81
Recei ed: 9 No embe 2021 – Fecha de ecepción: 9 de no iemb e de 2021
Accep ed: 21 Augus 2022 – Fecha de acep ación: 21 de agos o de 2022
Re is a de His o ia Indus ial – Indus ial His o y Re iew. Vol. XXXII, no. 87, Ma ch 2023. 81-109
ISSN: 1132-7200. DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.1344/ hiih .36781
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish
ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
• eRnes o lópez losa
Uni e sidad del País Vasco/Euskal He iko Unibe si a ea
h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2798-4746
e nes o[email p o ec ed]
aBs RaC
Be o e he s eam e a, echnological limi a ions es ic ed he capaci y o ca ch and ma ke
ish. Fu he mo e, a es ic i e ins i u ional amewo k hinde ed he pe o mance o he Spanish
ishing indus y: high manu ac u ing cos s a ibu ed o he sal monopoly, es ic ions on labou
supply caused by he Ma ícula de Ma (Ma i ime Regis y), and con adic o y legisla ion con-
ibu ed o educed labou pa icipa ion and in es men . The ishing indus y was only ee om
ins i u ional cons ain s a e a long p ocess o disman ling he ma i ime- ishing egula ions o
he Ancien Régime a he end o he nine een h cen u y.
keywoRds: ishe ies, Ancien Régime ins i u ions, ishing esou ces.
Jel Codes:N43, N54.
1. In oduc ion
The apid expansion o Spain’s ishing lee du ing he 20 h cen u y made
he coun y a global ishing powe (Paz And ade 1973; González Laxe 1983;
Ga cía Alonso 1993; Ca mona Badía 1997, 2022; López Losa and Amo im
2012; Espido Bello and Gi áldez Ri e o 2018). In 2021, Spain was he la ges
ishing coun y in he Eu opean Union and had one o he la ges indus ial
lee s in he wo ld.1 Spain is also one o he wo ld’s la ges ishing ma ke s
(Pique o and López Losa 2005). Howe e , un il he las decades o he 19 h
cen u y, he Spanish ishing sec o was cha ac e ised by unde de elopmen ,
1. The Spanish lee accoun ed o 25% o he o al EU GRT and con ibu ed 25% o he
o al p oduc ion o ishe y p oduc s, wi h a alue eaching 35.5% o he o al (a e age alues
2011-2022). h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /web/ ishe ies/da a/main- ables. The Spanish deep- sea
lee is he i h-la ges in he wo ld a e China, Taiwan, Japan and Sou h Ko ea (McCauley
e al. 2018).
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
82
i no decline (Ca mona Badía and López Losa 2009, pp. 263-274). Be o e
he s eam e a, ishe ies in Spain had limi ed g ow h po en ial.
Geog aphic, echnical, and socioeconomic obs acles hinde ed bo h sup-
ply and demand g ow h. In addi ion o limi ed ca ching capaci y, he di icul-
y o p ese ing esh ish and anspo ing i o dis an ma ke s also p e en -
ed supply expansion. Low le els o u banisa ion and income did no help o
inc ease he demand o a good ha , unde hese condi ions, was ela i ely
expensi e and in i egula supply. As a esul , sal ed ish, including signi ican
amoun s o impo ed cod, co e ed mos o he low domes ic demand o ish.
While he e a e doub s abou he eliabili y o ishing s a is ics published in
he 1860s (Ca mona Badía 1983, pp. 403-407; Gi áldez Ri e o 1991), hey
show ha almos hal o he ca ch was p ocessed (43.2% sal ed; 5.3% pick-
led). Appa en consump ion can be calcula ed a 2.11 kg o esh ish, 1.76 kg
o sal ed ish, and 0.2 kg o pickled ish pe capi a; o which almos 2 kg o
cod should be added.2 In an en i onmen o low demand, he e we e ew in-
cen i es o inc ease ishing e o (López Losa 2002, pp. 35-38).
Al hough he lack o quan i a i e da a complica es in e na ional compa i-
sons, many 18 h-cen u y ilus ados3 lamen ed he poo pe o mance o he
Spanish ishing sec o in con as o he success o he F ench and, abo e all,
he Du ch and he B i ish in he in e na ional deep-sea ishing and sal ish ma -
ke s. They we e conce ned abou he loss o cu ency ha he pu chase o cod-
ish gene a ed (Uz a iz 1757) and emphasised he need o open new ishe ies
o educe impo s. Howe e , mos e e ed o Spanish ishe ies only angen-
ially (Ma ínez Shaw 1998, p. 1675). Few men ioned he impe us Ca alan me -
chan s and indus ialis s we e gi ing o he p oduc ion o sal ed sa dines in
Galicia and Andalusia. No did hey p opose imp o ing o he ishe ies ha al-
eady exis ed along he Spanish coas s beyond some basic sugges ions ha we e
usually imp ac ical (Alonso Ál a ez 1977; Ca mona Badía 1983; Ríos Jimé nez
2006). Wha mos conce ned hem was he c ucial ole o ishe ies in p o id-
ing labou o comme cial shipping and he Na y. Acco ding o Be na do de
Ulloa (1740, p. 42),
The mos impo an obs acle o ou a ic s ems om he neglec o ou ishe -
ies, and he ac ha hey a e en i ely abandoned on ou ex ensi e coas s, since
hese a e he b eeding g ounds om which he bes sailo s a e aken.4
2. A e age igu es o 1863-1867. Anua io es adís ico de España, yea s 1862-1865 and
1866-67, h ps://www.ine.es/inebaseweb/25687.do# (accessed 23/10/2021). In he same i e-yea
pe iod, he appa en consump ion o cod eached 1.92 kg pe capi a pe yea . Es adís icas del
Come cio Ex e io de España (Spanish Fo eign T ade S a is ics), espec i e yea s.
3. Spanish Enligh enmen in ellec uals.
4. “El más p incipal obs áculo a nues o T á ico, nace del descuido de nues as Pes-
que ías, y es a en e amen e abandonadas en nues as dila adas Cos as, siendo es as el plan el
de donde se sacan, y c ían los mejo es Ma ine os.”
