Current limiting strategies for grid forming inverters under low voltage ride through

Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
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Cu en limi ing s a egies o g id o ming in e e s unde low ol age ide
h ough
Ande O donoa,∗, Alain Sanchez-Ruizb, Ma kel Zubiagac, F ancisco Ja ie Asensioa,
Jose An onio Co aja enac
aDepa men o Elec ical Enginee ing, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), A d. O aola, 29, Eiba , 20600, Spain
bDepa men o Elec onic Technology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), Nie es Cano 12, Vi o ia-Gas eiz, 01006, Spain
cDepa men o Elec onic Technology, Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y (UPV/EHU), A d. O aola, 29, Eiba , 20600, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Cu en limi ing s a egies
G id o ming
Low ol age ide h ough
Sequence p io i iza ion
T ansien enhancing s a egies
T ansien synch oniza ion s abili y
ABSTRACT
G id o ming in e e s a e expec ed o play a key ole in u u e powe g ids, eplacing synch onous gene a o -
based plan s. Howe e , he limi ed cu en capabili y o powe elec onics makes a di e ence when acing
aul induced ol age sags. This wo k p o ides a comp ehensi e e iew o s a egies o handle low ol age ide
h ough e en s in g id o ming in e e s. A key con ibu ion o his wo k is o di e en ia e be ween cu en
limi ing and ansien s abili y enhancing s a egies. Cu en limi ing s a egies a e classi ied in o ol age and
cu en -based app oaches acco ding o he in e e beha iou du ing he aul . Thei pe o mance is e alua ed
a ending o h ee c i e ia: (1) ansien cu en limi a ion capabili y, ela ed o he sel -p ese a ion o he
de ice; and (2) aul cu en managemen and (3) ansien synch oniza ion s abili y, key aspec s o mee
g id code equi emen s. The modi ica ions ha a e equi ed o suppo he g id unde asymme ical aul s
a e also desc ibed, ocusing on he managemen and p io i iza ion o posi i e and nega i e-sequence aul
cu en s. T ansien s abili y enhancing s a egies a e classi ied acco ding o hei implemen a ion in o (1)
powe synch oniza ion loop-based and (2) cu en sa u a ion-based app oaches. Thei main cha ac e is ics
a e highligh ed and compa ed, whe eas hei compa ibili y wi h p e ious cu en limi ing s a egies is also
discussed. Finally, iden i ied open issues and challenges a e co e ed.
Con en s
1. In oduc ion ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
2. LVRT equi emen s ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1. Sel -p ese a ion..................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2. G id synch oniza ion .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4
2.3. Faul cu en con ibu ion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4. Summa y............................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
3. Classi ica ion o cu en limi ing s a egies........................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.1. Cu en -based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
3.1.1. Mode swi ching........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
3.1.2. Cu en sa u a ion .................................................................................................................................................................... 5
3.2. Vol age-based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
3.2.1. Th eshold i ual impedance ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
3.2.2. Vol age sa u a ion .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
3.3. Summa y............................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
4. Pe o mance o cu en limi ing s a egies............................................................................................................................................................ 7
4.1. T ansien o e cu en limi a ion .............................................................................................................................................................. 7
4.1.1. Cu en -based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................... 8
4.1.2. Vol age-based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................... 8
4.2. Faul cu en con ol............................................................................................................................................................................... 9
∗Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A. O dono).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. se .2024.114657
Recei ed 23 Feb ua y 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 20 May 2024; Accep ed 10 June 2024
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
2
A. O dono e al.
4.2.1. Cu en -based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................... 9
4.2.2. Vol age-based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................... 9
4.3. T ansien synch oniza ion s abili y........................................................................................................................................................... 9
4.3.1. Mode swi ching........................................................................................................................................................................ 10
4.3.2. Cu en sa u a ion .................................................................................................................................................................... 10
4.3.3. Th eshold i ual impedance ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
4.3.4. Vol age sa u a ion .................................................................................................................................................................... 11
4.4. Summa y............................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
5. Cu en limi ing s a egies o asymme ical aul s................................................................................................................................................ 12
5.1. Cu en -based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................................. 12
5.2. Vol age-based limi e s............................................................................................................................................................................. 12
6. S abili y enhancing s a egies.............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
6.1. Powe synch oniza ion loop-based s a egies............................................................................................................................................. 14
6.1.1. Powe e e ence modi ica ion .................................................................................................................................................... 14
6.1.2. Adap i e powe synch oniza ion................................................................................................................................................ 14
6.1.3. F eeze angula speed ................................................................................................................................................................ 14
6.2. Cu en sa u a ion-based s a egies........................................................................................................................................................... 15
6.2.1. Vol age-based equency eed o wa d......................................................................................................................................... 15
6.2.2. Reac i e powe synch oniza ion ................................................................................................................................................ 15
6.2.3. Vi ual powe .......................................................................................................................................................................... 15
6.2.4. In e nal ol age an i-windup ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
6.3. Summa y............................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
7. Open issues and challenges................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
7.1. Regula o y amewo k ............................................................................................................................................................................ 16
7.2. T ansien s abili y unde high pene a ion o GFM in e e s....................................................................................................................... 17
7.3. T ansien ol age s abili y ....................................................................................................................................................................... 17
7.4. Cu en limi a ion unde o he ansien s.................................................................................................................................................. 17
7.5. GFM in e e based p o ec ion sys ems .................................................................................................................................................... 17
8. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es ........................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Da a a ailabili y ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Re e ences......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
1. In oduc ion
In he las decades, he conce n abou clima e change and he con-
inuous ise in powe consump ion ha e led o an inc easing in eg a ion
o enewable ene gy esou ces in o he elec ical g id. These sys ems
ha e con ibu ed o educe g eenhouse gas emissions, inc ease he ne -
wo k powe capaci y and enhance he o e all e iciency [1]. Howe e ,
unlike adi ional gene a ion, hese a e mainly in e e -based esou ces
(IBR), b inging new challenges om g id ope a ion and managemen
pe spec i e [2].
Elec ical g ids ha e elied on con en ional powe plan s, based
on synch onous gene a o s (SG), o p o ide g id se ices and ensu e
hei eliabili y. SGs p o ide ine ial esponse, equency and ol age
suppo , powe oscilla ion damping and/o load unbalance sou cing,
among o he unc ions [3]. Fu he mo e, he p o ec ions and aul
p ocedu es ha e been designed acco ding o he cha ac e is ics o hese
machines [4]. As he pene a ion o enewable esou ces inc ease,
he a io o IBRs will exceed ha o SGs, wi h egions wi h 100%
pene a ion o IBRs [5]. In his con ex , IBRs should assume he se ices
ha we e p e iously p o ided by SGs.
The mos common s a egy o managing IBRs is he g id ollowing
(GFL) con ol [6]. In GFL, he in e e beha es as a con olled cu en
sou ce, equi ing a synch oniza ion mechanism o connec o an exis -
ing g id. The mos common app oach is he phase-locked loop (PLL),
based on measu ing he poin o common coupling (PCC) ol age.
