Life cycle assessment of glass fibre versus flax fibre reinforced composite ship hulls

Li e cycle assessmen o glass
ib e e sus lax ib e ein o ced
composi e ship hulls
Albe o Lopez-A aiza1, Laila Essama i1, Maide I u ondobei ia1, Da id Boullosa-Falces2 &
Daniel Jus el3
A compa a i e Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) was conduc ed be ween a ec ea ional ship hull made o
lax ib e- ein o ced bio-based epoxy esin and a adi ional ship hull made o glass ib e- ein o ced
polyes e . Since small ib eglass boa s pose an en i onmen al p oblem a e he end o li e (EoL), he
p ima y aim o his s udy was o e alua e he sus ainabili y o he biocomposi e ma e ial and iden i y
ecommenda ions o he u u e eco-design o ec ea ional boa s. The LCA s udy was de eloped
acco ding o he ISO 14,040 (ISO 14040, 2006), 14,044 (ISO 14044, 2006) me hodology and he
OpenLCA 2.0.4 so wa e wi h he Ecoin en .3.9.1 da abase. Compa ed o he adi ional one, he
LCA o he biocomposi e ship hull showed posi i e en i onmen al impac s o all indica o s excep
Te es ial Eco oxici y (TETP), which inc eased by 357% due o he use o e ilise s in lax p oduc ion.
Rema kably, he Global Wa ning Po en ial (GWP) dec eased by 14%, he Human Toxici y Po en ial
(HTP) diminished by 13%, and he Abio ic Deple ion Po en ial (ADP) ela ed o ma e ial esou ces
was educed by 75%. The sensi i i y analysis shows ha elec ici y consump ion is he p ima y
en i onmen al impac d i e o he FFRB ship hull. Thus, selec ing enewable ene gy sou ces, such as
sola o wind powe , can signi ican ly enhance sus ainabili y. I is impo an o no e ha hese impac s
a e in luenced by he sys em and bounda y condi ions conside ed in he s udy. I was sugges ed ha
he local p oduc ion o lax ib e and he use o ecyclable bio- esin could imp o e he eco-design o he
ship hull.
Keywo ds LCA, Flax ib e, Biocomposi e, Glass ib e, Ship hull
In he ec ea ional boa ing indus y, glass ib es a e he p edominan ein o cing ma e ial used in polyme
ma ix composi es. As a esul , small ship hulls a e p ima ily manu ac u ed using polyes e esin lamina es
ein o ced wi h ma - ype glass ib e due o hei low cos , ease o p ocessing, a ou able mechanical p ope ies,
and esis ance o ma ine en i onmen s1. Howe e , hei low sus ainabili y and limi ed ecyclabili y a he end o
hei li e cycle pose a signi ican en i onmen al challenge2.
Nume ous esea che s and p o essionals ha e dedica ed subs an ial e o s o de eloping en i onmen ally
iendly composi e ma e ials in esponse o heigh ened global en i onmen al awa eness. Consequen ly, he e
is a g owing emphasis on u ilising na u al ib es and bio-based esins as eplacemen s o syn he ic ib es and
pe oleum-de i ed esins3,4.
Compa ed wi h glass ib e, na u al ib es such as lax, ique, ju e, and hemp ha e se e al ad an ages, like
lowe densi y, biodeg adabili y, good damping p ope ies, and high heal h sa e y5. Mo eo e , hei speci ic
mechanical p ope ies a e compa able o o nea hose o glass ib e- ein o ced polyme s6,7. Al hough he
ma ine en i onmen can a ec he mechanical p ope ies o Na u al Fib e-Rein o ced Polyme s (NFRP), some
wo ks demons a e ha seawa e imme sion does no cause signi ican ageing in he mechanical pe o mance
o he NFRP8–11. Consequen ly, hese biocomposi es a e mechanically easible in ec ea ional shipbuilding12.
Conce ning he ma ix phase, he e is an ongoing e o o iden i y ma e ials de i ed om enewable
esou ces o eplace he pe oleum-based ma ices in composi e ma e ials13. Gi en he inhe en limi a ions o
he moplas ics, no ably hei high iscosi y, he e is a signi ican demand o ad ancemen s in he de elopmen
o he mose ing polyme s om enewable sou ces4,12.