E nes o López Losa
83
O he essayis s wi h close links o he sec o had a somewha di e en
pe spec i e. They ag eed wi h he me can ilis s on he need o limi impo s
o expand he na ow domes ic ish ma ke bu poin ed o o he ci cums anc-
es ha he la e igno ed in hei analysis. Among hese ci cums ances, wo
ins i u ions s and ou : he Royal Sal Monopoly (Es anco de la sal) and he
Ma i ime Regis y (Ma ícula de ma ). As Ca mona Badía (1983, 443-448)
igh ly poin ed ou , bo h ep esen ed obs acles o he unc ioning o Spanish
ishe ies because hey discou aged he pa icipa ion o labou and capi al.
Fu he mo e, he exis ing legisla ion on ishing gea s and esou ce manage-
men was insu icien and o en con adic o y. I c ea ed unce ain y and in-
s abili y in he ules o he game, which may also ha e educed in es men and
he di usion o ce ain ishing sys ems, as in he case o sailing awle s (pa e-
jas de bou).
Ra he han p o iding an ex ensi e analysis o Spanish ishe ies, his pa-
pe explo es he ins i u ions and egula ions ha may ha e shaped he p o-
duc i e beha iou o he indus y be o e he 20 h cen u y.
2. The Es anco de la Sal (Royal Sal Monopoly) and he sal ish indus y
This is he second seconda y and ex insic agen which in Spain ac s agains he
p ospe i y o ishe ies. I does no kill, no does ex e mina e, as he Bou [pai
awling] does …; bu i pa alyses hei comme ce and ies he hands o bo h he
ishe man, so ha he will no endea ou o make g ea s ides, and o he sal
businessman and ade , so ha he may nei he p o i om i no ci cula e i
h oughou he Península. I s i les, dulls, weakens, and causes he cessa ion o
coun less esou ces which, se in mo ion, would gi e subsis ence o a signi ican
numbe o Spania ds and conside able inc eases o he T easu y, which i canno
ha e, no will i e e ha e, as long as i does no change i s sys em o sal s…5
The claims o Mi a en y Sole (1835, p. 45) abou he impac o he Es-
anco on ishe ies in sou he n Spain a e jus one example o he many con-
empo a y accoun s ha iden i y he sal monopoly as a ba ie o he expan-
sion o ishing in he coun y. In addi ion o supply inelas ici y and
unce ain y (Ocampo Suá ez-Valdés 1990, p. 141), he main issue caused by
5. “Es e es el segundo agen e es inseco y secunda io que en España se opone a la p os-
pe idad de las pescas. No ma a, ni es e mina como el Bou…; pe o pa aliza su come cio, y a a
las manos, an o al pescado pa a que no se a ane en hace g andes conquis as, como al em-
p esa io y a ican e en la saladu a, pa a que ni pueda bene icia la ni ci cula la a oda la Penín-
sula; so ocando, embo ando, debili ando y haciendo cesa una in inidad de eso es que, pues-
os en mo imien o, da ían subsis encia a un sin núme o de Españoles, y al E a io aumen os
conside ables, que ni puede ene , ni end á jamás, mien as no a íe su sis ema en pun o de
sales.”
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
84
he monopoly was he high sal p ices ha p oduce s and ishe men had o
pay. I is no easy o ollow he ajec o y o sal p ices and, in u n, quan i y
hei e ec on p oduc ion cos s. Ne e heless, hei cou se can be ollowed by
analysing o icial sale p ice p o isions.
Sal wo ks and he sal hey p oduced had been a oyal p e oga i e o he
Cas ilian and A agonese c owns since he Middle Ages. In 1631, he Es anco
(Royal Monopoly) was es ablished in Cas ile as pa o an a emp a ax e-
o m (Fe nández de Pinedo 2014).6 Then, he p ice o sal was se a 40 eales
de ellón pe anega.7 The ailu e o he sal ax esul ed in he selling p ice be-
ing educed o p e ious le els. In 1632, sal was sold a 17 s. n. in Old Cas-
ile and a 22 s. n. in New Cas ile, while he sal used in ish p ocessing in
Galicia, As u ias, and Andalusia ecei ed he g ace p ice (p ecio de g acia) o
11 s. n./ anega (Galla do Fe nández 1808, p. 8).
Th oughou he 18 h cen u y, he Bou bon mona chy’s policies o p o-
mo e ishing ook he o m o ax exemp ions and p i ileges (Sáñez Regua
1791, pp. XIX-XV; Pas o Rod íguez 1880, pp. 40-44; Vázquez Lijó 2008a,
pp. 155-157). These included sal p ice educ ions o he ish p ocessing sec-
o . Al hough he egula p ice o sal inc eased due o he applica ion o su -
cha ges o inance di e en p ojec s and, abo e all, wa s, he ishing and ish
p ocessing sec o s gene ally bene i ed om p e e en ial a es. In 1750, while
he egula p ice o sal was a ound 50 s. n./ anega, he p ice o ishe ies
was se a 10 s. n. Subsequen ly, his p ice inc eased, eaching 14 s. n./
anega in 1781 be o e d opping back o 10 s. n. a he end o 1782. Howe -
e , no long he ea e , he Royal O de o 29 June 1784 again aised he p ice
o sal o ishe ies o 14 s. n./ anega in o de o inance wa expendi u es.8
In 1802, ishe men we e once mo e exemp ed om su cha ges, and p ices e-
u ned o 10 s. n./ anega. Ne e heless, a e Fe nando VII was es o ed o
he h one in 1813, he p ice o sal o ish p ocessing was inc eased by an
addi ional six eals pe anega o 16 s. n. as pa o a plan o ebuild he
Na y (Aldana 1873, p. 306).
The Es anco was suspended du ing he Libe al T iennium (1820-1823).
