e yday adap a ion: heo izing clima e change adap a ion in daily li e. Glob En i on Change 2022, 75:102555. The au ho s concep ualise e e yday adap a ions and desc ibe wo heo e ical componen s ha help o unde s and he logic o e e yday adap a ions. These a e adap a ion labou and alue adap a ion. This is one o he i s publica ions o app oach e e yday adap a ions om a heo e ical poin o iew. 46. •Cobbinah PB, Asibey MO, Boakye AA, Addaney M: The my h o u ban poo clima e adap a ion idiosync asy. En i on Sci Policy 2022, 128:336-346. This pape add esses he lack o empi ical documen a ion o e e yday adap a ions o poo esiden s in A ican ci ies and a gues ha planned adap a ion s a egies should be designed o complemen hese au on- omous measu es. 47. Teebken J, Mi chell N, Jacob K, Heimann T: Classi ying Social Adap a ion P ac ices o Hea S ess — Lea ning om Au onomous Adap a ions in Two Small Towns in Ge many; 2023, 15. 48. •• Cuni-Sanchez A, Twinomuhangi I, Aneseyee A, Mwangi B, Olaka L, Bi a iho R, So omessa T, Cas o B, Za a-Cal o N: E e yday adap a ion p ac ices by co ee a me s in h ee moun ain egions in A ica. E&S 2022, 27:a 32. This pape explo es he e e yday adap a ions o co ee a me s in Eas A ica. I e a i e mu ual lea ning and expe imen a ion, which a e o en no inco po a ed in o planned adap a ion in e en ions, a e e ealed as c ucial elemen s shaping hese e e yday ac ions. 49. •Alda-Vidal C, B owne AL, Lawhon M, Iossi o a D: Sani a ion con igu a ions in Lilongwe: e e yday expe iences on and o he g id. U ban S ud 2024, 61:1773-1788, h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/ 00420980231217661. This pape del es in o he con lic s be ween e e yday and expe u ban sani a ion imagina ies and calls o explo ing he possibili ies and lim- i a ions o esiden s’ e e yday adap a ions o add ess di e en in a- s uc u e isks. 50. •• Sen R: Sal in he wound: embodied e e yday adap a ions o salini y in usion in he Sunda bans. E&S 2023, 28:a 10. This pape e eals he incapaci y o cu en planned in e en ions amed unde neolibe al de elopmen pa adigms o add ess he pe - sonal and in ima e e ec s clima e change has on he people o he Sunda bans. The pape calls a en ion o he e e yday adap a ions o esiden s o an al e na i e aming o adap a ion ac ion. 51. •• Cele maje D, Ca doso M, Gowe s J, Induku i D, Khanna P, Nai R, O lene J, Sambha i V, Schlosbe g D, Shah M, e al.: Clima e imagina ies as p axis. En i on Plan E Na Space 2024, 7:1015-1033, h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/25148486241230186. Using he no ion o ‘g ounded imagina ies’, au ho s show how h ough hei e e yday p ac ices communi ies in India and Aus alia a e chal- lenging unjus and ex ac i e hegemonic adap a ion imagina ies and opening-up new isions o clima e-adap ed u u es. 52. •• Moul on H, Ca ey M: Fu u emaking in a disas e zone: e e yday clima e change adap a ion amongs Quechua women in he Pe u ian Co dille a Blanca. En i on Sci Policy 2023, 148:103551. This pape p oposes he e m ‘ u u emaking p ac ices’ o desc ibe he ways in which o Quechua women o Pe u ian highland com- muni ies a e na iga ing he e ec s o clima e change as pa o hei daily li es. A u u emaking amewo k is help ul o challenge domi- nan echnoc a ic adap a ion pa adigms applied in glacia ed egions and cen e he li ed expe iences, needs and desi es o ma ginalized communi ies. 53. IUCN: Guidance o Using he IUCN Global S anda d o Na u e- Based Solu ions. 1s edi ion, IUCN, In e na ional Union o Conse a ion o Na u e; 2020. 54. Chausson A, Tu ne B, Seddon D, Chabaneix N, Gi a din CAJ, Kapos V, Key I, Roe D, Smi h A, Wo oniecki S, e al.: Mapping he e ec i eness o na u e‐based solu ions o clima e change adap a ion. Glob Change Biol 2020, 26:6134-6155. 55. •Goodwin S, Olazabal M, Cas o AJ, Pascual U: Global mapping o u ban na u e-based solu ions o clima e change adap a ion. Na Sus ain 2023, 6:458-469, h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41893-022- 01036-x. This pape p esen s a comp ehensi e sys ema ic e iew o implemen ed u ban NbS p ojec s wo ldwide looking o hei con ibu ions beyond adap a ion o clima e change and wi h a clima e, biodi e si y and so- cie y nexus lens. 56. •Seddon N: Ha nessing he po en ial o na u e-based solu ions o mi iga ing and adap ing o clima e change. Science 2022, 376:1410-1416. The au ho p esen s a deba e on how NbS o clima e p oblems a e emb aced o ejec ed by di e en o ganisa ions and communi ies and e iews hei bene i s and limi s and how hey compa e wi h echnolo- gical app oaches. 