GFL has shown good esul s in SG-domina ed powe g ids, bu i s
pe o mance is limi ed as IBRs become dominan [7]. The inhe en
educ ion o he g id s eng h and ol age s i ness will impac PLL
s abili y [8]. Mo eo e , he lack o ine ia p oduces as equency
ansien s which canno be acked by he inne dynamics o PLLs [9].
In his con ex , g id o ming (GFM) con ol has eme ged as a
solu ion o suppo u u e g ids. Despi e sha ing he same ha dwa e,
GFM in e e s will beha e as ol age sou ces, synch onizing wi h he
g id h ough powe balance. GFM in e e s could eplace SGs, p o-
iding syn he ic ine ia, s abili y in low s eng h g ids and s andalone
ope a ion by es ablishing he equency and ol age [10]. Howe e ,
e en i GFM in e e s a e a p omising solu ion, hey a e s ill in an
ea ly-s a e de elopmen , wi h se e al pilo p ojec s e alua ing hei
capabili ies [11]. The e a e se e al challenges ha need o be aced
be o e hey can be in eg a ed in o he powe g id [12].
One o hese challenges is he aul ide- h ough capabili y, which
has been included in he op en powe sys em s abili y challenges
iden i ied by Eu opean ansmission sys em ope a o s in he con ex
o MIGRATE p ojec [13]. Among aul s, li e a u e has ex ensi ely ad-
d essed sho -ci cui induced ol age sags, in which GFM in e e s will
su e om high o e cu en s due o hei ol age sou ce beha iou . As
he ansien o e cu en capabili y o powe elec onics (110%–150%
o a ed cu en ) is a below SGs one (>1000%) [14], cu en limi ing
s a egies a e equi ed. These s a egies should no only p o ec in e e
ha dwa e om o e cu en s, bu hey a e also equi ed o mee g id
code equi emen s, by keeping he in e e synch onized wi h he g id
( ansien synch oniza ion s abili y) and suppo ing ol age eco e y
h ough aul cu en s [15].
The aim o his wo k is o ill he gap ela ed o low ol age ide-
h ough (LVRT) s a egies in GFM in e e s, p o iding an o e iew
o he s a egies ha can limi he cu en and enhance he ansien
s abili y du ing hese e en s. Cu en limi ing s a egies ha e al eady
been discussed in p e ious e iews [12,16,17]. Howe e , hese wo ks
we e no ocused on LVRT, lacking a de ailed compa a i e and e alu-
a ion. These s a egies ha e also been e alua ed a ending o di e en
c i e ia, such as ansien cu en limi a ion capabili y [18,19], aul
cu en con ol [20] and ansien s abili y [19,21]. Howe e , none
o hem ha e ga he ed all o hese opics oge he and he numbe
o e alua ed s a egies was limi ed. Addi ionally o cu en limi ing
app oaches, s a egies o imp o e ansien synch oniza ion s abili y
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
3
A. O dono e al.
Nomencla u e
Abb e ia ions
APS Adap i e powe synch oniza ion
CS Cu en sa u a ion
GFL G id ollowing
GFM G id o ming
IBR In e e -based esou ce
LVRT Low ol age ide h ough
MS Mode swi ching
PCC Poin o common coupling
PLL Phase-locked loop
PRM Powe e e ence modi ica ion
PSL Powe synch oniza ion loop
RPC Reac i e powe con ol
SEP S able equilib ium poin
SG Synch onous gene a o
TVA Th eshold i ual admi ance
TVI Th eshold i ual impedance
UEP Uns able equilib ium poin
VPA Vi ual powe angle
VS Vol age sa u a ion
Symbols
𝛥𝑉 Vol age magni ude di e ence be ween in-
e nal ol age e e ence and PCC ol age
𝛿Vi ual powe angle
𝛾Phase di e ence be ween he PLL ou pu
and PCC ol age
𝜔Angula equency
𝜎Reac ance o esis ance a io
𝜏Time cons an o he g id impedance
𝜃In e nal angle
𝜑cu en phase, e e ed o 𝑑axis
𝐷Damping coe icien
𝐸In e nal ol age e e ence
𝐻Ine ia cons an
𝐼Cu en magni ude
𝑖Cu en ec o
𝐿Induc ance
𝑃Ac i e powe
𝑄Reac i e powe
𝑅Resis ance
𝑣Vol age ec o
𝑋Reac ance
𝑍Impedance
Supe sc ip s
∗Se poin
Subsc ip s
𝑐Con e e -side signal
𝑒𝑞 Equi alen . Value measu ed be ween in-
e e o g id
𝑓Fil e alue
𝑔G id signal
𝑙𝑖𝑚 Limi ed signal
𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum alue
𝑜Capaci o -side signal
𝑝𝑐𝑐 Poin o common coupling signal
𝑡ℎ Th eshold alue
𝑢Uns able
𝑣Vi ual
du ing aul s ha e been also add essed in li e a u e. In some cases,
cu en limi ing and s abili y enhancing s a egies we e mixed wi hou
a clea di e en ia ion [22,23]. T ansien enhancing app oaches we e
discussed in [24], bu hei compa ibili y wi h cu en limi ing s a e-
gies was no add essed. Finally, [25] desc ibed some cu en limi ing
and s abili y enhancing s a egies, bu no classi ica ion was p o ided.
Compa ed o p e ious wo ks ( Table 1), he main con ibu ions o his
s udy a e:
•P o iding a classi ica ion o LVRT s a egies a ending o hei
a ge : (1) cu en limi a ion and (2) ansien s abili y enhance-
men .
•Classi ying he exis ing cu en limi ing s a egies in o ol age-
based and cu en -based app oaches. The s a egies inside each
g oup a e also ca ego ized in o subg oups. The pe o mance om
sel -p ese a ion and g id code equi emen s pe spec i e is e al-
ua ed.
•Desc ibing he modi ied cu en limi ing s a egies ha can p o-
ide posi i e and nega i e-sequence aul cu en con ibu ion o
asymme ical aul s.
•Classi ying he exis ing ansien s abili y enhancing s a egies.
These a e classi ied in o wo g oups depending on hei imple-
men a ion, and compa ibili y wi h cu en limi ing s a egies is
add essed.
The esea ch me hodology was comp ised o h ee key s eps. Fi s ,
he opic was discussed and exis ing g id code equi emen s we e
iden i ied. Then, li e a u e was sea ched and sc eened. The li e a u e
which was mos ela ed o GFM in e e s and LVRT s a egies was le ,
based on i le, abs ac and ull ex . Finally, he iden i ied a icles we e
analysed and summa ized acco ding o he s uc u e o he e iew,
which is p esen ed in Fig. 1. Sec ion 2o e iews LVRT equi emen s o
IBRs. Sec ion 3desc ibes and classi ies GFM cu en limi ing s a egies.
Following his, Sec ion 4compa es hei pe o mance a ending o
ansien cu en , aul cu en managemen and s abili y pe spec i e.
Sec ion 5explo es he modi ica ions ha p o ide independen posi i e
and nega i e-sequence aul cu en con ol unde asymme ical aul s.
Sec ion 6classi ies and compa es he s a egies ha can enhance he
synch oniza ion s abili y du ing he LVRT e en . Sec ion 7co e s some
open issues, whe eas he conclusions a e summed up in Sec ion 8.