Howe e , sho ly he ea e , in 1823, i was eins a ed a a uni e sal p ice o
45 s. n./ anega, and all p i ileges, g ace p ices, and exemp ions we e abol-
ished (Ga cía del Hoyo 2002, p. 54). The impac o his measu e was disas-
ous, and he demands o p oduce s and ishe men soon led o new elie
measu es ha , acco ding o Ca mona Badía (1983, pp. 429-430), educed he
6. Unde he Nue a Plan a dec ee, he sal wo ks o he Kingdom o A agón we e includ-
ed in he Es anco in 1707. Giménez and Royo (2013, p. 105).
7. The cu ency uni , eales de ellón, will be abb e ia ed om he e on as “ s. n”. The
anega was he measu e o d y capaci y used o sal .
8. AMDAB, Ma ículas, Gene alidad, Legajo 1872.
E nes o López Losa
85
p ice o 20 s. n.9 In 1828, Spanish policy on sal p ices o ishe ies ook a
new di ec ion. Tha yea , he Co es (Spanish Pa liamen ) passed a law s ip-
ula ing ha sal ed ish ha was expo ed ab oad o anspo ed by sea o do-
mes ic ma ke s was o pay only 10 s. n./ anega. Howe e , jus a ew yea s
la e , in 1834, a new dec ee elimina ed all sal p ice exemp ions, meaning sal -
ish p oduce s and ishe men we e o pay he egula p ice o 52 s. n./ ane-
ga. Only hose who expo ed sal ish o o eign ma ke s would ecei e a 30%
p emium on p ice, which would be educed o 15% o expo s o colonial
ma ke s. Pe haps as compensa ion, he dec ee s ipula ed ha , “Du ies on he
same a icles impo ed om ab oad shall be a anged in such a way as o e-
sul in a bene i in a ou o na ionals”.10
Howe e , he po en ial bene i s o hese educ ions and impo le ies we e
ela i ely small. Spain p oduced sal ed sa dines (and sal ed una in he sou h),
whe eas impo s we e mos ly cod ish, a he han sa dines o he ing. Fu -
he mo e, Spanish sal ed sa dines we e no in high demand in in e na ional
ma ke s. The ollowing yea , Galician membe s o he Co es complained ha
hese expo p omo ion measu es we e useless. Because mos sal ed sa dines
we e expo ed ia cabo age o Spanish ma ke s, mainly o he Medi e ane-
an, hey asked ha he same bene i s be ex ended o he coas al ade.11 T eas-
u y ep esen a i es a gued ha expo subsidies we e he means commonly
used by neighbou ing coun ies o p omo e indus y and ha ax exemp ions
could no be adop ed because hey would c ea e ax inequali ies wi hin Spain.
Mo eo e , membe s o he Co es opposed o exemp ions decla ed ha he
igu es on sal p ices and consump ion ci ed by sal ed pilcha d manu ac u -
e s o suppo hei claims abou he bu den caused by he monopoly we e
mo e han ques ionable. These membe s alluded o audulen sal sales and
made sub le accusa ions o smuggling.12 In he end, i appea s ha he p o-
es s we e success ul. The sal sales p ice o all ish ha was anspo ed by
sea, bo h ab oad and domes ically, was again se a 10 s. n./ anega a he
end o 1835.13
A b oade pe spec i e is needed o explain he p o es s agains he high
p oduc ion cos s caused by he Royal Monopoly. The sal monopoly es ab-
lished wo ypes o sal p ices. Fi s , he e was he monopoly p ice ha Span-
ish consume s had o pay. Among domes ic consume s, ish manu ac u e s
cons i u ed a p i ileged g oup ha bene i ed om many p ice educ ions bu
was also subjec o changes ha undoub edly a ec ed p oduc ion. Second,
he e was he open ma ke p ice a which he Spanish T easu y sold sal o
9. Gace a de Mad id, 24, 21/02/1824.
10. Gace a de Mad id, 172, 7/08/1834.
11. Dia io de Sesiones de Co es, 160, 2/03/1835; ibidem, 161, 3/03/1835.
12. Ibidem, 183, 30/03/1835; ibidem, 188, 6/04/1835.
13. Gace a de Mad id, 341, 2/12/1835.
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
86
o eign me chan s, bu no o Spanish consume s. Fishe men and ish manu-
ac u e s equen ly complained ha he coun ies ha domina ed he sal -
ish ma ke in he A lan ic we e able o buy Spanish sal a p ices ha we e
much lowe han monopoly p ices (Ca mona Badía 1983, p. 433; Vázquez
Lijó 2008a, p. 166). In he 1730s, Al onso Na ia-Oso io (1732, p. 42) sugges -
ed ha selling sal o ishe men a he same p ice paid by o eigne s would e-
duce he amoun o money ha le Spain o pay o sal ed ish, and ha
“wi h ou ishe men’s p o i s being highe , he numbe o hem, and conse-
quen ly ha o sailo s, would inc ease”.
Then, 25 yea s la e , Ge ónimo de Uz a iz (1757, p. 318) no ed his con-
adic ion bu hough any solu ion p oblema ic. He s a ed ha he p ices
a which o he Eu opean expo e s, such as “F ance, Sicily, Sa dinia, and
Po ugal”, sold sal we e simila o hose cha ged in Spain. Inc easing hem
would only lead o he loss o his i al ade wi h he “no he n coun ies”
and he e enue i gene a ed o he T easu y. A cen u y la e , no hing had
changed. A bes , sal was sold o na ionals a p ices o a ound 10 o 12 s.