1G aphic Design and Enginee ing P ojec s Depa men , Bilbao School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o he Basque
Coun y UPV/EHU, Bilbao 48013, Spain. 2Ene gy Enginee ing Depa men , Bilbao School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y
o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Bilbao 48013, Spain. 3Facul y o Enginee ing, Mechanics and Indus ial P oduc ion,
Mond agon Unibe si a ea, Lo amendi 4, Mond agon 20500, Gipuzkoa, Spain. email: [email p o ec ed]
OPEN
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Among all he na u al ib es, lax ib e is a p omising subs i u e o glass ib es o semi-s uc u al and
s uc u al applica ions14,15, wi h a lowe en i onmen al impac . Rega ding ma ine applica ions, lax ib e-
ein o ced bio- esins ha e been ecen ly used o manu ac u e componen s o sea essels, such as boa hulls and
desks. Fo ins ance, Bcomp’s ampliTex lax ab ics and plan -based epoxy esins we e used by some sus ainable
boa manu ac u e s o make ship hulls. The eplacemen o he ca bon- and glass- ib e- ein o ced composi e
pa s wi h lax ib e- ein o ced bio- esin led o educed weigh , signi ican ly be e ib a ion damping, and be e
sound pe o mance16,17.
F om an en i onmen al s andpoin , na u al ib es a e pe cei ed as g een ma e ials ha can be de i ed om
enewable esou ces and wi h p oduc ion echniques ha consume less ene gy han hose o syn he ic ib es
such as glass o ca bon ib es18. A Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) is an impo an ool o measu e he en i onmen al
impac o a p oduc o e i s li e cycle, om c adle o g a e19. LCAs a e inc easingly being inco po a ed in o
he design and manu ac u ing wo k lows o NFRP composi es as a obus me hodology o quan i ying hei
en i onmen al oo p in ela i e o syn he ic ib e- ein o ced composi es.
The esul s o LCA demons a e ha lax ib e composi es educe dependence on non- enewable ene gy and
ma e ial sou ces, dec ease pollu an and g eenhouse gas emissions, enhance ene gy eco e y, and imp o e he
end-o -li e biodeg adabili y o componen s20,21. Besides, lax composi es lead o a ligh e s uc u e and educed
uel consump ion. Howe e , mos s udies a e ela ed o lax ib e- ein o ced he moplas ics o au omo i e
applica ions22,23. Rega ding he mose ing esins, he la es de elopmen s in he syn hesis o high-pe o mance
bio-based he mose s p omo e hei as e de elopmen , especially o ien ed owa ds p ac ical applica ions24,25.
LCA s udies show signi ican CO2 and g eenhouse gas emission educ ions compa ed wi h pe oleum-based
he mose ing esins. Fu he mo e, esins om biomass sou ced as a cop oduc o om was e s eams o o he
indus ial p ocesses signi ican ly educe ca bon oo p in and do no compe e wi h ood sou ces18,26. The e o e,
he ec ea ional boa ing indus y mus in eg a e LCA s udies in o i s manu ac u ing p ocesses o p oduce mo e
sus ainable p oduc s.
This s udy conduc ed a Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) o comp ehensi ely e alua e he en i onmen al impac s
o manu ac u ing a ship hull o a small c a using adi ional glass ib e- ein o ced polyes e h ough hand lay-
up echniques. Al e na i ely, he same ship hull cons uc ed om lax ib e- ein o ced bio- esin ia acuum
in usion was analysed om a C adle- o-G a e pe spec i e. Subsequen ly, a compa a i e analysis o ele en
impac ca ego ies was pe o med o assess he en i onmen al easibili y o he al e na i e ma e ial and p ocess.
Me hodology o li e cycle assessmen
Scope and goal de ini ion
The p esen wo k is a compa a i e li e cycle s udy o e alua e he main en i onmen al impac s associa ed wi h
p oducing a ship hull made o lax- ein o ced bio-epoxy esin compa ed wi h a glass ib e- ein o ced polyes e
esin composi e. The Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) s udy was de eloped acco ding o he ISO 14,040 (ISO 14040,
2006) and 14,044 (ISO 14044, 2006) me hodologies and he OpenLCA 2.0.4 so wa e wi h he Ecoin en .3.9.1
da abase.
Func ional uni
The unc ional uni o his s udy is he composi e ship hull equi ed o he manu ac u ing and ope a ion o a
Silennis S020 boa (Fig.1). The ship hull geome y emains consis en ac oss all scena ios; howe e , wo p ima y
scena ios a e analysed:
• A glass ib e- ein o ced pe ochemical-based esin ship hull.
• A lax ib e- ein o ced bio-based esin ship hull.
Fo each scena io, he p oduc ion phase was assessed, including ma e ial equi emen s, p ocessing echniques,
and ela ed ac o s. The ope a ional s age is iden ical o bo h scena ios, hough he ene gy consump ion a ies
Fig. 1. Silennis S020 boa . License (CC BY 4.0).
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depending on he inal weigh o he hull. Fo he end-o -li e (EoL), land ill was selec ed as he disposal me hod
o a oid u he pa ame e s o be compa ed.