2. LVRT equi emen s
Fi s g id codes we e ocused on p o ec ing IBRs, disconnec ing
hem unde dis u bances. Howe e , as he sha e o IBRs inc ease, his
app oach could lead o ins abili y and cascaded ailu es [27]. Cu en
g id codes a e equi ing IBRs o suppo he g id du ing LVRT e en s.
The expec ed beha iou o a GFM in e e du ing a aul , gi en in
Fig. 2, could be summa ized in h ee a ge s: (1) sel -p ese ing he
in e e , (2) keeping synch onized o he g id and (3) con ibu ing wi h
a aul cu en .
2.1. Sel -p ese a ion
IBRs mus limi he cu en magni ude du ing a aul o p o ec
he semiconduc o s and p e en an o e cu en ipped disconnec ion.
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
4
A. O dono e al.
Fig. 1. S uc u e o he e iew.
Table 1
Topics co e ed in o he e iews.
Re e ences LVRT Cu en limi ing Pe o mance o cu en limi ing s a egies Asymme ical S abili y imp o ing
equi emen s s a egies Cu en ansien Faul con ibu ion T ansien s abili y aul s s a egies
[13,26] x
[17,22] x
[23,24] x x
[18] x x
[20] x x x
[16] x x
[19] x x x
[25] x x
[12] x x x
This e iew x x x x x x x
Fig. 2. Con e e cu en and g id ol age e olu ion o a GFM in e e du ing a ol age
sag.
T ansien cu en limi a ion is c i ical du ing he i s cycles a e he
sag. Unlike GFL in e e s, GFM in e e s beha ing as ol age sou ces
will be p one o o e cu en s due o he ol age di e ence be ween he
in e e e minal and he PCC ol age.
2.2. G id synch oniza ion
The disconnec ion o IBRs du ing LVRT e en s is de e mined based
on a ol age- ime pa e n, depending on bo h PCC ol age sag and
i s du a ion. Mos coun ies ha e hei own g id code equi emen s,
including he ope a ing ol age ange, aul du a ion and es o a ion
ime [28,29]. In e na ional o ganiza ions like IEEE ha e also pub-
lished ele an equi emen s o IBRs. Fo ins ance, IEEE 1547-2018
b ough ce ain egula ions o he in e connec ion and in e ope abili y
be ween dis ibu ion g ids and dis ibu ed ene gy esou ces [30]. Reg-
ula ions o in e connec ing IBRs and ansmission g ids a e co e ed in
IEEE 2800-2022 [31]. Some ol age- ime cu es a e shown in Fig. 3.
IBRs should s ay connec ed and synch onized wi h he g id i he PCC
ol age ansien is abo e he line.
F om synch oniza ion pe spec i e, he challenge in GFL in e e s
is linked o he ins abili y caused by PLL dynamics, whe eas GFM
in e e s migh desynch onize due o powe balance loss. I is c i ical
o he s abili y o he g id ha IBRs keep synch onized du ing he
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
5
A. O dono e al.
Fig. 3. Vol age s. ime LVRT equi emen s o di e en s anda ds.
e en . Once he aul is clea ed, hey should es o e no mal ope a ion
in a seamless app oach, wi hou powe oscilla ions ha could pe u b
o he de ices.
2.3. Faul cu en con ibu ion
IBRs should con ibu e o es o e he ol age du ing a aul . Some
speci ic na ional g id codes (Spanish [32], Ge man [33]), and in e na-
ional s anda ds (IEEE 2800-2022) a e equi ing IBRs o suppo he
g id bo h du ing symme ical and asymme ical aul s. This is achie ed
by injec ing a posi i e-sequence capaci i e cu en o inc ease ol age
magni ude, and a nega i e-sequence induc i e cu en o educe ol -
age unbalance in asymme ical aul s. In all cases, aul cu en s should
be p opo ional o he magni ude o he posi i e and nega i e-sequence
PCC ol age. The exac p opo ion depends on speci ic sys em ope a o
equi emen s.
G id codes a e also equi ing maximum u iliza ion o IBRs cu en
capaci y. Ac i e powe exchange can also be equi ed o mee his
condi ion. Acco ding o [31], IBRs should ha e bo h ac i e and eac-
i e cu en p io iza ion s a egies, being he la e he de aul . O he
equi emen s such as he cu en s ep ime esponse and se ling ime
a e usually de ined in each g id code.
GFL in e e s can achie e aul cu en con ol by modi ying he
cu en se poin acco ding o measu ed PCC ol age. Howe e , such
s a egy is no s aigh o wa d in GFM in e e s due o i s ol age
sou ce beha iou , and new s a egies a e equi ed.
2.4. Summa y
The end in all he IBR- ela ed g id codes is simila . They a e
in a ian wi h espec o he ype o ene gy sou ce, in e e opology
and con ol s a egy [34]. Hence, GFM and GFL in e e s should mee
he same LVRT equi emen s. A long as compliance wi h s anda ds is
conce ned, he pe o mance a he in e e e minal is he only c i e ion
ha mus be sa is ied. This has lead o he de elopmen o se e al LVRT
s a egies o GFM in e e s.
In his con ex , la es UNIFI [35] and AEMO [36] epo s ha e
poin ed ha some equi emen s a e no p ac ical o GFM in e e s
unde some ci cums ances, and excep ions should be wa an ed (unde
he ag eemen o manu ac u e s, de elope s and sys em ope a o s) un il
s anda ds can be upda ed o ully accoun o hem.
3. Classi ica ion o cu en limi ing s a egies
The simpli ied diag am o a g id-connec ed GFM in e e is shown
in Fig. 4. The in e e is connec ed o he g id using a ypical LC il e
and a coupling ans o me . The g id is ep esen ed as i s Thé enin
equi alen ci cui , wi h a g id impedance 𝑍𝑔and a ol age sou ce 𝑣𝑔.
Fo he shake o simplici y, he in e e is ed wi h an ideal DC ol age
sou ce, ep esen ing a single-s age o a double-s age IBR wi h negligible
DC bus dynamics. The GFM con olle includes wo con ol laye s:
Fig. 4. Simpli ied diag am o a g id-connec ed GFM in e e .
1. Ou e loop: composed o a Powe Synch oniza ion Loop (PSL)
and a Reac i e Powe Con ol (RPC). The o me gene a es he
angula equency 𝜔using ac i e powe balance, whe eas he
la e will gene a e he in e nal ol age e e ence ampli ude 𝐸
based on eac i e powe balance. Ou e loop s a egies can be
classi ied in o d oop con olle s, synch onous machine based
con olle s, and non-linea synch oniza ion me hods [37].
2. Inne loop: I will use ou e loops ou pu s o gene a e he mod-
ula ion ol age 𝑣∗
𝑐. Inne con olle s include di ec ol age syn-
hesis, single ol age con olle o cascaded ol age-cu en con-
olle [38,39]. The la e is shown in Fig. 4.
GFM cu en limi ing s a egies can be classi ied o wo main
g oups: ha dwa e-based and so wa e-based. Ha dwa e-based limi e s
a e an e ec i e and as way o limi cu en , bu hey add ex a ha d-
wa e componen s and s ong dis o ion due o pulse inhibi ion [40,41].