n./ anega, whe eas o eign impo e s paid only 1.5 o 2 s. n./ anega in
Andalusia “ o sal he ish ha Spain la e consumes” (Rep esen ación 1821,
p. 111).14
Gi en he sca ci y o da a, i is no easy o quan i a i ely assess he e ec
o monopoly p ices on he cos s uc u e o sal ish p oduc ion and, in u n,
on he sec o ’s compe i i eness. Ga cía del Hoyo (2002, pp. 54-55) e alua ed
he impac o sal p ices on sal ed sa dine p oduc ion in Andalusia using da a
om Oya ide (1776)15 and Mi a en (1835). He calcula ed ha , a he s and-
a d p ice o 52 s. n./ anega, sal would ha e amoun ed o abou a hi d o
he o al cos o aw ma e ials (sa dines and sal ). Fo manu ac u e s ha
could expo by sea and ake ad an age o g ace p ices, i would ha e amoun -
ed o 12-15%. In he las qua e o he 18 h cen u y, Co nide published a
mo e de ailed cos s uc u e o Galicia (Table 1). Acco ding o his calcula-
ions, sal accoun ed o 21% o he p oduc ion cos . A hypo he ical cos
s uc u e using he p ice o eigne s paid o sal (2 s. n./ anega), wi h all o h-
e cos s being equal, has also been simula ed in Table 1. These new calcula-
ions show ha a his p ice, he sha e o sal would ha e plumme ed o 3%,
educing o al cos s by 20%.
14. See also Museo Na al (MN), Ms. 2203.
15. In Gonzál ez Escoba (1988, pp. 63-92).
E nes o López Losa
87
TABLE 1 ▪ P oduc ion cos s o one housand (un milla ) o sal ed pilcha d in Galicia
in he las qua e o he 18 h cen u y
A he egula p ice
o 17 s. n.
A he hypo he ical p ice
o 2 s. n.
s. n. % s. n. %
Sa dines (1 milla - abou 23 kg) 12.00 59.26 12.00 72.73
Sal (one e ado - abou 12.87 kg) 4.25 20.99 0.50 3.03
Labou 1.00 4.94 1.00 6.06
Packing 3.00 14.81 3.00 18.18
P oduc ion cos ( s n.) 20.25 100.00.00 16.50 100.00.00
Sou ce: Co nide (1774, p. 149).
In he 1830s, ci cums ances had no changed subs an ially. Only hose
manu ac u e s who could anspo sal ed sa dines by sea, and he e o e had
access o g ace p ices, we e able o b ing hei p oduc o ma ke a a compe -
i i e p ice. Acco ding o San os Cas o iejo (1998, p. 123), hose who we e
unable o access hese p ices we e o ced o pay he egula p ice o 50 s. n./
anega. Unde hese ci cums ances, sal cons i u ed almos hal (46%) o p o-
duc ion cos s. When sal was pu chased a he g ace p ice o 10 s. n., his
sha e would all o 14%, and o al cos s would be educed by a hi d. A he
p ice cha ged o o eigne s (2 s. n./ anega), he impac o sal on p oduc-
ion cos s would ha e been minimal (1%), and o al p oduc ion cos s would
ha e been educed by 40%. Howe e , he issue was complex because he sal
monopoly cons i u ed a aluable sou ce o e enue o he Spanish T easu y.
As T easu y Minis e Ped o Su á y Rull s a ed in 1841, “[…] he app oach
o be aken wi h ega d o e enue ha cons i u es one-six een h o ha which
en e s he T easu y equi es e y pa icula medi a ion”.16
F ancisco Con e (1854, p. 216) made simila conside a ions abou ax e -
enue en yea s la e . A he same ime, he added an a gumen commonly pu
o h by hose who disag eed wi h sal ed ish p oduce s’ demands. He con-
ended ha he indus y’s u u e p ospec s and lack o p og ess we e no de-
e mined exclusi ely by he p ice o sal . He sub ly sugges ed ha i he sal -
ed sa dine ade was unable o expand na ionally o access in e na ional
ma ke s, i was no because o he sal monopoly, as he sec o enjoyed e-
duced p ices. I was a ques ion o p oduc quali y.
16. “(E)l sesgo que haya de oma se espec o de una en a que cons i uye la dieciseisa a
pa e de las que ing esan en el E a io equie e medi ación muy pa icula ”. Dia io de Sesio-
nes, 55, 29/05/1841, p. 1025.
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
88
TABLE 2 ▪ The Royal Sal Monopoly (Es anco de la Sal). Pa icipa ion (pe cen age) o
he Spanish T easu y’s o al e enue
1761-1765 5.00
1803-1807 11.00
1814-1818 10.50
1820-1821 14.23
1824 13.75
1829 11.36
1833 9.85
1837 8.60
1842 6.00
1847 10.00
1849-1855 9.00
Sou ce: Comín (1990). 1761-1765, in Piepe (1992, p. 118), ci ed in Vázquez Lijó (2008a, p. 152).
Un il he monopoly was inally abolished in 1869, he ques ion o whe h-
e i was de imen al o he de elopmen o he sal ish indus y o , con e se-
ly, he indus y’s p oblems lay in ac o s o he han he p ice o sal was he
subjec o equen poli ical deba e. Rep esen a i es o Galician and Anda-
lusian p oduce s equen ly lobbied o abolish he monopoly in he Spanish
Pa liamen . Howe e , small p oduce s and ishe men could ha dly p esen
hei demands be o e such high le els o go e nmen . Indeed, i could be a -
gued ha g ace p ices may ha e helped he ish sal ing indus y in Galicia and
he Andalusian A lan ic, bu hey did no apply o all ishe ies. Fo example,
cu ed and pickled ish, sal ed ish anspo ed o inland ma ke s by land, and
ishe men who used sal o p ese e esh ish when i a i ed a ma ke s did
no enjoy hese p ices. They had o pay he egula p ice o 52 s. n./ anega,
plus shipping and handling cos s and o he local and/o egional su cha ges.
