Ci a ion: Pé ez-Acebo, H.; Isasa, M.;
Gu u xaga, I.; Alonso-Soló zano, Á.
Analysis o he Skid Resis ance
Dec ease in Bi uminous Pa emen s in
Dual-Ca iageway Tunnels. Buildings
2024,14, 3963. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/buildings14123963
Academic Edi o : Bingxiang Yuan
Recei ed: 31 Oc obe 2024
Re ised: 2 Decembe 2024
Accep ed: 10 Decembe 2024
Published: 13 Decembe 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
A icle
Analysis o he Skid Resis ance Dec ease in Bi uminous Pa emen s
in Dual-Ca iageway Tunnels
He ibe o Pé ez-Acebo 1,* , Mi en Isasa 2, I zia Gu u xaga 2and Ángela Alonso-Soló zano 3
1Mechanical Enginee ing Depa men , Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Pº Ra ael Mo eno
Pi xi xi, 2, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
2Mechanical Enginee ing Depa men , Uni e si y o he Basque Coun y UPV/EHU, Pl. Eu opa, 1,
20018 Donos ia-San Sebas ián, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (M.I.); i zia .gu [email p o ec ed] (I.G.)
3Depa men o Physics, Uni e si y F ancisco de Vi o ia, Ca e e a Pozuelo-Majadahonda, km 1.800,
28223 Pozuelo de Ala cón, Spain; angela.alonso@u .es
*Co espondence: he ibe o.pe [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-946017820
Abs ac : Unlike o he pa emen indices, he skid esis ance, o ic ion, o bi uminous pa emen s
beha es di e en ly. A e he ex ension o a new laye , he ic ion inc eases as he bi umen ilm is
emo ed and he agg ega es a e exposed. The agg ega es a e hen polished by a ic, mainly by hea y
ehicles, and he pa emen eaches he seasonal phase, in which, i hea y a ic olume emains
cons an , he only a ia ions a e seasonal, wi h maximum alues in win e and minimum alues in
summe . None heless, in unnels, as hey a e no exposed o clima ic ac ions, he ic ion alue is
lowe han ou side. The e o e, he a icle e alua es he skid esis ance dec ease in unnels compa ed
o ou doo condi ions. Fo his pu pose, he skid esis ance alues in dual-ca iageway unnels in
Gipuzkoa (Spain) we e s udied and compa ed wi h he alues ob ained 500 m be o e and a e he
unnel. O e all, a 10% ic ion dec ease was obse ed inside he unnels. In win e , he dec ease was
11%, while in summe i was 8%. In unnels longe han 500 m, he dec ease was g ea e (12%) han
in unnels sho e han 500 m (9% and 7%). This analysis con ibu es o a be e knowledge o he
a ailable ic ion inside a unnel and o he be e managemen o oad sa e y.
Keywo ds: skid esis ance; pa emen ic ion; unnel; oad sa e y; SCRIM coe icien ; pa emen
managemen sys em
1. In oduc ion
Despi e e o s o educe he numbe o inju ies and a ali ies in oad c ashes, oad
sa e y emains a se ious p oblem, being he leading cause o p ema u e dea h wo ld-
wide
[1–5]
. In gene al, c ashes a e due o mul iple causes, which a e o en g ouped in o
d i e - ela ed, ehicle- ela ed, and oad condi ion- ela ed, in a ying p opo ions [6–8].
Wi h ega d o oad condi ions, nume ous s udies showed ha he e is a signi ican
ela ionship be ween c ash isk due o sliding and skid esis ance in bo h d y and we con-
di ions [
9
–
14
]. Fo example, Page and Bu as [
15
] ound ha c ash a es on we pa emen s
was highe on cu es, especially hose wi h a ans e se skid esis ance lowe han 0.25.