The main hyd os a ic da a o he ec ea ional c a a e he ollowing: leng h o he ully loaded wa e line,
LWL = 4.820m; he beam o he hull, BH = 1.850m; d a o he ully loaded wa e line, DWL = 0.525m; and
loaded displacemen mass, mLDC = 872kg. Da a collec ion was he e o e necessa y o all he ma e ials o
manu ac u e he boa unde ISO 12215-5:2019 speci ica ions27. These ules ha e a speci ic sec ion o glass ib e-
ein o ced polyme s (GFRP). Howe e , he mechanical p ope ies o lax ib e- ein o ced bio-epoxy (FFRB)
we e aken om an ea lie published wo k9. Thus, he me hodology used o de e mine he inal hickness and
weigh o he espec i e ship hulls ollows he same app oach p e iously published o ano he Silennis hull
model10. Based on he design pa ame e s o he Silennis S020 and he mechanical p ope ies o he ma e ials
(GFRP and FFRB), he ISO s anda d de ines he minimum equi ed single-skin pla ing hickness, deno ed as .
Acco ding o hese speci ica ions, he Silennis S020 ea u es a monohull wi h a = 10mm hickness. Gi en he
hull a ea (A = 31m²), he co esponding olume is V = 0.31m³. By applying he densi y o GFRP (ρ = 1398kg/
m³), he calcula ed weigh o he GFRP ship hull is 433.38kg. Fo he FFRB hull, he enhanced mechanical
p ope ies a ibu ed o he ab ic con igu a ion allow o a educed hickness o = 7 mm. Conside ing he
densi y o FFRB (ρ = 1230kg/m³), he esul ing weigh o he FFRB ship hull is 266.91kg.
Sys em bounda ies
The scope o he s udy is om C adle- o-G a e in bo h scena ios, conside ing he ollowing li e s ages: ob aining
aw ma e ials, manu ac u ing p ocesses, use, and end o li e. Rega ding he use li e, glass ib e- ein o ced
polyme (GFRP) small boa s ypically ha e a se ice li e anging om 20 o 30 yea s28. Consequen ly, he
li espan o he Silennis S020 has been se a 25 yea s. Based on he company’s ope a ional da a, an annual usage
o 500h is conside ed s anda d, esul ing in a o al ope a ional du a ion o 12,500h o e i s li e ime. Gi en ha
he nominal powe o he ship’s p opelle is 2kW, he o al ene gy consump ion o e he es ima ed li espan is
calcula ed o be 25,000 kWh. The se ice li e o he FFRB ship hull is assumed o be equi alen , as p e ious
esea ch has demons a ed he mechanical easibili y o FFRB in di ec con ac wi h seawa e 9. Con e sely, he
ene gy needs depend on he displacemen weigh , and conce ning he ship hull, i is educed om 433.38kg
made o GFRP o 266.91kg made o FFRB. The la e alues ha e been conside ed in he Maxsu na al design
so wa e o ob ain he subsequen d ag esis ances by he Wyman me hod29, esul ing in R = 0.86 kN and R = 0.78
kN, espec i ely. Consequen ly, he esul ing e ec i e powe o he c uise speed o he boa ( s = 4.3 kno s) is
educed by 11% using he new displacemen weigh o he essel30. The e o e, he o al ene gy consump ion o
he FFRB ec ea ional boa o e i s ope a ional li espan is es ima ed a 22,250 kWh.
The en i onmen al main enance impac s ha e no been conside ed, as bo h ship hulls (GFRP and FFRB)
will be coa ed wi h wo laye s o he same comme cial an i ouling pain (Mic on 350w om In e na ional®)
o mi iga e biological deg ada ion, pho ooxida ion eac ions, and mois u e abso p ion. Mo eo e , due o he
ela i ely ecen in oduc ion o he comme cial boa o he ma ke , insu icien da a is a ailable o assess
main enance di e ences du ing he use phase, and i would be in e es ing o conside in u u e wo k.
In his scena io, i is assumed ha he ship hull is land illed a he end o i s li e (EoL) o bo h al e na i es
(GFRP and FFRB). Land illing was selec ed as he disposal me hod due o he use o ib e- ein o ced he mose
composi es in bo h hulls, which p esen signi ican challenges o ecycling. Addi ionally, incine a ion was no
conside ed because i is no en i onmen ally iendly. The g owing conce ns ega ding polyme composi e was e
ha e p omp ed he scien i ic communi y o de elop ad anced ecycling echniques25,31, which may enhance he
EoL managemen o he Silennis S020.