In 1841, a g oup o membe s o he Co es om As u ias eques ed ha g ace
p ices be applied o commodi ies such as sal ed cu ed hake ha was ans-
po ed o e land o Cas ile, bu hey we e unsuccess ul. They epo ed ha he
p ice hose manu ac u e s aced was 64 s. n./ anega, which made i impos-
sible o cu ed hake o compe e wi h impo ed cod in inland ma ke s.17 As he
ishe men o Chiclana, in he p o ince o Cádiz, s a ed ha he same decade,
p ice educ ions only a ou ed hose shipowne s and in es o s who had he
inancial capaci y o de elop a long-dis ance ish ade, which was ha dly
wi hin each o mos ishe men.18
17. Dia io de Sesiones, apéndice oc a o al nº 20, 12/04/1841, p. 333.
18. MN. Ms. 2203.
E nes o López Losa
89
3. The Ma ícula de Ma (Ma i ime Regis y)
The na al capabili ies o Eu opean powe s depended la gely on hei abil-
i y o mobilise pe sonnel engaged in ma i ime ac i i ies o se ice in he
Na y. Di e en sys ems we e used o ensu e a egula and su icien supply
o sailo s, pa icula ly in imes o con lic (Vázquez Lijó 2006, p. 293; F yk-
man 2009, p. 69). Following he example o F ance’s insc ip ion ma i ime,
Bou bon Spain op ed o a consc ip ion model ha would come o be known
as he Ma ícula de Ma .
In he i s decades o he 17 h cen u y, na al au ho i ies made se e al a -
emp s o eplace olun a y se ice wi h a sys em o consc ip ion, bu hey
we e unsuccess ul.19 I was no un il a cen u y la e , a e he end o he Wa
o he Spanish Succession, ha Ma ícula de Ma inally go unde way. The
new Bou bon adminis a ion aimed o eo ganise Spain’s mili a y s uc u es
and s eng hen i s ma i ime po en ial. Spanish o eign policy equi ed a sol-
id na y o de end Peninsula e i o ies and colonial possessions and p omo e
ade be ween he me opolis and he empi e (Ma ínez Shaw and Fe nández
Díaz 1995, pp. 241-244, 267). Ch is ophe S o s (2016, p. 53) main ains ha
18 h-cen u y Spain, like B i ain and F ance, was bo h a iscal-mili a y and
iscal-na al s a e, and he Ma ícula de Ma was one o he co ne s ones o
he Bou bon p ojec .
While a ious ea ly-18 h-cen u y egula ions o eshadowed he de el-
opmen o he Ma ícula de Ma , he Na al O dinance o 1737 ep esen ed
he i s eal s eps owa d es ablishing his egis a ion sys em (Salas 1879,
pp. 167-174; Vázquez Lijo 2007, pp. 244-260). The o dinances o 1748 (O de-
nanzas gene ales de la A mada), 1751 (Real o denanza pa a égimen y omen-
o de la ma ine ía ma iculada), and 1802 (las O denanzas pa a el égimen y
gobie no mili a de las ma ículas de ma ) p o ided i s inal o m. The Ma í-
cula de Ma comp ised he egis a ion o all men engaged in he ishing and
ma i ime indus ies be ween he ages o 14 and 60. In exchange o egis e -
ing, hey would be g an ed a ious p i ileges, he mos impo an o which
was he monopoly on ishing and na iga ion (O denanzas 1748, p. 212, Tí u-
lo sex o, A . III). In heo y, his a angemen should ha e p o ided a pow-
e ul incen i e o a ac labou and capi al o ma i ime ishing ac i i ies and
he e o e ha e con ibu ed o adequa ely mee ing he Na y’s need o sea a -
e s. Howe e , i ailed o ha e he expec ed e ec . Con empo a y sou ces un-
spa ingly cha ac e ise he Ma ícula as an obs acle o he de elopmen o
ma i ime indus ies.
19. The Basques’ e usal o accep he p oposed condi ions appea s o ha e con ibu ed
o hei ailu e. Salas (1879, pp.101-106); Bu gos Mad oñe o (1993, p. 15); Rahn Phillips (2006,
p. 178).
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
96
il i was inally e o med a he la e da e o 1867 and pe manen ly abolished
on 26 Ma ch 1873.33
4. Fishe ies egula ions: he case o pa ejas de bou (sailing pai - awle s)
The chao ic and o en con adic o y na u e o ishing laws and egula-
ions was ano he alleged impedimen o he unc ioning o ishe ies in Spain.
While he de ini i e iumph o libe alism a e he Fi s Ca lis Wa (1833-
1840) mean he es ablishmen o a new ins i u ional s uc u e in he coun y,
ma i ime indus ies con inued adminis e ed unde a unique sys em di ec ly
inhe i ed om he Ancien Régime. This mean ha ma i ime issues ell ou -
side ci ilian ju isdic ion and we e o e seen by he Na y. Consequen ly, no
only did he Na y con ol he wo k o ce h ough he Ma ícula de Ma , bu
i also had he au ho i y o se he ules go e ning he ishing sec o .
The i s documen ed a emp s o de elop ishe ies legisla ion a he na-
ional le el da e om he mid-18 h cen u y. In connec ion wi h he O dinanc-
es o 1751, egula ions we e d a ed o ce ain no he n p o inces, bu e o s
o include he en i e coun y ailed.34 In he las decades o he cen u y, Sáñez
Regua unsuccess ully ied o b ing oge he all exis ing egula ions on ish-
ing gea s, ish sales, and ela ed issues in a gene al ishing law ha would ap-
ply h oughou Spain (Ga cía Faja do and Fe nández Pé ez 1993, pp. 34-37).
Al hough hese p oposals ailed o be implemen ed, hey a e o g ea in e es .
They p o ide insigh in o he ishing p ac ices o he pe iod and e lec an ide-
ology ha se ed as he basis o he Na y’s policies o a long ime. The spi -
i o mos egula ions on ishing equipmen co esponded o a pa icula ly
conse a i e concep ion o na u e and he social en i onmen , which can be
glimpsed in wo ks o au ho s such as Co nide, Sa mien o, and Sáñez Regua ,
o name bu a ew o he leading expe s o he pe iod.35 They we e all clea ly
opposed o he use o in ensi e ishing sys ems o wo easons. On he one
hand, hey ea ed ha he g ea e ishing capaci y o hese gea s could dis up
he exis ing o de in he ma ine ecosys em, h ea ening he long- e m su i al
o esou ces. On he o he hand, hey we e conce ned ha hese echnologies
33. h ps://www.boe.es/da os/pd s/BOE//1873/085/A00979-00980.pd .