Indeed, some o he mos po en ially dange ous d i ing condi ions a ise om low ic ion
due o hea y ain all combined wi h poo oad geome y, o om sudden changes in skid
esis ance, which may be caused by con aminan s, localized su ace de ec s, o he ini ial
momen s o p ecipi a ion [
16
]. Musey and Pa k [
17
] ound ha g ea inju ies occu ed
on cu es wi h highe deg ees o cu a u e and lowe ic ion. Compa ing condi ions
be o e and a e , Lyon and Pe saud [
18
] measu ed a educ ion in acciden s o up o 57% on
sec ions and junc ions wi h a high p opo ion o acciden s ela ed o we pa emen and
low ic ion. In Spain, Mayo a and Piña [
19
] showed a 68% educ ion in we pa emen
c ashes by inc easing he skid esis ance om an a e age SCRIM coe icien alue o 50 o
60, measu ed by he Sideway Coe icien Rou ine In es iga ion Machine (SCRIM).
Buildings 2024,14, 3963. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/buildings14123963 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/buildings
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 2 o 19
Skid esis ance, o pa emen ic ion (used synonymously o his pape ), is de ined as
he “ o ce ha esis s he ela i e o a ion be ween a ehicle wheel and he pa emen ” [
6
]. The o ce
is gene a ed when he ehicle wheel o a es o slides on he oad su ace and is he esul
o a complex in e ac ion be ween adhesion and hys e esis [
3
,
20
–
22
]. Adhesion appea s a
he con ac be ween he wheel and he pa emen and is ela ed o he oughness o he
agg ega e a he mic o le el, i.e., he mic o- ex u e o he pa emen . Hys e esis is a ibu ed
o i egula i ies a he mac o le el o he su ace, he mac o- ex u e o he pa emen [
22
–
24
].
The scales o su ace ex u e we e de ined a he XVII Wo ld Road Cong ess in 1987 in
B ussels (Belgium) [25] as a unc ion o wa eleng h (λ) and ampli ude (Table 1).
Table 1. Classi ica ion o pa emen de ia ions.
Le el o Tex u e Wa eleng h, λAmpli ude, A (mm)
Mic o- ex u e 0 < λ< 0.5 0.001 < A < 0.5
Mac o- ex u e 0.5 < λ< 50 0.1 < A < 20
Mega- ex u e 50 < λ< 500 1 < A < 50
Roughness o une enness λ> 500 1 < A < 200
Mic o- ex u e depends on he su ace p ope ies o he agg ega es and he bi uminous
ma e ial ha binds hem and mac o- ex u e on he p ope ies o he bi uminous mix,
such as shape, size, and g ada ion o he agg ega es. While mic o- ex u e and mac o-
ex u e a e necessa y p ope ies o ic ion, mega- ex u e and su ace egula i y should be
a oided. Fac o s a ec ing he skid esis ance o pa emen s a e usually g ouped in o ou
ca ego ies [6,23,25–30], as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Fac o s a ec ing oad ic ion.
Pa emen Su ace
Cha ac e is ics Vehicle Fac o s Ti e P ope ies En i onmen
1. Mic o- ex u e
2. Mac o- ex u e
3. Ma e ial p ope ies
4. Mega- ex u e/une enness
5. Tempe a u e
Slip speed, as a unc ion o
1. Vehicle speed
2. Slip a io
3. D i ing maneu e
3a. Tu ning
3b. O e aking
1. T ead design and condi ion
2. In la ion p essu e
3. Rubbe composi ion and
ha dness
4. Foo p in
5. Load
6. Tempe a u e
1. Tempe a u e
2. Wa e ( ain all, condensa ion)
3. Snow and ice
4. Con aminan s (sal , sand,
di , mud)
5. Wind
No e: Key ac o s in each shown in bold.