In en o y analysis
Ma e ials and manu ac u ing
The GFRP ship hull is manu ac u ed by hand lay-up, and he Silennis company p o ided he quan i ies o ma e ials
used acco ding o he s anda d speci ica ions. The E-glass ib e ein o cemen (Fig.2a) was om Resinas Cas o,
S.L., Vigo, Spain, as a ma o 600g/m2 in weigh . The pe oleum-based polyes e was CRYSTIC R115PA wi h a
2% PMEC ca alys om he same p o ide . Rega ding s y ene emissions du ing manu ac u ing, a 3% w . was
conside ed in he LCA ou pu s. The anspo o he aw ma e ials om he supplie o he manu ac u e in
Bizkaia, Spain, was accoun ed o in he analysis and named T anspo 1. In addi ion, he anspo o he ship
Fig. 2. E-glass ma (a) and lax ib e (b).
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hull om he manu ac u e o he assembly company o all he small c a pa s was also conside ed in T anspo
2. Finally, in he land ill scena io a he end-o -li e (EoL), he ship´s anspo a ion o a municipal solid was e
ea men acili y was excluded as i depends on he shipowne ´s loca ion. The da a o he in en o y o he LCA
can be obse ed in Fig.3.
Rega ding he FFRB ship hull, he acuum-assis ed in usion was conside ed in he manu ac u ing p ocess o
achie e a mo e p ecise hickness and o a oid di ec exposu e o he ope a o s o esin apou s3. The e o e, he
ene gy consump ion o he acuum pump was e alua ed in he s udy, and he sc aps a e he demolding o he
piece we e ea ed as municipal solid was e. The lax ib e ein o cemen (Fig.2b) was supplied by EcoTechnilin,
Vallique ille, F ancia, as a bi-di ec ional (0/90) wo en ab ic o 300g/m2. The bio-epoxy used was he Supe Sap
® 100/1000 En opy sys em supplied by Fe e Dalmau, Ba celona, Spain, which is ce i ied unde he U.S.
Depa men o Ag icul u e (USDA) Ce i ied Biobased P oduc label p og am. The mixing a io o he INF02
cu ing agen was 100:33 by weigh . The quan i ies o lax ib e, bio-epoxy, and in usion ma e ials we e calcula ed
based on p e ious expe iences10,32 o ul il he ISO 12215-5:2019 s anda d27 and a e summa ised in Fig.4.
T anspo 1 co e s he dis ance be ween aw ma e ial supplie s and he ship hull manu ac u e , and T anspo 2
includes anspo a ion o he assembly acili y. Finally, T anspo o he land illing acili y is excluded because
i depends on he shipowne ´s loca ion. The da a o he in en o y o he FFRB ship hull’s li e cycle assessmen
(LCA) is p esen ed in Fig.4.
Ce ain ma e ials and equipmen ha e been excluded om he li e cycle assessmen (LCA) o he
manu ac u ing p ocess o bo h ship hulls. Speci ically, he mould has been omi ed as i is assumed o be he
same o bo h cases. Addi ionally, manual lamina ion ools, such as b ushe s and olle s, a e eusable, while he
acuum pump used in he in usion p ocess is a mul i-pu pose de ice. Fu he mo e, he assessmen excludes he
manu ac u ing acili y’s in as uc u e, including ib e cu ing and gas ex ac ion sys ems.
Conside ing all he abo e, he Li e Cycle Assessmen wi h OpenLCA and Ecoin en da abase was pe o med
by selec ing all he aw ma e ials and anspo s wi h p o ide s om Eu ope (RER) and he elec ic powe
gene a ion, ansmission, and dis ibu ion wi h a p o ide om Spain (ES). Finally, all he da a ga he ed du ing
Fig. 4. Da a o he li e cycle in en o y o he FFRB ship hull.
Fig. 3. Da a o he li e cycle in en o y o he GFRP ship hull.