34. The Fishe ies O dinances o he p o inces o Pon e ed a (1768), La Co uña (1769)
and A ilés (1769) a e ep oduced in G aells (1864, pp. 203-229).
35. Some manusc ip s ha had long emained unpublished ha e been pa ially o o ally
ep oduced in publica ions in he pas ew decades. Fo example, Fa he Sa mien o’s disse a ion
“De los a unes y de sus ansmig aciones y conje u as sob e la decadencia de las almad abas y
sob e los medios pa a es i ui las” (On una and hei ansmig a ions and conjec u es on he de-
cline o he Almad abas and he means o es o e hem), w i en in 1757, in A bex and López
Linage (1991, pp. 61-98). Sáñez Regua ’s s udy o he na u al his o y o ish has been edi ed by
Isabel Ga cía Faja do and Joaquín Fe nández. See Sáñez Regua (1993).
E nes o López Losa
97
could di ec ly impac labou supply by educing demand, leading o social un-
es in coas al a eas. Sáñez Regua (1791, p. 333) w o e in his Dicciona io,
The es ablishmen o ( ishing laws) in socie y is he esul o knowledge necessa y
o he p ese a ion o o de . The e y momen ha some indi iduals, sepa a ing
hemsel es om ha cen e, wen oo a in he exploi a ion o he p oduc s o
he land and he wa e s, ules o p ecep s we e indispensable o con ain any un-
e enness con a y o he gene al good.36
While i would undoub edly be in e es ing o examine wha hese au ho s
had o say abou he beha iou and exploi a ion o ishe y esou ces, his a -
icle ocuses on hei in luence on ishe ies managemen (U eaga 1987; Ga cía
Faja do 1990; A bex and López Linaje 1991). They con ibu ed o he ideo-
logical en i onmen e lec ed in he es ic i e policies on allegedly ha m ul
ishing gea ha we e p e alen in Spanish legisla ion. Anyone who wan ed o
use new ishing equipmen , o modi y exis ing equipmen , had o eques pe -
mission o do so. Be o e deciding whe he o g an pe mission, na al au ho -
i ies consul ed hei ep esen a i es in he a ea, local au ho i ies, o he expe s,
and, ypically, he ishe men who would supposedly be a ec ed by he use o
he equipmen . Howe e , he esul o such p ac ices was no a cohesi e ish-
e ies policy bu a he a ple ho a o local edic s, pe mi s, and bans ha we e
o limi ed ele ance on a na ional scale. The e was li le consis ency, wi h ules
a ying om dis ic o dis ic and e en be ween nea by ishing po s. One o
he bes examples o he si ua ion desc ibed he e, in e ms o du a ion and ge-
og aphic scope, can be ound in he dispu es o e awling ishe ies.
The i s eliable e idence o pai awle s (pa ejas de bou) is om Ca alo-
nia in he ea ly 18 h cen u y. They quickly sp ead o o he egions, and sailing
awl ishing was soon p ac ised on mos Medi e anean and Sou h A lan ic
sho es, gene a ing a wide- anging and long-las ing dispu e wi h ishe men who
used o he equipmen (López Losa 2021). They accused awling o endan-
ge ing he u u e o ishe y esou ces by ca ching la ge numbe s o imma u e
ish and des oying hei habi a , hus damaging ep oduc ion. As a esul ,
ma i ime au ho i ies began o in oduce es ic ions and bans on he use o
awling. In p ac ice, legisla ion on awling was as p oli ic as i was con a-
dic o y (Sáñez Regua 1791, p. 317; Ma ínez Shaw 1988, pp. 323-325; Vega
Domínguez 1991, p. 248; Vi uela Ma ínez 1993, pp. 146-147). As a Fe nán-
dez Du o (1866, p. 11) poin ed ou ,
36. “El es ablecimien o de (leyes de pesca) en la Sociedad es el esul ado de conocimien-
os necesa ios á la conse ación del o den. En el mismo momen o que algunos indi iduos,
sepa ándose de aquel cen o, excedie on en el esquilmo de los p oduc os de la ie a y de las
aguas, ue on indispensables eglas o p ecep os pa a con ene odo desni el opues o al bien
gene al.”
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
98
The Go e nmen , anxious o econcile in e es s, while an impa ial in es iga ion
would de e mine whe he he pai awl ishing is ha m ul, as i s opponen s claim,
o ha mless, as he owne s endea ou o p o e, has issued con adic o y esolu ions,
which we e in ended o emedy he g ea es e ils o he ime being, bu which ha e
le he ma e in he same s a e un il oday, i he e y la ge numbe o dossie s
and epo s accumula ed o e such a long ime did no complica e i u he .37
In 1761, pa ejas de bou we e banned in all Spanish po s. This p ohibi-
ion was ei e a ed in 1772. Howe e , nume ous empo a y au ho isa ions
we e g an ed be ween he wo bans. Gi en he ailu e o hese measu es, eg-
ula o y p ac ices shi ed om p ohibi ion o egula ion. In 1777, sailing
awling was decla ed legal only om 10 Oc obe h ough Eas e o p o ec
ish ep oduc ion.
None heless, he si ua ion was complex, and local ci cums ances o en
ca ied mo e weigh han gene al laws. The case o he po o Málaga is a
p ime example o he ups and downs o ishing legisla ion on awling. In
1777, he ishe men’s guild and local au ho i ies managed o o ce ishe men
om o he po s who ished in Málaga’s wa e s o use he same sys ems and
ishing gea as local ishe men, in e ec banning awling. The o ensi e
agains awling con inued, and he guild managed o o bid he use o he
h ee pa ejas de bou ha exis ed in he ci y. Howe e , in 1814, he Coun o
Lalaing had no p oblem ge ing he ci y council o g an him he p i ilege o use
wo awling pai s. Two yea s la e , he ishe men’s guild wen so a as o ask
he ci y council o oblige he hen Coun ess o Lalaing o lease hem he wo
pai s in o de o ake hem ou o se ice, p omising o pay he amoun o
money i was es ima ed hey b ough in (Fe nández Du o 1866, pp. 20-23).