On he o he hand, he e a e nume ous skid esis ance measu emen de ices and
equipmen , which a e usually classi ied acco ding o h ee p inciples o ope a ion: longi-
udinal ic ion coe icien , ans e se ic ion coe icien , and sliding (s a iona y o low
speed) [
31
,
32
]. The SCRIM, de eloped by he T anspo and Road Resea ch Labo a o y
(TRRL) in he UK, consis s o a uck chassis wi h a s anda dized wheel a anged a a
ixed oblique angle a 20 deg ees o he longi udinal axis o he ehicle, and connec ed o
a cons an wa e supply. When he uck mo es o wa d, he es wheel olls bu slides
in he longi udinal di ec ion due o he angula di e ence. The s anda dized es speed
is 50 km/h. The Side Fo ce Coe icien (SFC), measu ed wi h he SCRIM, is he a io o
he sideway o ce o e ical eac ion be ween he pa emen su ace and he i e, anging
om 0 o 1. A SCRIM eading, SR, is he di ec ou pu o each subsec ion measu ed in
he oad, wi h usual leng hs o 5, 10, o 20 m, ob ained as he a e age SFC alue a he
en i e subsec ion, exp essed as an in ege alue, and mul iplied by 100. The SR alues a e
ob ained di ec ly om he SCRIM and mus be co ec ed o speed. The SCRIM coe icien ,
SC, is he SR alue co ec ed o speed and machine a iabili y, exp essed as a decimal
ac ion, wi h wo decimal igu es. This is he equipmen used in Spain o measu e he
skid esis ance o a pa emen [
33
]. In he Spanish s anda d, SC alues we e exp essed as
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 3 o 19
a decimal ac ion, anging om 0 o 1 [
34
]. Howe e , om 2001, i is indica ed ha SC
alues mus exp essed om 0 o 100, i.e., mul iplied by 100 [35].
Ne e heless, in each es , each skid esis ance measu ing p ocedu e ollows he
es ablished s anda ds, mainly wi h ega d o i e p ope ies, ehicle speed, slip a io, wa e
supply a io, e c. Consequen ly, once a oad adminis a ion has selec ed a s anda d o
ob ain he pa emen ic ion on he oad ne wo k i manages, he su ace cha ac e is ics o
he pa emen and en i onmen al ac o s a e he only a iables ha a ec he esul s, while
he es o he a iables indica ed in Table 2 emain cons an (app oxima ely) [36].
As men ioned abo e, he su ace cha ac e is ics o he pa emen ha a ec ic ion in-
clude mac o- ex u e and mic o- ex u e [
23
,
37
–
42
]. Mac o- ex u e depends on he maximum
agg ega e size, he ype o he coa se and ine agg ega e, he g ada ion o he agg ega es,
he oids con en o he mix, and he bi uminous binde . Mic o- ex u e depends only on
he ype o coa se agg ega e, especially h ough he Polished S o e Value (PSV) [
31
,
43
–
45
].
Wi h ega d o en i onmen al ac o s, wa e is a key ac o in skid esis ance [
46
,
47
].
On d y and clean su aces, high ic ion alues a e achie ed. Howe e , when he oad
su ace is sligh ly we , like a he onse o ain all, a signi ican educ ion in a ailable
ic ion is obse ed as he wa e ilm on he su ace ac s as a lub ican be ween he i e
and he pa emen and also educes he con ac a ea. This is why mos ic ion es s a e
pe o med on we su aces. Rega ding con aminan s, he e is a wide ange (including
snow, ice, dus , clay, loose g a el, sand, and ehicle con aminan s such as uels and
oils) [
12
,
30
,
48
] ha in e e e wi h ic ion mechanisms and educe ic ion alues. Howe e ,
he indi idual e ec o each con aminan has no been esea ched [
49
]. Finally, excep in
ex eme condi ions, empe a u e does no signi ican ly a ec he ic ion o bi uminous
laye agg ega es. Howe e , since bo h i es and bi uminous ma e ials a e iscoelas ic, hey
a e mo e sensi i e o empe a u e changes [
50
]. As a ule, an inc ease in empe a u e leads
o a dec ease in skid esis ance.
In e ms o pa emen age, he beha io o ic ion di e s om ha o o he pa emen
p ope ies, which ypically wo sen o e ime and wi h a ic [
51
–
54
]. An in e na ionally
accep ed model desc ibes he e olu ion o skid esis ance o e ime (Figu e 1a) [
55
–
57
].