So wa e-based limi e s p o ide high lexibili y om cu en limi a ion
pe spec i e. Howe e , hey will be limi ed by he bandwid h and delay
o he con olle . This sec ion will ocus on so wa e-based s a egies,
which can be classi ied in o: (1) cu en -based and (2) ol age-based
limi e s [16].
3.1. Cu en -based limi e s
Cu en -based limi e s, o di ec limi e s, will p io i ize cu en
con ol o e ol age one. When ac i e, he in e e will lose ol age
sou ce beha iou , u ning in o a con olled cu en sou ce. Cu en -
based limi e s p o ide a p ecise con ol o e he ou pu cu en , a he
cos o educed ansien s abili y. Mo eo e , hey ely on he exis ence
o an inne cu en con olle . Two main s a egies can be ound:
3.1.1. Mode swi ching
The mode swi ching (MS) s a egy swi ches he ope a ion om GFM
o GFL du ing he aul , as shown in Fig. 5. Once he aul clea ance is
de ec ed by he con olle , he in e e swi ches back o GFM. While
in GFL, he in e e is synch onized o he g id h ough an auxilia y
PLL. I s main ad an age is ha ac i e and eac i e cu en s can be
p ope ly managed du ing he aul . Howe e , apa om losing he
ol age sou ce beha iou , i s pe o mance will ely on he PLL, making
i less eliable unde deep sags o weak g ids.
MS equi es an accu a e ip signal o ansi ion be ween modes,
inc easing implemen a ion complexi y. Faul de ec ion algo i hms can
be based on cu en [42] o PCC ol age [43]. The seamless ansi ion
om GFL o GFM once he aul is clea ed is c i ical o ensu e a p ope
aul eco e y [44,45].
3.1.2. Cu en sa u a ion
In he cu en sa u a ion (CS), he cu en limi e is embedded inside
he inne con ol, as shown in Fig. 6. The cu en se poin a he ou pu
o he ol age con olle is sa u a ed o he maximum allowable cu en ,
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥. Unlike MS, he angula equency is de i ed om he PSL, wi hou
an auxilia y PLL. Mo eo e , he e is no need o a ipping signal no
mode swi ching.

Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
6
A. O dono e al.
Fig. 5. Mode swi ching (MS) simpli ied diag am.
Fig. 6. Cu en sa u a ion (CS) simpli ied diag am.
The main d awback o CS is he need o a cascaded con ol s uc u e.
Cascaded con olle s equi e su icien sepa a ion be ween bandwid hs,
which migh no be easible in high-powe and low-swi ching equen-
cies. Mo eo e , hey ha e been iden i ied as a sou ce o ins abili y [46].
Modi ied CS s a egies ha emo e he cascaded s uc u e ha e been
p oposed. In [47,48], he cu en con olle is seamlessly bypassed un-
de egula condi ions. In [49], a pa allel ol age and cu en con olle
s uc u e wi h au oma ic ansi ion is sugges ed.
Cu en sa u a ion s a egies Depending on he sa u a ion app oach,
h ee CS algo i hms a e iden i ied [20]. They a e ep esen ed in Fig. 7:
1. Ins an aneous sa u a ion
2. Magni ude-based sa u a ion
3. P io i y-based sa u a ion
Ins an aneous sa u a ion uses an elemen -wise sa u a ion. I is usu-
ally implemen ed in na u al e e ence ame 𝑎𝑏𝑐, specially in 4-wi e
sys ems, whe e phase cu en s can be con olled independen ly [12].
To p e en he ha monic dis o ion p oduced by sinusoidal se poin s
clipping, oo -mean squa e alues can be used, bu ansien cu en
limi a ion is wo sened [13]. Ins an aneous sa u a ion in 𝛼𝛽 s a iona y
ame o dq o a y ame equi e conse a i e limi s ha educe he
maximum cu en usage. Hence, magni ude and he p io i y-based
sa u a ion a e p e e ed.
Magni ude-based sa u a ion, o ci cula limi e , limi s he magni-
ude o he o iginal se poin while keeping he phase unal e ed [50].
I can be implemen ed bo h in 𝛼𝛽 [51] and dq [52] ames. P io i y-
based sa u a ion does no only limi he magni ude, bu i can also
o ce he phase o he desi ed angle 𝜑. Due o i s simplici y, dq ame
is used [53]. Magni ude and p io i y-based sa u a ion p e en clipping
and maximize he cu en capabili y du ing aul . P io i y sa u a ion is
p one o highe oscilla ions, bu i adds an ex a deg ee o eedom o
imp o e ansien s abili y [54].
3.2. Vol age-based limi e s
In ol age-based limi e s, o indi ec limi e s, he in e e keeps he
ol age sou ce beha iou . The cu en is con olled indi ec ly by ac ua -
ing o e he ol age se poin . Compa ed o cu en -based limi e s, hey
p o ide highe lexibili y om inne con olle pe spec i e, emo ing
he need o cu en egula o s [55]. They also p o ide be e ansien
s abili y, a he cos o a highe ansien o e cu en .
3.2.1. Th eshold i ual impedance
The i ual impedance p o ides he abili y o emula e a non-
physical impedance, and i has al eady been used o il e esonance
damping, powe low con ol, load sha ing, ...[56]. In he h esh-
old i ual impedance (TVI), he equi alen impedance be ween he
in e e and he PCC is i ually inc eased o limi he cu en . The
equi alen simpli ied ci cui is shown in Fig. 8. All he impedances bu
𝑍𝑣a e physical.
TVIs a e mainly implemen ed in 𝛼𝛽 o dq ames, bu hey ha e
also been p oposed in 𝑎𝑏𝑐 ame [57]. To p e en sudden impedance
changes, TVIs a e usually implemen ed using a linea app oach, s a ing
a a h eshold cu en magni ude 𝐼𝑡ℎ. The linea ela ion be ween
he cu en and he i ual impedance ( esis ance, 𝑅𝑣and eac ance,
𝑋𝑣) [58]:
𝑅𝑣={0|𝑖𝑐|≤𝐼𝑡ℎ
𝐾𝑣(|𝑖𝑐|−𝐼𝑡ℎ)|𝑖𝑐|> 𝐼𝑡ℎ
(1)
𝑋𝑣=𝐿𝑣𝜔=𝜎𝑅𝑣(2)
Reac ance o esis ance a io, 𝜎, is a design deg ee o eedom. A
alue be ween 5 and 10 p o ides p ope decoupling o ac i e/ eac i e
powe , and damping o synch onous oscilla ions [59]. The linea gain
𝐾𝑣is selec ed o limi cu en magni ude o 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 unde a maximum
p ese ol age magni ude di e ence, 𝛥𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥, be ween 𝐸and 𝑣𝑜(3).
𝐾𝑣√𝜎2+ 1(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐼𝑡ℎ)≥𝛥𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
(3)
The p ese 𝛥𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 in oduces a ade-o be ween cu en limi a ion
capabili y and s abili y. Small alues do no ensu e cu en limi a ion
unde se e e ol age sags, whe eas la ge alues can p oduce ins abili y
issues due o he high impedance. Addi ionally, TVI pe o mance will
depend on g id impedance, as he sag dep h depends on i . Non-linea
TVIs can also be implemen ed by adding exponen ial e ms o (1).