This same scena io o o al p ohibi ions and pa ial au ho isa ions was e-
pea ed in he i s decades o he 19 h cen u y when he a emp s a o al p o-
hibi ion o 1817 and 1828 we e dilu ed by an abundan numbe o local p o i-
sional pe mi s (Sáñez Regua 1791, 384; Fe nández Du o 1866, pp. 17-20).38
As Ma ínez Shaw (1988, 324) explained, au ho isa ions and p ohibi ions, lim-
i a ions, and indi idual exemp ions o he use o awling ne s e lec ed he
concep o p i ilege, “ e y much in he spi i o he Ancien Régime”.39
37. “El Gobie no, deseoso de concilia los in e eses, mien as que una in es igación im-
pa cial de e mina a si la pesca del Bou es pe judicial, como asegu an sus impugnado es, o in-
o ensi a, cual se es ue zan en p oba sus a mado es, ha dic ado esoluciones con adic o ias,
p opias pa a emedia de momen o los mayo es males, pe o que han dejado has a hoy la
cues ión en el mismo es ado, si no lo complicasen más el c ecidísimo núme o de expedien es é
in o mes acumulados en an o iempo.”
38. AMDAB, Pesca, Gene alidad, leg. 2021. Ma ículas, Gene alidad, leg. 1905.
39. The jus i ica ions o enabling essel owne s o ish wi h awl pai s o p o ide o
“ he oyal ables” o o ensu e supplies du ing Holy Weeks a e e y elling. Fo example,
AMDAB, Pesca, Gene alidad, legs. 1950-1951.
E nes o López Losa
99
Ne e heless, hese con o e sies hid a mo e complex dispu e. The in e -
es s o he Na y in p o ec ing he supply o sailo s and o ishe men in elim-
ina ing compe i ion con lic ed wi h he in e es s o municipali ies in secu -
ing ood supplies and o hose who saw in es men in pa ejas de bou as a
business oppo uni y, especially in a eas wi h la ge u ban popula ions. Sáñez
Regua (1791, pp. 339-340) had no doub ha awling was supe io o o h-
e ishing me hods. In his opinion, he p oblem was ha highe p oduc i i y
mean less wo k, which pushed ishe men in o po e y, d ew hem o o he
ades and, in he end, educed he numbe o a ailable seamen.40 This a gu-
men , along wi h he des uc ion o ishing nu se ies and g ounds, was he
lei mo i o p ac ically all objec ions o pa ejas de bou on he Spanish coas s.
Con e sely, hose who suppo ed awling coun e ed ha i was a om
p o en ha his sys em o ishing caused ish sca ci y o he deple ion o
g ounds. In addi ion, hey a gued ha he libe alisa ion o awling would
p o ide wo signi ican ad an ages. Fi s ly, i would supply consume s wi h
mo e ish a lowe p ices, pu ing an end o he monopoly o ishe men’s as-
socia ions ha sold ish a high p ices. Secondly, allowing awling would no
educe bu a he inc ease labou pa icipa ion, p o iding he Na y wi h men
who we e ained o deep-sea na iga ion, unlike hose engaged in coas al
ishing.41
A i udes owa ds awling did no change much in he 19 h cen u y. The
dominan ideology emained con a y o in ensi e ishing me hods, bu local
eli es lobbied o ishing pe mi s and o e looked bans wi h he complici y o
local ci il and na al au ho i ies. Such was he si ua ion when a inal a emp
was made o legisla e agains awling. In 1865, he Reglamen o pa a la pesca
con el a e denominado Pa ejas de Bou (Regula ions on ishing wi h he equip-
men known as Pa ejas de Bou) was enac ed. F om hen on, he objec i e was
o p og essi ely phase i ou . The cons uc ion o new sailing boa s o awl-
ing and he epai o exis ing boa s ha had eached he inal hi d o hei
use ul li e we e banned. In addi ion, he use o s eame s in awl ishing was
exp essly o bidden.42 Again, his legisla ion ailed o achie e he in ended
ou come. Al hough he expansion o pa ejas de bou was limi ed, hey con in-
ued o be used in he Medi e anean and he Andalusian A lan ic, gene a ing
u he con o e sies.
40. To ein o ce his idea, he used he example o ano he gea dispu e in Galicia, which
had simila esul s. Sáñez Regua (1791, pp. 342-343).
41. On deba es be ween suppo e s and opponen s o pa ejas de bou, see Ma ínez de Mo a
(1779); Sáñez Regua (1791); Ma ín (1806); Obse aciones sob e la pesca llamada de Pa ejas de
Bou (1821); Mi a en y Sole (1835); Fe nández Du o (1866, 1868). In addi ion, he Na y A -
chi es (AMDAB and Na al Museum) house nume ous iles on dispu es o e awling.
42. Howe e , ha same yea , a he eques o a shipowne om Cádiz, he Na y allowed
s eam awling on ishing banks close o he coas o Mo occo; la e , in 1866, pe mission was
ex ended o i een miles o he Spanish coas . Fe nández Du o (1866, pp. 53-56).
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
100
Ul ima ely, he p agma ism seen in he applica ion o many o hese meas-
u es was due o he incapaci y o ma i ime au ho i ies o en o ce he es ab-
lished ules. “‘The sea is inexhaus ible’, some say wi h na u al o a ec ed and
sel -in e es ed candou ”, Salas and Ga cía Solá (1876, p. LIII) i onically
w o e o hose who de ended in ensi e ishing me hods. They we e highly c i -
ical o awling, which hey accused o deple ing esou ces, bu also o he
go e nmen , which “se ou o de end es ed in e es s” because “ he main in-
e es ed pa ies, as p omo e s o his me hod o ishing, a e he weal hies
( esiden s) o he ci ies and owns whe e i exis s” (Salas and Ga cía Solá
1876, pp. 192-193). The impac o policies on awling ishe ies is di icul o
quan i y. Al hough bans we e unsuccess ul, i is highly likely ha he es ic-
i e policies in o ce un il he end o he 19 h cen u y educed in es men and
p e en ed u he expansion o his sys em o ishing.