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he in en o y s age was implemen ed in he so wa e OpenLCA using he Ecoin en 3.9 da abase. The inal
in en o y is shown in Table1:
En i onmen al impac assessmen
Fo compa a i e pu poses, he CML2016 .8 me hodology was employed due o he da a a ailable in he
bibliog aphy and li e a u e da a on he en i onmen al impac s associa ed wi h he yield o he ib es used, glass
and lax, and hose om he esins in ol ed. This same me hodology was applied o calcula e he en i onmen al
impac s o he p oduc ion and use du ing he ull li e cycle o he ship hulls unde in es iga ion. This so wa e
e sion p o ides up o 11 en i onmen al impac s, enabling an o e all analysis and a b oade compa a i e iew
o he p oduc examined in his esea ch. To alida e he esul s, en i onmen al impac calcula ions we e also
GFRP
Inpu s
Flow Amoun Uni P o ide
Elec ici y, low ol age 25,000 kWh Elec ici y ol age ans o ma ion om medium o low ol age | elec ici y, low
ol age | Cu o , U - ES
Glass ib e 182 kg Glass ib e p oduc ion | glass ib e | Cu o , U - RER
Isoph halic acid based unsa u a ed polyes e esin 17.05 kg Isoph halic acid based unsa u a ed polyes e esin p oduc ion | isoph halic acid based
unsa u a ed polyes e esin | Cu o , U - RER
O hoph halic acid based unsa u a ed polyes e esin 201.96 kg O hoph halic acid based unsa u a ed polyes e esin p oduc ion | o hoph halic acid
based unsa u a ed polyes e esin | Cu o , U - RER
Pe oleum slack wax 0.04 kg Pe oleum slack wax p oduc ion, pe oleum e ine y ope a ion | pe oleum slack wax |
Cu o , U - Eu ope wi hou Swi ze land
T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 288,756 kg*km T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 | anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5
me ic on, EURO6 | Cu o , U - RER
T anspo , eigh , lo y > 32 me ic on, EURO6 41214.438 kg*km T anspo , eigh , lo y > 32 me ic on, EURO6 | anspo , eigh , lo y > 32 me ic
on, EURO6 | Cu o , U - RER
Ou pu s
GFRP ship hull 1 I em(s)
Municipal solid was e land ill Ship hull kg Ma ke o municipal solid was e land ill| municipal solid was e land ill| Cu o , U - ES
Ace one 0.784 kg Emisions o ace one
S y ene 6.06 kg Emissions o s y ene
FFRB
Inpu s
Flow Amoun Uni P o ide
Elec ici y, low ol age 2.25 kWh Elec ici y ol age ans o ma ion om medium o low ol age | elec ici y, low
ol age | Cu o , U - ES
Elec ici y, low ol age 22,250 kWh Elec ici y ol age ans o ma ion om medium o low ol age | elec ici y, low
ol age | Cu o , U - ES
Ex usion, plas ic ilm 3.1 kg Ex usion, plas ic ilm | ex usion, plas ic ilm | Cu o , U - RER
Ex usion, plas ic ilm 2.573 kg Ex usion, plas ic ilm | ex usion, plas ic ilm | Cu o , U - RER
Ex usion, plas ic ilm 1.767 kg Ex usion, plas ic ilm | ex usion, plas ic ilm | Cu o , U - RER
Ex usion, plas ic pipes 0.075 kg Ex usion, plas ic pipes | ex usion, plas ic pipes | Cu o , U - RER
Fib e, lax 106.76 kg Fib e p oduc ion, lax, e ing | ib e, lax | Cu o , U - RoW
Isoph halic acid based unsa u a ed polyes e esin 17.05 kg Isoph halic acid based unsa u a ed polyes e esin p oduc ion | isoph halic acid based
unsa u a ed polyes e esin | Cu o , U - RER
Pe oleum slack wax 0.04 kg Pe oleum slack wax p oduc ion, pe oleum e ine y ope a ion | pe oleum slack wax |
Cu o , U - Eu ope wi hou Swi ze land
Syn he ic ubbe 0.864 kg Syn he ic ubbe p oduc ion | syn he ic ubbe | Cu o , U - RER
T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 114019.68 kg*km T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 | anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5
me ic on, EURO6 | Cu o , U - RER
T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 103777.2 kg*km T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 | anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5
me ic on, EURO6 | Cu o , U - RER
T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 18337.68 kg*km T anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5 me ic on, EURO6 | anspo , eigh , lo y 3.5–7.5
me ic on, EURO6 | Cu o , U - RER
T anspo , eigh , lo y > 32 me ic on, EURO6 25383.141 kg*km T anspo , eigh , lo y > 32 me ic on, EURO6 | anspo , eigh , lo y > 32 me ic
on, EURO6 | Cu o , U - RER
BioResinSupe Sab 160.15 kg
Ou pu s
FFRB ship hull 1 I em(s)
Municipal solid was e land ill 291.3 kg Ma ke o municipal solid was e land ill | municipal solid was e land ill | Cu o ,
U - ES
Table 1. In en o ies used o he calcula ions in OpenLCA so wa e.
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pe o med using al e na i e me hodologies, including ReCiPe 2016 Midpoin H and he CML baseline. The
ou comes demons a ed simila magni udes and ends o hose ob ained using he CML 4.8 2016 me hodology,
as p esen ed and discussed below.
Resul s and discussion
This sec ion p esen s a compa a i e analysis o he en i onmen al impac s associa ed wi h he p oduc ion o
glass ibe and lax ibe . Addi ionally, he en i onmen al indica o s o pe oleum-based polyes e esin and he
p oposed bio-epoxy esin a e e alua ed. The inal sec ion p o ides a comp ehensi e c adle- o-g a e compa ison
o GFRP and FFRB ship hulls o assess he en i onmen al ad an ages o an ecological app oach o ma e ial
selec ion and design.