Fo new bi uminous pa emen , an ini ial inc ease in ic ion is obse ed as he bi umen
ilm o e lying he agg ega es is emo ed. This alue eaches i s maximum once he
bi umen ilm has disappea ed and he agg ega es a e exposed o a ic, p o iding high
ic ion due o hei mic o- ex u e. Once he agg ega es a e di ec ly exposed o a ic, hey
unde go he usual polishing p ocess [
23
,
58
], leading o a dec ease in he ic ion alue
un il an equilib ium phase is eached, whe e skid esis ance ends owa d an asymp o ic
alue [59,60].
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 20
(a)
(b)
Figu e 1. (a) E olu ion o skid esis ance o e ime; (b) seasonal a ia ions in skid esis ance in equi-
lib ium phase du ing yea .
Seasonal a ia ions in skid esis ance, obse ed du ing he equilib ium phase, ha e
been documen ed since 1931 [63], wi h he lowes alues measu ed in summe and he
highes in win e (Figu e 1b). On d y oads, pa icula ly in summe , he polishing ac ion
o a ic is dominan ; howe e , when pa emen s emain we o ex ended pe iods, usu-
ally in win e , he su ace egains some o i s p e ious ex u e and ha dness [64]. The
magni ude o hese a ia ions p ima ily depends on he geological his o y and pe og a-
phy o he agg ega es used. The i s s udy on hese seasonal a ia ions was conduc ed in
he UK [65], in ol ing pa emen s in a seasonal s a e and collec ing ic ion da a mon hly
o 11 yea s (1958–1968) (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. Skid esis ance measu ed in UK o 11 yea s wi h SCRIM.
O he s udies in o he coun ies also ce i y hese seasonal a ia ions [62,66,67]. Fo
pa emen s in he s a iona y phase, di e ences be ween yea s a e ela ed o changes in
clima e, bu a e less impo an han seasonal a ia ions. Sinusoidal models a e commonly
used o model hese a ia ions [66,68].
The polishing in ensi y o agg ega es in he polishing phase is di ec ly ela ed o a -
ic in ensi y, and especially o he in ensi y o hea y a ic [69,70]. Kennedy e al. [71]
indica ed ha , wi h all o he condi ions being equal, a oad wi h a highe olume o hea y
a ic would ha e a minimum skid esis ance alue since i is esponsible o he polishing
o he agg ega e mic o- ex u e. Figu e 3a shows his idea wi h da a om he UK wi h
agg ega es wi h PSV be ween 58 and 60 [72]. As seen, he ini ial dec ease is due o he
Figu e 1. (a) E olu ion o skid esis ance o e ime; (b) seasonal a ia ions in skid esis ance in
equilib ium phase du ing yea .
P e ious esea ch has shown ha , i a ic olumes a e main ained, luc ua ions
du ing he equilib ium phase a e p ima ily due o seasonal a ia ions and o he sho -
du a ion ac o s. Howe e , he e is no consensus on he du a ion o hese phases. In Spain,
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 4 o 19
he ini ial inc emen usually las s be ween 2 and 3 mon hs, al hough in some cases, due
o he s eng h o polyme -modi ied bi umen, i can ake up o 4 yea s [
61
]. Di e en
du a ions ha e also been epo ed o he polishing phase, anging om 4 o 5 yea s [
49
] o
1 yea [55,62].
Seasonal a ia ions in skid esis ance, obse ed du ing he equilib ium phase, ha e
been documen ed since 1931 [
63
], wi h he lowes alues measu ed in summe and he
highes in win e (Figu e 1b). On d y oads, pa icula ly in summe , he polishing ac ion o
a ic is dominan ; howe e , when pa emen s emain we o ex ended pe iods, usually in
win e , he su ace egains some o i s p e ious ex u e and ha dness [
64
]. The magni ude
o hese a ia ions p ima ily depends on he geological his o y and pe og aphy o he
agg ega es used. The i s s udy on hese seasonal a ia ions was conduc ed in he UK [
65
],
in ol ing pa emen s in a seasonal s a e and collec ing ic ion da a mon hly o 11 yea s
(1958–1968) (Figu e 2).