57. Wo oniecki S, Spiegelenbe g FA, Chausson A, Tu ne B, Key I, I anullah HM, Seddon N: Con ibu ions o na u e-based solu ions o educing people’s ulne abili ies o clima e change ac oss he u al Global Sou h. Clim De 2022, 15:590-607, h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/17565529.2022.2129954 58. •Nigh ingale AJ, Gonda N, E iksen SH: A ec i e adap a ion = e ec i e ans o ma ion? Shi ing he poli ics o clima e change adap a ion and ans o ma ion om he s a us quo. WIREs Clim Change 2022, 13:e740. “This a icle highligh s he impo ance o in e subjec i i y in unde - s anding e ec i e adap a ion. The au ho s highligh , as adap a ion has ela ional implica ions (how we ela e o one ano he as humans, and also wi h na u e), adap a ion canno ans o m he socio-ecological sys ems hey in e ene in wi hou ega d o in e subjec i i ies. Inco po a ing in e subjec i i ies means paying close a en ion o he p ocess o adap a ion and i s implica ions o human – na u e ela ion- ships, unce ain y, and inco po a ing plu al o ms o knowledge ha de ine ela ionships and unce ain y wi hin adap a ion p ac ice.” 59. Reckien D, Magnan AK, Singh C, Lukas-Si hole M, O lo e B, Schippe ELF, Coughlan de Pe ez E: Na iga ing he con inuum be ween adap a ion and maladap a ion. Na Clim Chang 2023, 13:907-918, h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s41558-023-01774-6 60. •• an de Jag APN, Buijs A, Dobbs C, an Lie op M, Paulei S, Rand up TB, Wild T: An ac ion amewo k o he pa icipa o y assessmen o na u e-based solu ions in ci ies. AMBIO A J Hum En i on 2022, 52:54-67, h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s13280-022- 01772-6. The au ho s highligh oppo uni ies o NbS o e ocus adap a ion e o s on local ulne abili y needs, social jus ice conside a ions, and imp o ing 8Social Limi s To Adap a ion www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476 go e nance p ocesses a he han ( e)in en ing and ine- uning in- di idual indica o s o success. 61. •• Rochell K, Bulkeley H, Runhaa H: Na u e o esilience econ igu ed: global- o-local ansla ion o ames in A ica. B& C 2024, 5. This pape p o ides nuance o he usual na a i e on he p oblems c ea ed by he imposi ion o adap a ion and esilience goals om dono agencies on local bene icia ies in he op-down manne by iden i ying which pa s o he p ojec cycle a e mos impac ed by a lack o pa icipa ion. 62. Toze L, Bulkeley H, an de Jag A, Toxopeus H, Xie L, Runhaa H: Ca alyzing sus ainabili y pa hways: na iga ing u ban na u e based solu ions in Eu ope. Glob En i on Change 2022, 74:102521. 63. Hölsche K, F an zeskaki N, Collie M, Connop S, Kooijman ED, Lodde M, McQuaid S, Vande ge P, Xidous D, Bešlagić L, e al.: S a egies o mains eaming na u e-based solu ions in u ban go e nance capaci ies in en Eu opean ci ies. npj U ban Sus ain 2023, 3:1-11, h ps://doi.o g/10.1038/s42949-023-00134-9 64. •Collie M, F an zeskaki N, Connop S, Dick G, Dumi u A, Dziubała A, Fle che I, Geo giou P, Hölsche K, Kooijman ED, e al.: An in eg a ed p ocess o planning, deli e y, and s ewa dship o u ban na u e-based solu ions: he Connec ing Na u e F amewo k. Na -Based Solu 2023, 3:100060, h ps://doi.o g/10. 1016/j.nbsj.2023.100060. The pape p esen s a co-c ea ed, i e a i e, and e lec i e app oach o mains eaming NbS in ci ies and o o e coming ypical ba ie s ela ed o inancing, implemen a ion and assessmen . The amewo k is es ed in Eu opean ci ies, and au ho s o e guidelines on how o eplica e he app oach elsewhe e. 65. King P, Ma in-O ega J, A ms ong J, Fe é M, Ba k RH: Mains eaming na u e-based solu ions: wha ole do Communi ies o P ac ice play in deli e ing a pa adigm shi ? En i on Sci Policy 2023, 144:53-63. 66. •Melanidis MS, Hage man S: Compe ing na a i es o na u e- based solu ions: le e aging he powe o na u e o dange ous dis ac ion? En i on Sci Policy 2022, 132:273-281. This is a leading publica ion ha ques ions he seemingly unchallenged and unc i ical posi i i y a ound he eme gence o NbS ac oss nume ous a eas o policy. Using empi ical da a, he au ho s p o ide nuance o he discussion o wha NbS a e o and when hey can be use ul, pa icula ly ques ioning he con ex - ee applica ion o NbS as an o - he-shel so- lu ion o clima e change and o he in e connec ed c ises acing humani y. Limi s o clima e change adap a ion imagina ies Olazabal e al. 9 www.sciencedi ec .com Cu en Opinion in En i onmen al Sus ainabili y 2024, 71:101476