Glass ib e e sus lax ib e impac assessmen
Table2 compa es he impac assessmen associa ed wi h 1kg o glass ib e and 1kg o lax ib e p oduc ion. In
his e alua ion, we conside he ib e da a om Ecoin en .3.9.1 and p o ide s om Eu ope (RER). The dis ance
o ma e ials anspo a ion om he supplie o he manu ac u ing company is no conside ed. The esul s we e
ob ained by applying he Ecoin en -CML 4.8 2016 impac assessmen me hod.
Mos impac ca ego ies a e ema kably lowe in lax ib e p oduc ion han glass ib e p oduc ion. I highligh s
a 47% educ ion in Global Wa ming Po en ial (GWP) and 48% and 73% educ ions in F eshwa e and Ma ine
Eco oxici y Po en ials (FAETP and MAETP). In addi ion, bo h Abio ic Deple ion Po en ials, i.e. hose ela ed
o ossil uels (ADP- ) and ma e ial esou ces (ADP-m), a e educed by 68% and 97%, espec i ely. Ozone
Deple ion Po en ial (ODP) and Pho ochemical Ozone C ea ion Po en ial (PCOP) a e educed by 58% and 14%,
espec i ely. This is because he p oduc ion o lax ib e does no equi e he consump ion o la ge amoun s
o non- enewable ene gy compa ed o ib eglass33. Addi ionally, he pho osyn hesis occu ing in he plan s is
conside ed globally posi i e o he clima e and cons i u es a signi ican ad an age o using biomass o e ossil
esou ces20,34.
Howe e , lax p oduc ion has mo e han 100% impac on Te es ial Eco oxici y (TETP), Eu ophica ion
(EP), and Human Toxici y (HTP) ca ego ies, conc e ely, 3910%, 287% and 162%, espec i ely. The explana ion
is ha phospha e e ilise s a e necessa y o g owing lax oday. They a e a majo cause o e es ial oxici y and
eu ophica ion as hey a e a signi ican sou ce o ni ogen, phospho us, and o he nu ien s. Addi ionally, hey
con ibu e o acid ain and he de e io a ion o ecosys em heal h35–37.
Pe oleum-based polyes e esin e sus Supe Sap En opy esin impac assessmen
Table3 shows he po en ial en i onmen al impac s associa ed wi h 1 onne o pe oleum-based polyes e esin
and 1 onne o Supe Sap bio-epoxy esin. O hoph halic acid-based unsa u a ed polyes e esin wi h a Eu opean
p o ide (RER) om Ecoin en .3.9.1 was conside ed as he hand lay-up esin o p oduce he GFRP ship hull.
As opposed o adi ional epoxies o polyes e s ha a e composed p ima ily o pe oleum-based ma e ials,
Supe Sap ® En opy Resins o mula ions con ain up o 50% o bio-based enewable ma e ials sou ced as co-
p oduc s o om was e s eams o o he indus ial p ocesses, such as wood pulp and bio- uels p oduc ion.
Consequen ly, hese ma e ials do no compe e wi h ood sou ces o con ibu e o he displacemen o ood-based
ag icul u e. By selec ing hese aw ma e ials and employing g een chemis y p inciples, he company minimizes
he en i onmen al impac associa ed wi h p ocessing. The en i onmen al impac s o Supe Sap® we e ob ained
om En opy Resins and bibliog aphy18. This assessmen did no include he anspo o he esins om he
supplie s o he ship hull manu ac u e .
Consequen ly, he bio-epoxy signi ican ly educes F eshwa e Aqua ic Eco oxici y Po en ial (FAETP),
Human Toxici y Po en ial (HTP) and Ozone laye Deple ion Po en ial (ODP), conc e ely, 95%, 92% and 100%,
espec i ely. Fu he mo e, i dec eases he Eu ophica ion Po en ial (EP) and Abio ic Deple ion Po en ial ela ed
o ma e ial esou ces (ADP-m) by 44% and 58%, espec i ely. This is because he enewable o igin o he bio-
esin does no compe e wi h ood sou ces.
Impac ca ego y Uni s Glass ib eaFlax ib eb
Acidi ica ion (AP) kg SO2-Eq 0.013 0.018
Global wa ming po en ial (GWP) kg CO2-Eq 2.144 1.146
F eshwa e aqua ic eco oxici y (FAETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 1.117 0.583
Ma ine aqua ic eco oxici y (MAETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 3460.078 929.235
Te es ial eco oxici y (TETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 0.045 1.798
Abio ic deple ion po en ial: ossil uels (ADP- ) MJ 26.615 8.463
Eu ophica ion (EP) kg PO4-Eq 0.005 0.019
Human oxici y (HTP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 10.817 28.335
Abio ic deple ion po en ial: me als/mine als (ADP-m) kg Sb-Eq 2.920E-04 8.412E-06
Ozone laye deple ion (ODP) kg CFC-11-Eq 4.744E-08 2.009E-08
Pho ochemical oxidan po en ial (PCOP) kg e hylene-Eq 7.321E-04 6.329E-04
Table 2. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s associa ed wi h 1kg o glass ib e and 1kg o lax ib e p oduc ion. a
En i onmen al impac esul s om he Ecoin en .3.9.1 da abase.