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 20
(a)
(b)
Figu e 1. (a) E olu ion o skid esis ance o e ime; (b) seasonal a ia ions in skid esis ance in equi-
lib ium phase du ing yea .
Seasonal a ia ions in skid esis ance, obse ed du ing he equilib ium phase, ha e
been documen ed since 1931 [63], wi h he lowes alues measu ed in summe and he
highes in win e (Figu e 1b). On d y oads, pa icula ly in summe , he polishing ac ion
o a ic is dominan ; howe e , when pa emen s emain we o ex ended pe iods, usu-
ally in win e , he su ace egains some o i s p e ious ex u e and ha dness [64]. The
magni ude o hese a ia ions p ima ily depends on he geological his o y and pe og a-
phy o he agg ega es used. The i s s udy on hese seasonal a ia ions was conduc ed in
he UK [65], in ol ing pa emen s in a seasonal s a e and collec ing ic ion da a mon hly
o 11 yea s (1958–1968) (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. Skid esis ance measu ed in UK o 11 yea s wi h SCRIM.
O he s udies in o he coun ies also ce i y hese seasonal a ia ions [62,66,67]. Fo
pa emen s in he s a iona y phase, di e ences be ween yea s a e ela ed o changes in
clima e, bu a e less impo an han seasonal a ia ions. Sinusoidal models a e commonly
used o model hese a ia ions [66,68].
The polishing in ensi y o agg ega es in he polishing phase is di ec ly ela ed o a -
ic in ensi y, and especially o he in ensi y o hea y a ic [69,70]. Kennedy e al. [71]
indica ed ha , wi h all o he condi ions being equal, a oad wi h a highe olume o hea y
a ic would ha e a minimum skid esis ance alue since i is esponsible o he polishing
o he agg ega e mic o- ex u e. Figu e 3a shows his idea wi h da a om he UK wi h
agg ega es wi h PSV be ween 58 and 60 [72]. As seen, he ini ial dec ease is due o he
Figu e 2. Skid esis ance measu ed in UK o 11 yea s wi h SCRIM.
O he s udies in o he coun ies also ce i y hese seasonal a ia ions [
62
,
66
,
67
]. Fo
pa emen s in he s a iona y phase, di e ences be ween yea s a e ela ed o changes in
clima e, bu a e less impo an han seasonal a ia ions. Sinusoidal models a e commonly
used o model hese a ia ions [66,68].
The polishing in ensi y o agg ega es in he polishing phase is di ec ly ela ed o a ic
in ensi y, and especially o he in ensi y o hea y a ic [
69
,
70
]. Kennedy e al. [
71
] indica ed
ha , wi h all o he condi ions being equal, a oad wi h a highe olume o hea y a ic
would ha e a minimum skid esis ance alue since i is esponsible o he polishing o he
agg ega e mic o- ex u e. Figu e 3a shows his idea wi h da a om he UK wi h agg ega es
wi h PSV be ween 58 and 60 [
72
]. As seen, he ini ial dec ease is due o he polishing phase
bu does no con inue a e eaching he equilib ium phase. The e o e, hea y a ic should
no be conside ed yea on yea as a cumula i e alue, as i only depends on he annual
in ensi y o hea y a ic [
60
]. E en when hea y ehicle a ic has d opped d as ically, o
example, due o a bypass o ha sec ion, inc eases in ic ion ha e been obse ed bo h in
he UK [73] (Figu e 3b) and in Spain on he N-VI in León (Spain) [74].
None heless, seasonal a ia ions do no occu in he unnels. Since hey a e no
exposed o he we pe iods o win e , hey a e no subjec o seasonal a ia ions and
he e o e he agg ega es do no eco e hei mac o- ex u e. Hence, as di accumula es,
as in d y pe iods in open-ai sec ions, and is no washed away by ain, he alues o skid
esis ance a e lowe inside he unnels han ou side [
75
,
76
]. Lowe alues ha e also been
obse ed in unnels wi h cemen conc e e pa emen s [
77
]. The e o e, lowe skid esis ance
alues we e iden i ied as a key ac o o a ic acciden s in unnels [78–80].