Non-linea TVIs ope a e close o he maximum cu en , imp o ing
aul -cu en p o ision [60].
Th eshold i ual impedance s a egies TVIs can be implemen ed us-
ing impedance o admi ance app oach. Mo eo e , impedance can be
placed a wo di e en loca ions. Simpli ied diag ams a e gi en in
Fig. 9.
1. Impedance-based
(a) Ex e nal: Vol age d op is applied o he se poin s o he
ou e con ol, be o e inne con olle .
(b) In e nal: Vol age d op is applied o he modula ion ol -
age, a e inne con olle .
2. Admi ance-based, o h eshold i ual admi ance (TVA)
Impedance-based app oaches apply a ol age d op acco ding o
he measu ed con e e cu en 𝑖𝑐. The ex e nal TVI wo ks wi h he
hypo hesis ha he ol age se poin is acked as by he con olle .
Howe e , i s bandwid h can be below 50 Hz in high powe appli-
ca ions [61]. The in e nal TVI p o ides a as e esponse, bu i e-
qui es an an i-windup o he inne egula o s. An al e na i e app oach
is o apply bo h in e nal and ex e nal TVI o p e en windup is-
sues [62,63]. I he e is no inne con olle , ex e nal and in e nal
impedances a e equi alen [64]. Impedance-based s a egies a e usu-
ally implemen ed using quasi-s a iona y e ms, emo ing he de i a i e
e ms ha p oduce noise ampli ica ion. Quasi-s a iona y impedance
could u n synch onous oscilla ions in o sub-synch onous, endange ing
s abili y [65].
The admi ance-based app oach emula es he s a ic and dynamic
beha iou o an impedance wi hou de i a i e e ms [66]. I is based
on he ou pu ol age 𝑣𝑜measu emen and a low-pass il e [67]. The
impedance is ensu ed wi hin he bandwid h o he cu en con olle ,
achie ing a dynamic pe o mance be ween he ex e nal and in e nal
TVI. As d awbacks, i equi es a cu en con olle and a minimum
impedance o ope a e [57].
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
7
A. O dono e al.
Fig. 7. Cu en sa u a ion ypes.
Fig. 8. Equi alen ci cui o a GFM in e e wi h a h eshold i ual impedance.
3.2.2. Vol age sa u a ion
Vol age sa u a ion (VS) limi s he cu en indi ec ly h ough he
limi a ion o he ol age 𝐸and he angle 𝜃o he ou e con olle s. This
is achie ed by mee ing Eq. (4), whe e he magni ude o he di e ence
be ween 𝐸and 𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐 mus be lowe han he ol age d op p oduced
by 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥. The ol age d op includes physical and i ual impedances.
A simpli ied diag am is shown in Fig. 10.
|𝐸−𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐 |=|(𝑍𝑡+𝑍𝑣)𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥|(4)
One o he main d awbacks o VS is ha i pe o ms he cu en
limi a ion in open loop, wi hou cu en measu emen s. Hence, i is
subjec ed o e o s due o impedance unce ain ies and ole ances. This
p oblem is minimized i he i ual impedance is p edominan , bu
powe exchange capabili y will be limi ed [20].
Vol age sa u a ion s a egies Depending on he signals which a e sa u-
a ed, wo VS s a egies a e ound. Thei simpli ied diag ams a e gi en
in Fig. 11.
1. Phase & ampli ude VS (PA-VS)
2. Ampli ude VS (A-VS)
The PA-VS (Fig. 11(a)) limi s bo h he magni ude and angle o
he in e nal ol age, using 𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐 ampli ude and phase in o ma ion, o
which a PLL is equi ed [68,69]. Magni ude is limi ed o a maximum
ol age d op magni ude 𝛥𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥, whe eas he phase shi be ween 𝐸
and 𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐 is limi ed o 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥. These limi s can be ixed acco ding o
he maximum ac i e and eac i e powe a a ed ope a ion. Howe e ,
adap i e limi s ha e p o ed o be mo e e ec i e o imp o e he cu en
ansien esponse, sa is y he g id code cu en s, o maximize aul
cu en [70,71].
The pe o mance o PA-VS migh deg ade unde weak g ids due o
he PLL dynamics. A-VS can emo e his elemen by only limi ing he
magni ude o he in e nal ol age (Fig. 11(b)) [72]. As a d awback, he
cu en limi a ion is only alid agains ol age sags, losing p o ec ion
agains o he e en s, e.g., phase jumps. The angle can be indi ec ly
limi ed using a powe limi e based on 𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐 magni ude [73].
3.3. Summa y
The cha ac e is ics o cu en limi ing s a egies a e summed in
Table 2. These ha e been classi ied in o cu en -based (MS and CS) and
ol age-based limi e s (TVI and VS).
F om implemen a ion pe spec i e, MS is iden i ied as he mos com-
plex s a egy. I equi es a aul de ec ion algo i hm, an auxilia y PLL
o ope a e du ing aul , a p ope s a egy o seamlessly swi ch om GFL
o GFM and an an i-windup due o he sa u a ion o he inne ol age
con olle . The emaining s a egies will no swi ch om ope a ion
mode, and hence, hey emo e he aul de ec ion and mode swi ching
algo i hm. CS s a egies will also emo e he need o an auxilia y
PLL o ope a e, bu hey s ill equi e an inne cu en con olle and
an i-windup o he cascaded con olle .
Vol age-based limi e s p o ide highe lexibili y and less complex-
i y, specially in he case o he ex e nal TVI and he A-VS. These
s a egies do no depend on a cu en limi e no auxilia y PLL, ac ing
only on he in e nal ol age e e ence wi h mino modi ica ions. Ex-
cep ions a e he TVA and he PA-VS. In he case o he TVA, a cu en
con olle is s ill equi ed, bu inne ol age con olle sa u a ion is
p e en ed. The PA-VS emo es he need o a cu en con olle , bu
i elies on an auxilia y PLL o limi he phase shi du ing he aul .
Rega dless o he cu en -based o ol age-based app oach, he
s a egies which ely on a PLL will be mo e suscep ible o g id con-
di ions, such as impedance o ol age sag dep h, han hose which
depend on PSL. TVIs, which use he PSL du ing aul , will be also mo e
sensi i i y o g id condi ions because hey a e uned o a p ese ol age
sag dep h.
Table 3 ga he s he cu en limi ing s a egies p oposed in li e a u e.
CS s a egies a e he mos common app oach o LVRT, and bo h
magni ude and p io i y-based app oach a e ex ensi ely used. In he
case o ol age-based limi e s, ex e nal TVI is he main s a egy. Finally,
some au ho s p opose hyb id s a egies, in which cu en -based (CS)
and ol age-based (TVI) app oaches a e used oge he .
4. Pe o mance o cu en limi ing s a egies
As i has been discussed in Sec ion 2, GFM in e e s should achie e
h ee a ge s du ing a LVRT e en : (1) p e en ing ansien o e cu en s
ha could p oduce in e nal damage o ipping he de ice, (2) keeping
synch onized wi h g id du ing and a e he aul and (3) p o iding a
aul cu en o suppo ol age eco e y. Howe e , he pe o mance o
he GFM in e e will a y depending on he cu en limi ing s a egy.