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By con as , inc ease o 86% in Acidi ica ion Po en ial (AP), 16% in Global Wa ming Po en ial (GWP) and
11% in Abio ic Deple ion Po en ial: ossil uels (ADP- ) a e obse ed and, especially, a signi ican d awback
is ound in he Te es ial Eco oxici y Po en ial ca ego y (ΔTETP = + 629%), which may be due o he high
pe cen age (35%w ) o chemical ha dene used by Supe Sap.
GFRP e sus FFRB ship hull impac assessmen
Table4 shows he compa ison o he impac assessmen s associa ed wi h he p oduc ion and li e use o he
Silennis S020 ship hull, manu ac u ed wi h glass ib e- ein o ced polyes e (GFRP) and lax ib e- ein o ced bio-
epoxy (FFRB). The esul s we e ob ained using da a om he Ecoin en .3.9.1 da abase and he CML 4.8 2016
impac me hod. Rega ding he FFRB, he en i onmen al impac o he bio-epoxy was added in a new low in he
so wa e OpenLCA, including he co esponding impac s ound in li e a u e (Table3). In addi ion, as explained
in 2.1.2. Sys em Bounda ies sec ion, conside a ion has been gi en o he ac ha he educed weigh o he FFRB
hull will esul in lowe ba e y consump ion and educed elec ical load du ing i s use li e. Finally, he land ill
scena io was conside ed he end-o -li e s age in bo h cases.
Figu e 5 acili a es a clea e isual analysis o he esul s. I demons a es ha , ac oss all en i onmen al
impac ca ego ies—excep o e es ial eco oxici y— he ship hull manu ac u ed using lax ib es and bio-based
esin exhibi s supe io en i onmen al pe o mance.
Figu e 6 shows he co esponding pe cen ages o a ia ion o he di e en impac ca ego ies associa ed wi h
bo h al e na i es o manu ac u ing he ship hull and hei consequences on li e use. I can be obse ed ha
all impac ca ego ies a e signi ican ly lowe in FFRB han in GFRP ship hull excep o Te es ial Eco oxici y
(TETP), which inc eased a ΔTETP = 357% because o he use o e ilise s in lax p oduc ion20,37.
I can be s a ed ha manu ac u ing he ship hull wi h FFRB ins ead o GFRP educes he compounds
esponsible o acid ain ΔAP= -7% and Global Wa ming (ΔGWP= -14%). Rega ding he haza dous chemicals’
de imen al impac on di e en na u al ecosys ems, i is educed in wo o hem: eshwa e (ΔFAETP= -28%)
and ma ine (ΔMAETP= -31%). The deple ion o ossil uels and ma e ial esou ces is educed ΔADP- = -27%
Impac ca ego y Uni s GFRPaFFRBb
Acidi ica ion (AP) kg SO2-Eq 35.28 32.81
Global wa ming po en ial (GWP) kg CO2-Eq 8549.94 7332.5
F eshwa e aqua ic eco oxici y (FAETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 7252.5 5191.8
Ma ine aqua ic eco oxici y (MAETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 2.78E + 07 1.93E + 07
Te es ial eco oxici y (TETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 57.95 265.1
Abio ic deple ion po en ial: ossil uels (ADP- ) MJ 1.14E + 05 8.37E + 04
Eu ophica ion (EP) kg PO4-Eq 12.56 10.97
Human oxici y (HTP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 1.02E + 04 8881.7
Abio ic deple ion po en ial: me als/mine als (ADP-m) kg Sb-Eq 0.08 0.02
Ozone laye deple ion (ODP) kg CFC-11-Eq 0.00 0.00
Pho ochemical oxidan po en ial (PCOP) kg e hylene-Eq 2.26 1.7
Table 4. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s o he GFRP e sus FFRB ship Hull. a En i onmen al impac esul s
om he Ecoin en .3.9.1 da abase. b En i onmen al impac esul s om Ecoin en .3.9.1 plus bibliog aphy
included in he so wa e OpenLCA.