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 5 o 19
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 20
polishing phase bu does no con inue a e eaching he equilib ium phase. The e o e,
hea y a ic should no be conside ed yea on yea as a cumula i e alue, as i only de-
pends on he annual in ensi y o hea y a ic [60]. E en when hea y ehicle a ic has
d opped d as ically, o example, due o a bypass o ha sec ion, inc eases in ic ion ha e
been obse ed bo h in he UK [73] (Figu e 3b) and in Spain on he N-VI in León (Spain)
[74].
(a)
(b)
Figu e 3. A e age SCRIM coe icien alues in summe : (a) wi h hea y a ic olume; (b) wi h
change in hea y a ic olume.
None heless, seasonal a ia ions do no occu in he unnels. Since hey a e no ex-
posed o he we pe iods o win e , hey a e no subjec o seasonal a ia ions and he e-
o e he agg ega es do no eco e hei mac o- ex u e. Hence, as di accumula es, as in
d y pe iods in open-ai sec ions, and is no washed away by ain, he alues o skid e-
sis ance a e lowe inside he unnels han ou side [75,76]. Lowe alues ha e also been
obse ed in unnels wi h cemen conc e e pa emen s [77]. The e o e, lowe skid esis ance
alues we e iden i ied as a key ac o o a ic acciden s in unnels [78–80].
Al hough hese lowe alues a e known inside unnels compa ed o he alues ob-
se ed in he open ai , he dec ease in slip esis ance inside unnels has no been quan i-
a i ely e alua ed. The e o e, he aim o his a icle is o quan i y he di e ence be ween
he SC ob ained inside a unnel and he alues ou side he unnel. Fo his pu pose, he
SC alues measu ed in dual-ca iageway unnels wi h bi uminous pa emen s in he oad
ne wo k o he p o ince o Gipuzkoa, in Spain, we e s udied and compa ed wi h he al-
ues eco ded 500 m be o e and a e he unnel, whe e he same ype o ma e ial is p esen
in he su ace laye .
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Due o he impo ance o pa emen skid esis ance on oad sa e y, many s udies ha e
in es iga ed he a ailable ic ion in each phase based on di e en cha ac e is ics. Wang
e al. [81] eplica ed he skid esis ance e olu ion shown in Figu e 1a wi h some pla es
om a es ack polished using he Aachen Polishing Machine. The bi umen emo al and
he polishing ac ion on agg ega es we e desc ibed wi h a i e-pa ame e ic ion model.
In addi ion, a he inal polishing s age, he a ailable skid esis ance ended o be an as-
ymp o ical alue. Xie e al. [82] p esen ed a sel -de eloped accele a ed polishing machine
o simula e he p ocess wi h eal i es and analyzed he beha io o ine agg ega e polish-
ing suscep ibili y (FAPS) by means o he B i ish pendulum numbe (BPN). They demon-
s a ed ha he inal BPN ends o a alue asymp o ically and he FAPS is a measu e o
he a e o he skid esis ance dec ease. Simila ly, e alua ing he ic ion o eigh di e en
ho mix asphal (HMA) mix u es, Khasawneh [83] showed ha ic ion dec ease was
Figu e 3. A e age SCRIM coe icien alues in summe : (a) wi h hea y a ic olume; (b) wi h
change in hea y a ic olume.
Al hough hese lowe alues a e known inside unnels compa ed o he alues ob-
se ed in he open ai , he dec ease in slip esis ance inside unnels has no been quan i-
a i ely e alua ed. The e o e, he aim o his a icle is o quan i y he di e ence be ween
he SC ob ained inside a unnel and he alues ou side he unnel. Fo his pu pose, he
SC alues measu ed in dual-ca iageway unnels wi h bi uminous pa emen s in he oad
ne wo k o he p o ince o Gipuzkoa, in Spain, we e s udied and compa ed wi h he alues
eco ded 500 m be o e and a e he unnel, whe e he same ype o ma e ial is p esen in
he su ace laye .