4.1. T ansien o e cu en limi a ion
The ansien o e cu en limi a ion capabili y will mainly depend
on he cu en o ol age sou ce beha iou o he in e e du ing he
aul .
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
8
A. O dono e al.
Fig. 9. Th eshold i ual impedance s a egies.
Table 2
Main cha ac e is ics o cu en limi ing s a egies.
MS CS TVI VS
Ex e nal In e nal Admi ance PA A
Beha iou Cu en Cu en Vol age Vol age Vol age Vol age Vol age
Faul & mode swi ch Yes No No No No No No
Synch oniza ion me hod PLL PSL PSL PSL PSL PLL PSL
Cascaded con olle Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No
Inne con olle sa u a ion Yes Yes No Yes No No No
Sensi i i y o g id condi ions High Low Medium Medium Medium High Low
Complexi y High Medium Low Medium Medium Medium Low
Table 3
Cu en limi ing s a egies in li e a u e.
Cu en limi ing s a egy Re e ences
Mode swi ching (MS) [19,46,74–76]
Cu en sa u a ion (CS)
Ins an aneous [42,49,77–79]
Magni ude-based [18,20,47,50,51,54,80–86]
P io i y-based [19,20,53,54,86–95]
Th eshold i ual impedance (TVI)
Ex e nal [18–20,58,60,64,86,93,96–99]
In e nal [62,63,100]
Admi ance [57]
Vol age sa u a ion (VS) Phase & ampli ude [20,68–71]
Phase [72,73,101,102]
Hyb id s a egy (CS +TVI) [103–107]
Fig. 10. Vol age sa u a ion (VS) simpli ied diag am.
4.1.1. Cu en -based limi e s
MS and CS will u n he in e e in o a con olled cu en sou ce,
p o iding a simila pe o mance o GFL in e e s.
In CS, as he cu en limi a ion is embedded in he inne con olle ,
he ansien o e cu en will depend on he bandwid h and damping
o he cu en egula o . In his con ex , hys e esis-based egula o s
can minimize he ansien , a he cos o a a iable swi ching e-
quency [77]. In MS, he ansien o e cu en will also depend on he
delay in oduced by aul de ec ion and mode swi ching algo i hms.
Du ing his delay, he ol age sou ce beha iou is kep , inc easing he
cu en ansien [70].
4.1.2. Vol age-based limi e s
Due o he ol age sou ce beha iou o hese limi e s, he ansien
cu en con ol is no s aigh o wa d. Fig. 12 shows he simpli ied
equi alen ci cui o a g id-connec ed GFM in e e , modelled using
wo ol age sou ces and an equi alen impedance 𝑍𝑒𝑞. Ini ially, he
sys em is ope a ing in he s eady s a e condi ions de e mined by he
phaso s (uppe a ow) in he igu e. A 𝑡0, a aul will lead o new
ope a ing condi ions, iden i ied using an apos ophe (’). The cu en
wa e o ms be o e and du ing he aul a e also shown. The cu en will
be he sum o a ansien and s eady s a e e m [108]:
•The s eady s a e e m, 𝑖′
𝑐𝑠, only depends on pos - aul ol ages and
impedance (5).𝜑′is he phase shi o he cu en a e he aul .
𝑖′
𝑐𝑠(𝑡) = √2|||

𝐸′−
𝑉′
𝑔

𝑍′
𝑒𝑞 |||sin(𝜔𝑡 +𝜑′)(5)
•The ansien e m, 𝑖′
𝑐𝑡, depends on he ins an aneous ol age
alues a aul ime (6). I decays exponen ially acco ding o he
ime cons an 𝜏′=𝐿′
𝑒𝑞∕𝑅′
𝑒𝑞, which depends on he induc ance o
esis ance a io du ing aul condi ions.
𝑖′
𝑐𝑡(𝑡) = ⎛⎜⎜⎝√2|||

𝐸−
𝑉𝑔

𝑍𝑒𝑞 |||sin(𝜔𝑡0+𝜑) + √2|||

𝐸′−
𝑉′
𝑔

𝑍′
𝑒𝑞 |||sin(𝜔𝑡0+𝜑′)⎞⎟⎟⎠
𝑒−𝑡∕𝜏′
(6)
Vol age-based limi e s can limi he s eady s a e e m o he cu en ,
bu he ansien e m is uncon olled and i will na u ally decay
acco ding o 𝜏′[101]. TVIs can educe his ime cons an and damp
o e cu en s as e by inc easing he i ual esis ance. Howe e , his
app oach will de e io a e he ansien s abili y, coupling ac i e and
eac i e powe s [109]. To limi he impac on ansien s abili y, a
dynamic i ual esis ance based on a high-pass il e is p oposed
in [58]. VSs canno modi y he impedance, and hence, will su e om
long ansien s, specially in highly induc i e lines.
Addi ionally, ol age-based limi e s will usually eac slowe han
cu en -based ones. In ol age-based limi e s, he con ol ac ion akes
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
9
A. O dono e al.
Fig. 11. Vol age sa u a ion ypes.
Fig. 12. Cu en ansien o a g id-connec ed GFM in e e using a ol age-based
limi e .
places a he inpu o he ol age con olle a he han in he inne
cu en con olle . The bandwid h o ol age con olle will be lowe ,
specially in cascaded inne s uc u es. TVA o in e nal TVI can p o ide
an inc eased bandwid h by bypassing he ol age con olle , a he cos
o an inc eased complexi y (addi ion o inne cu en con olle , and
an i-windup s a egy in in e nal TVI). The ansien cu en con ol will
be u he de e io a ed in PA-VS, as i s pe o mance will also depend
on he ime ha he PLL needs o ack and se le 𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐 .
4.2. Faul cu en con ol
To mee he aul cu en equi emen s o he la es g id codes,
cu en limi ing s a egies should be capable o ope a ing a maximum
cu en capaci y, and p o ide independen con ol o e ac i e and eac-
i e cu en s. They should also manage posi i e and nega i e-sequence
cu en s. The la e equi emen will be co e ed in Sec ion 5.
4.2.1. Cu en -based limi e s
As GFL con ol, hese limi e s can dynamically modi y he cu en
se poin s a ending o measu ed 𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐 . These s a egies can maximize
he cu en usage o he in e e , bu he cu en con ollabili y will
be de e mined by he synch oniza ion mechanism.
In MS, he auxilia y PLL will keep he in e e synch onized wi h
he g id. While synch onized, ac i e and eac i e cu en s can be
managed independen ly. Howe e , he PLL dynamics migh de e io a e
as he ol age sag dep h o g id impedance inc eases, in oducing some
coupling be ween cu en s.
In CS, he PSL is kep as synch oniza ion mechanism. P io i y-based
limi e s ha e been p oposed o handle he cu en limi s acco ding o
he g id codes [54]. Howe e , when he cu en limi e is igge ed, he
ac i e powe balance o he PSL will be los and he in e nal ol age
will no be aligned wi h he con olle e e ence anymo e. In hese
condi ions, he angle di e ence be ween he cu en and he ol age
canno be speci ied p ecisely, coupling ac i e and eac i e cu en s.