Impac ca ego y Uni s Pe oleum-based polyes e esinaSupe Sap bio-epoxy esinb
Acidi ica ion (AP) kg SO2-Eq 13.682 25.440
Global wa ming po en ial (GWP) kg CO2-Eq 3506.773 4079.000
F eshwa e aqua ic eco oxici y (FAETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 1408.703 66.390
Ma ine aqua ic eco oxici y (MAETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 2.962E + 06 ---
Te es ial eco oxici y (TETP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 31.355 228.630
Abio ic deple ion po en ial: ossil uels (ADP- ) MJ 7.963E + 04 8.800E + 04
Eu ophica ion (EP) kg PO4-Eq 12.351 6.900
Human oxici y (HTP) kg 1,4-DCB-Eq 6707.867 545.170
Abio ic deple ion po en ial: me als/mine als (ADP-m) kg Sb-Eq 0.024 0.010
Ozone laye deple ion (ODP) kg CFC-11-Eq 3.858E-04 0.000
Pho ochemical oxidan po en ial (PCOP) kg e hylene-Eq 1.344 1.90
Table 3. Po en ial en i onmen al impac s associa ed wi h 1 onne o pe oleum-based polyes e esin and
1 onne o supe sap bio-epoxy esin. a En i onmen al impac esul s om he Ecoin en .3.9.1 da abase. b
En i onmen al impac esul s om he bibliog aphy18.
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Fig. 6. Pe cen ages o impac ca ego y a ia ions associa ed wi h manu ac u ing and li e use o he FFRB
e sus GFRP ship hull.
Fig. 5. En i onmen al impac ca ego ies calcula ed using CML 2016 4.8 me hodology and he co esponding
con ibu ions o FFRB e sus GFRP ship hull.
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and ΔADP-m= -75%, espec i ely. Besides, o e - e iliza ion o wa e and soil is a oided by a ΔEP= -13%, and i
diminishes he elease o oxic ma e ials o humans (ΔHTP= -13%).
Finally, he FFRB al e na i e educes he Pho ochemical Oxidan Po en ial (ΔPCOP= -25%), which e e s o
he p esence o ola ile o ganic compounds such as e hane in he ai . The damage o he ozone laye is he same
in bo h al e na i es (ΔODP = 0%).
Ano he aspec analysed in he compa a i e LCA was ea ing was e a he end o li e. The land ill scena io
was selec ed because bo h ship hulls a e manu ac u ed wi h ib e- ein o ced he mose composi es ha a e
di icul o ecycle, and he incine a ion al e na i e is no en i onmen - iendly. The ad an age o he FFRB
ship hull lies in i s educed weigh (ΔW = −166.47kg) compa ed o he GFRP ship hull when anspo ed o a
municipal solid was e ea men acili y. Such a bene i was excluded om he LCA because i depends on he
shipowne ´s loca ion, bu i would be in e es ing o conside i wi h company-speci ic da a.
Fu u e li e cycle assessmen s should conside ecen ad ances in mechanical, he mal, and chemical ecycling.
The mal ecycling has p o en e ec i e in eco e ing high-quali y esou ces om epoxy esins and syn he ic
ib es; howe e , i is associa ed wi h high ene gy consump ion38. In con as , mechanical ecycling is ecognised
as he mos ene gy-e icien app oach, p o iding sa is ac o y ma e ial p ope ies39. Chemical ecycling, while
also e ec i e, in ol es signi ican cos s and poses en i onmen al conce ns31. Ta ge ed esea ch is equi ed o
explo e he ecycling and euse o lax ib e- ein o ced bio-composi es (FFRBs), he eby o e ing a iable end-
o -li e (EoL) scena io ha con ibu es o was e educ ion and suppo s he ad ancemen o a ci cula economy40,
as is being achie ed in o he sec o s such as ail41 and wind powe 42.
Sensi i i y analysis o FFBR ship hull
The majo con ibu o o mos en i onmen al impac ca ego ies is he elec ici y consumed du ing he
manu ac u ing and use s ages. Fo ins ance, o clima e change ela ed o he Global Wa ming Po en ial (GWP),
app oxima ely 80% o he o al impac is a ibu ed o elec ici y consump ion and up o 6% is associa ed wi h
lax ib e p oduc ion. To assess he in luence o ene gy sou ces on he esul s, se e al scena ios ha e been
analysed, conside ing ou di e en ene gy scena ios:
• Elec ici y gene a ed om Si-based sola panels.
• Sola ene gy in i s elemen a y o m.
• Elec ici y om wind u bines.
• Elec ici y om wind in i s elemen a y o m.
The esul s o his analysis a e p esen ed in Fig.7. As indica ed by he indings, he en i onmen al impac s
assessed in his s udy a e highly dependen on he ene gy equi ed du ing he boa use s age. The e o e, selec ing
Fig. 7. En i onmen al impac ca ego ies calcula ed using CML 2016 4.8 me hodology o he co esponding
scena ios esembling di e en ene gy sou ces o he FFRB ship hull.
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