TABLE 4 ▪ Numbe o sailing essels employed in awling ishing in Spain
1865 729
1874 655
1878 715
1907 1,740
1915 1,560
Sou ce: López Losa (1997a, p. 175).
5. Conclusions
Du ing he 18 h and 19 h cen u ies, he in e es s and needs o he s a e,
he Na y and he ishing indus y o en came in o con lic in Spain. I is di -
icul o e alua e he di ec impac o he Royal Sal Monopoly, he Ma í cula
de Ma , and ishing legisla ion on he pe o mance o Spanish ishe ies be-
cause hei e ec s canno be wholly sepa a ed om o he ac o s ela ing o
echnology and he coun y’s o e all le el o de elopmen . Fu u e esea ch
should ocus on quan i a i ely es ima ing hei impac . Ne e heless, i we a e
o belie e wha ishe men, ish manu ac u e s, and a numbe o publicis s
claimed, hey had an unques ionably de imen al impac .
Sal ish manu ac u e s, whose mos impo an ma ke s we e on he dense-
ly popula ed Medi e anean coas , bene i ed om g ace p ices ia ma i ime
expo s bu complained ha high sal p ices educed compe i i eness. How-
e e , equen calls o p ice educ ions and he end o he sal monopoly we e
no a ma e o compe ing in o eign ma ke s, bu a he p incipally o ex-
E nes o López Losa
101
panding domes ic ma ke s. The demands o As u ian cu ed hake p oduce s
also ocused on he domes ic ma ke , as hey asked o he same g ace p ices
o ish anspo ed by land. They belie ed ha a mo e a o dable sal p ice
would boos hake ishing and ha cu ed hake could compe e wi h impo ed
cod, gi en he simila i y o he wo p oduc s.43
Though his conclusion mus be aken wi h some ese a ions, he elimi-
na ion o he Es anco de la sal likely con ibu ed o a dec ease in cos s and an
inc ease in he expo o sal ed ish. Ca mona Badía (1983, pp. 414; 425-426)
calcula ed ha he olume o sal ed sa dines expo ed ab oad om Galicia
compa ed o hose sen o domes ic ma ke s p og essi ely inc eased s a ing
in he mid-19 h cen u y onwa ds. Howe e , when he Es anco was abolished in
1869, he sal ing sec o in Galicia was al eady in decline and he mode n can-
ning indus y was jus ge ing unde way. A he same ime, sal ed ancho y
expo s om he Bay o Biscay and una expo s om sou he n Spain lou -
ished beginning in he las decades o he cen u y (Ca mona Badía 1985);
López Losa 1997b; Escude o Domínguez 2007; Ríos Jiménez 2005).
O he s akeholde s in Spanish ishe ies complained abou he lack o ee-
dom in using labou and capi al. The case o awling is pa adigma ic. Al-
hough he sca ci y o esou ces and he complica ed ela ions be ween di -
e en ac o s made i di icul o en o ce es ic i e legisla ion, awling would
p obably ha e been mo e success ul in a mo e suppo i e en i onmen .
The disman ling o he p e-libe al ma i ime ins i u ional s uc u e acili-
a ed he beginning o he de elopmen o Spanish ishe ies. This p ocess be-
gan wi h he pe manen aboli ion o ma i ime guilds in 1864, he elimina ion
o he Royal Sal Monopoly in 1869, and he end o he Ma ícula de Ma in
1873. The i s signi ican s ep owa ds he libe alisa ion o he ishing indus-
y came in 1885 wi h he Reglamen o de libe ad de pesca eglamen ada (Reg-
ula ions on F eedom o Regula ed Fishing), which es ablished eedom o
ishing mo e han h ee miles om he coas line. In he case o awling ish-
e ies, comple e libe alisa ion did no come un il in 1898, wi h he Reglamen-
o pa a la pesca con el a e de bou y demás edes de a as e emolcadas po em-
ba caciones (Regula ions o ishing wi h pai awling gea and o he awls
owed by boa s). These egula ions elimina ed he es ic ions ha he Regu-
la ions o 1865 had imposed on pa ejas de bou and he ban on s eam awling
wi hin 15 miles o he Spanish coas line (López Losa 1997a).
A he u n o he 19 h o he 20 h cen u y, a mo e a ou able ins i u ion-
al en i onmen , domes ic ma ke expansion d i en by u ban g ow h, and he
expansion o he ailway ne wo k, oge he wi h g owing o eign demand o
canned and sal ed ish, d o e o wa d he mode nisa ion and g ow h o he
43. Dia io de Sesiones, Apéndice oc a o núm. 20, 12/04/1841, p. 333.
Ins i u ional cons ain s o he de elopmen o he Spanish ishing sec o (18 h and 19 h cen u ies)
102
Spanish ishing indus y.44 F om ha poin on, as Ca mona Badía s a ed in his
in oduc ion o Gi áldez’s book (1996, p. 21), ew economic sec o s in Spain
ha e been as inno a i e and dynamic, in compa a i e pe spec i e, as he ish-
ing indus y.
Acknowledgmen s
Financial suppo om he Minis e io de Economía, Indus ia y Compe-
i i idad AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and FEDER Un mane a de hace Eu-
opa (P ojec PID2021-124378NB-100) and he Basque Go e nmen (Con-
solida ed Resea ch G oup GIC21/38) is g a e ully acknowledged. I also hank
he wo anonymous e iewe s and he edi o s o he jou nal o hei help ul
commen s and sugges ions.
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