An addi ional s a egy ha ensu es he PSL powe balance is equi ed
o gain con ol o e ac i e and eac i e cu en s. Ins an aneous and
magni ude-based limi e s canno be used di ec ly o mee aul cu -
en equi emen s, as hey will only modi y he magni ude o cu en
se poin which is de e mined by he ol age con olle .
4.2.2. Vol age-based limi e s
P ese ing he ol age sou ce beha iou p o ides a na u al cu en
esponse o ol age pe u ba ions [80]. This is ansla ed in o a as
cu en injec ion capabili y du ing sags, wi h esponse imes below
5 ms acco ding o [110].
In TVIs, ac i e and eac i e cu en con ibu ion will be de e mined
by he in e nal ol age and he g id ol age magni ude and phase,
and he o e all impedance. As he TVIs a e designed o handle he
wo s dis u bance, small ol age sags (e.g., dis an aul ) will no use
he ull capaci y o he con e e . This p oblem migh be alle ia ed by
using non-linea TVIs, which ope a e close o he a ed cu en . Mo e-
o e , he TVI should be dynamically modi ied o mee aul cu en
equi emen s, which could impac he s abili y o he g id and equi es
addi ional g id impedance es ima ion algo i hms.
In VSs, ha ing phase and ampli ude in o ma ion h ough a PLL (PA-
VS) can p o ide a p ope con ol ac i e and eac i e cu en s du ing
aul s. In A-VS, a dynamic ac i e powe limi e needs o be added
o p e en powe balance loss and ensu e p ope cu en injec ion. In
gene al, using dynamic limi a ions in A-VS has shown good esul s in
mee ing aul cu en con ibu ion in a simple and e ec i e way [73].
Howe e , he dynamics o he ac i e powe limi e migh conside ably
educe in high ine ial sys ems, making i no sui able o LVRT e en s.
As VSs limi he cu en in open loop, hey equi e some cu en ma gin
o componen ole ances and unce ain ies, educing maximum cu en
usage.
4.3. T ansien synch oniza ion s abili y
Cu en limi ing s a egies will also impac ansien synch oniza-
ion s abili y o GFM in e e s, ha is, hei capabili y o keep syn-
ch onized wi h he g id du ing he LVRT e en . Thei ansien s abili y
has been e alua ed h ough di e en non-linea app oaches such as
Lyapuno di ec me hod [111], phase po ai [112] o i ual powe
angle (VPA) [21]. This wo k will ocus on VPA me hod, a quasi-s a ic
app oach based on he phase di e ence be ween 𝐸and 𝑣𝑔, known as
i ual powe angle, 𝛿. This me hod can e alua e he ansien s abili y
in a g aphic and in ui i e app oach, in a simila way o SGs.
The VPA cu es o a GFM in e e wi hou cu en limi a ion a e
gi en in Fig. 13. Fo simplici y, a symme ical aul is conside ed, wi h
he same p e- aul and pos - aul cu es. In a pu ely induc i e g id,
ac i e powe is de e mined by (7), being 𝑋𝑒𝑞 he o e all eac ance
be ween he in e e and he g id. A GFM in e e wi h a swing-based
PSL is conside ed, in which he dynamics o 𝜔a e de e mined by (8) in
pe uni [113]. 𝑃∗and 𝑃a e he powe se poin and eedback, 𝐻 he
ine ia cons an , 𝐷𝑝 he damping coe icien and 𝜔𝑔 he g id angula
equency, which can be conside ed cons an .
𝑃=𝐸|𝑣𝑔|
𝑋𝑒𝑞
sin 𝛿(7)
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
16
A. O dono e al.
Fig. 24. Simpli ied diag am o CS-based ansien enhancing s a egies.
Table 6
Main cha ac e is ics o ansien imp o ing s a egies.
Cu en limi ing s a egy Vol age pe u ba ion Vol age sou ce SEP Faul Re e ences
CS TVI VS Sag O e load beha iou de ec ion
Powe e e ence
modi ica ion
x x x x x Yes Yes No [48,76,80,100,133–
135,147]
Adap i e powe
synch oniza ion
x x x x Depends on limi e No No [92,93,96,97,99,
138,139]
F eeze angula speed x x x x Depends on limi e No Yes [54,86,142,143]
Vol age-based
equency eed o wa d
x x No Yes No [88,118,125,144]
Reac i e powe
synch oniza ion
x x No Yes Yes [94]
Vi ual powe x x x No Yes No [52,145]
In e nal ol age
an i-windup
x x x No Yes No [85,128,146]
7. Open issues and challenges
T ansien o e cu en limi a ion, aul cu en con ibu ion and
ansien synch oniza ion s abili y ha e been iden i ied as he h ee
main a ge s ha IBRs, and hence, GFM in e e s, should mee du ing
LVRT. Despi e he esea ch e o s, he e a e no dominan cu en
limi ing s a egies in exis ing li e a u e. S a egies ha p o ide a p ope
ansien o e cu en limi a ion usually ha e a limi ed ansien syn-
ch oniza ion s abili y and ice e sa. T ansien enhancing s a egies
ha e been p oposed o ace his issue, bu he complexi y o he
con olle is inc eased. Hyb idiza ion o s a egies is also an in e es ing
app oach. Mo eo e , he con ol o he ac i e and eac i e cu en s
du ing he aul is usually no s aigh o wa d, making i di icul o
mee g id code equi emen s. Addi ionally, esea ch on asymme ical
aul s is also equi ed o a p ope deploymen o GFM in e e s. In
his sense, p io i iza ion s a egies o posi i e and nega i e sequence
suppo is a key opic. Fu he esea ch in his opic a e expec ed in
he u u e yea s.
Apa om he p e iously discussed opics, he e a e s ill open issues
ha equi e esea ch and a e open o imp o emen s:
7.1. Regula o y amewo k
GFM in e e s a e a new echnology ha does no ha e a clea
de ini ion in mos g id codes. I is usually e e ed o hose con e e s
ha ‘‘main ain he in e nal ol age phaso cons an o nea ly cons an
in he sub- ansien o ansien ime ame’’ [148]. Howe e , his
de ini ion is no alid du ing o e loading condi ions. A unique and
clea de ini ion mus be implemen ed in all he g id codes o c ea e
he basis o es ablishing a common s anda d o de eloping hese
con e e s.
E o s o de eloping speci ic GFM codes a e being ca ied ou , such
as he d a code de eloped by Na ional G id [132]. This code pu s
emphasis in he immedia e esponse in LVRT, e lec ing he ol age
sou ce beha iou o he GFM in e e s. The same is ue o he
analysis in he ENTSO-E epo [26] In his line, he la es d a g id
code equi es ha he phase, magni ude and equency o he in e nal
ol age o emain ixed du ing aul s. The ampli ude o he cu en can
be limi ed o p e en o e cu en s, bu keeping he phase ela i e o he
ol age sou ce no modi ied. In he mean ime, GFM and GFL in e e s
should mee he same aul equi emen s.

Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
17
A. O dono e al.
7.2. T ansien s abili y unde high pene a ion o GFM in e e s
The ansien s abili y o GFM in e e s unde aul s can be s udied
bo h analy ically and nume ically [43]. Analy ical me hods, such as
he VPA, can be used o une he con olle pa ame e s and op imize
he ansien pe o mance. Howe e , due o hei complexi y, hey
a e limi ed o a single IBR connec ed o an ideal g id o equi alen
SG. Nume ical me hods a e a be e app oach o ex end he s udy o
se e al in e connec ed IBRs, bu hey di icul pa ame e op imiza ion.
Faul ansien s abili y unde di e en scena ios needs o be assessed
mo e in o de ail, e.g., including di e en pene a ion o GFM and GFL
in e e s o using mixed cu en limi ing s a egies.
7.3. T ansien ol age s abili y
Mos o he li e a u e has ocused on he ansien s abili y om he
angle pe spec i e. Howe e , ansien ol age s abili y issues ha e also
been iden i ied, especially when eac i e powe is p io i ized, such as in
GFM s a ic compensa o s. Unlike angle s abili y, ol age ins abili y only
happens in an unidi ec ional way, when he abso bed eac i e powe
goes o e a limi , collapsing he ol age. E en i some s a egies ha e
been p oposed o ace his issue, esea ch e o s a e s ill equi ed on
his opic [149].
7.4. Cu en limi a ion unde o he ansien s
Despi e ol age sag being he mos s udied ansien in GFM li -
e a u e, he e a e o he scena ios ha equi e a cu en limi a ion
o p e en ha dwa e damage. Among hem, equency excu sions due
o sudden change in he ac i e powe balance, phase jumps due o
he ipping o lines o DC powe sou ce limi s in s ochas ic sou ces.
Compa ed o aul induced ol age sags, hese e en s di e in wo
main aspec s: (1) ol age le el is no modi ied la gely, and (2) an-
sien dynamics a e much lowe [150]. Di e en app oaches ha e been
sugges ed o o ce he o e loaded sou ce o ans e he load o o he
sou ces [145]. Howe e , he e is no s anda dized app oach. Mo eo e ,
hese app oaches usually u n he PSL in o non-linea and modi y i s
dynamics, equi ing u he esea ch on i s s abili y.
7.5. GFM in e e based p o ec ion sys ems
The e ec o GFM in e e s in AC aul p o ec ion sys ems is s ill
in an ea ly s a e compa ed o GFL in e e s. E en i GFM in e e s
can mimic SGs due o he ol age sou ce beha iou , he cu en con-
ibu ion is a below con en ional machines. S udies mus e alua e
i egula p o ec ion schemes a e app op ia e and e ec i e long- e m
solu ion o a g id wi h signi ican p opo ion o IBRs, o whe he a new
p o ec ion pa adigm is needed. Unde la ge-scale in eg a ion o GFM
in e e s, he aul cha ac e is ics will depend on con e e con ol.
New AC p o ec ion schemes migh ha e o conside he coope a ion
o con e e con ol and p o ec ion ha dwa e.
The in e ac ion o an i-islanding p o ec ions wi h IBRs is also ag-
g a a ed when GFM con ol s a egies a e used. T adi ional GFL in-
e e s will shu o wi hou he p esence o an ex e nal g id sig-
nal. GFM in e e s can sus ain a s able islanding ope a ion, bu hey
could also ene gize islanded sys ems wi hou awa eness o he unin-
en ional island si ua ion [151]. A obus se o s anda ds a e necessa y
o au onomous and g id-connec ed mode, balancing pe o mance and
p o ec ion equi emen s.
8. Conclusions
This wo k has ca ied ou a comp ehensi e e iew o LVRT s a e-
gies o GFM in e e s, ocusing on hose s a egies ha limi he
cu en and enhance he ansien s abili y, bo h unde symme ical and
asymme ical e en s.
Cu en limi ing s a egies a e equi ed due o he ol age sou ce
beha iou o he GFM con e e , which p oduces o e cu en s du ing
ol age pe u ba ions. Exis ing s a egies ha e been desc ibed and clas-
si ied in o wo main g oups a ending o he beha iou du ing he aul :
ol age-based o cu en -based. Thei pe o mance has been compa ed
a ending o LVRT equi emen s: sel p o ec ion ( ansien cu en lim-
i a ion) and aul cu en con ibu ion and ansien synch oniza ion
s abili y. E en i cu en -based limi e s a e mo e ex ended, no s a egy
s ands ou : cu en -based limi e s a e be e in managing ansien
o e cu en s, whe eas ol age-based limi e s p o ide highe s abili y.
All in all, esea ch e o s a e s ill equi ed on his opic.
The modi ica ion o cu en limi ing s a egies o handle asymme -
ical aul s has also been discussed. Du ing hese e en s, bo h posi i e
and nega i e sequence cu en s need o be handled o mee cu en lim-
i a ion and aul cu en con ibu ion o he ope a o . In mos cases, due
o he limi ed cu en capabili y o he powe con e e s, a p io iza ion
s a egy o he posi i e and nega i e sequence will be equi ed. In his
con ex , du ing an asymme ical aul , GFM in e e s could p io i ize
ol age ampli ude and phase balancing, o ol age magni ude boos ing.
Rega dless o he cu en limi ing s a egy, he ansien synch o-
niza ion s abili y o he GFM will be endange ed du ing he LVRT e en .
This e iew has also co e ed he s a egies o enhance he s abili y.
T ansien enhancing s a egies will no limi he cu en , bu hey will
ensu e ha he powe con e e keeps synch onized du ing he LVRT.
These s a egies ha e been classi ied in o wo main g oups. Those
based on he PSL loop modi ica ion, and which can be used wi h
any cu en limi ing s a egy; and hose which a e only compa ible
wi h cu en sa u a ion based s a egies. This classi ica ion e eals he
p edominan use o cu en sa u a ion s a egies in he li e a u e, which
a e cha ac e ized by hei limi ed ansien s abili y, equi ing mo e
e o han o he s a egies om s abili y pe spec i e.
Finally, open issues and challenges ela ed o he LVRT o GFM
in e e s ha e been add essed. The need o a speci ic egula o y
amewo k s ands ou , which will se he ounda ions o GFM in e -
e s in he powe g id. In he mean ime, se e al esea ch e o s a e
equi ed o del e deepe in o he impac o GFM in e e s in LVRT,
such as e alua ing he g id pe o mance unde high pene a ion o hese
con e e s, he impac on he p o ec ion sys ems, he ansien s abili y
om ol age pe spec i e and he e alua ion o o he ol age ansien s
di e en om ol age sags.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Ande O dono: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion, W i -
ing – o iginal d a . Alain Sanchez-Ruiz: Supe ision, W i ing – e iew
& edi ing. Ma kel Zubiaga: Supe ision, W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
F ancisco Ja ie Asensio: Supe ision, W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
Jose An onio Co aja ena: Supe ision, W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inan-
cial in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o
in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Da a a ailabili y
Da a will be made a ailable on eques .
Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews 202 (2024) 114657
18
A. O dono e al.
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