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Due o he impo ance o pa emen skid esis ance on oad sa e y, many s udies ha e
in es iga ed he a ailable ic ion in each phase based on di e en cha ac e is ics. Wang
e al. [
81
] eplica ed he skid esis ance e olu ion shown in Figu e 1a wi h some pla es
om a es ack polished using he Aachen Polishing Machine. The bi umen emo al and
he polishing ac ion on agg ega es we e desc ibed wi h a i e-pa ame e ic ion model.
In addi ion, a he inal polishing s age, he a ailable skid esis ance ended o be an
asymp o ical alue. Xie e al. [
82
] p esen ed a sel -de eloped accele a ed polishing machine
o simula e he p ocess wi h eal i es and analyzed he beha io o ine agg ega e polishing
suscep ibili y (FAPS) by means o he B i ish pendulum numbe (BPN). They demons a ed
ha he inal BPN ends o a alue asymp o ically and he FAPS is a measu e o he a e
o he skid esis ance dec ease. Simila ly, e alua ing he ic ion o eigh di e en ho mix
asphal (HMA) mix u es, Khasawneh [
83
] showed ha ic ion dec ease was highe du ing
he i s hou o polishing and s abilizes wi h ime, esul ing in an asymp o ical alue.
Yan e al. [
84
] also co obo a ed he asymp o ical end on ul a- hin asphal o e lays a e
su icien ab asion cycles. The seasonal a ia ions expe imen ed by he ic ion du ing
he equilib ium phase has also a ac ed in e es . Wi h da a om six oads in Texas,
Jayawick ama and Thomas [
66
] p esen ed a ious skid p edic ion models using sinusoidal
unc ions o ep esen seasonal a ia ions. Simila ly, Echa egu en and Solminihac [
68
]
de eloped models o he oscilla o y pa e n by conside ing a ixed wa eleng h adjus ed o
a calenda yea .
O he esea che s p esen ed some skid esis ance p edic ion models based on agg e-
ga e p ope ies. Goulias and Awoke [
85
] iden i ied he p opo ion o he agg ega e blend,
some g ada ion cha ac e is ics o he agg ega es, and he asphal binde g ade employed
in he HMA as he p edic o s o he amoun o Equi alen S anda d Axle Loads ha he
pa emen can suppo be o e an es ablished minimum ic ion. Taking da a om wen y-
wo es ing places, wi h a ious ea men s and agg ega es in Oklahoma, Li e al. [
86
]
ied o co ela e hi y-one 3D agg ega e ex u e pa ame e s, g ouped in ou ca ego ies
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 6 o 19
( ex u al, ea u e, heigh , and ma e ial a io and olume pa ame e s) wi h measu ed skid
esis ance. Eigh pa ame e s we e selec ed based on hei s a is ical signi icance, wi h
he en opy and peak cu a u e as he mos signi ican in luencing ac o s on ic ion. In
ac , he employmen o 3D lase images is becoming a new me hod o e alua ing skid
esis ance [
5
]. Mo eo e , o he au ho s s udied how o imp o e he a ailable ic ion by
means o new mixing designs [
20
,
87
] and a e inco po a ing new ma e ials, such as c umb
ubbe bi umen [88], s eel slag [89–91], and calcined bauxi e agg ega es [42,92].
One o he mos challenging p oblems wi h pa emen skid esis ance is co ela ing
labo a o y and ield esul s. Ho ko e al. [
93
] es ablished co ela ions be ween polishing
simula ion ca ied ou wi h a Wehne /Schulze de ice and a ic loads in eal oads. In a
i s s ep, a Texas A&M Uni e si y, Rezaei e al. [
94
] ela ed he In e na ional F ic ion Index
(IFI) wi h some agg ega e p ope ies and a numbe o polishing cycles in he labo a o y.
In a subsequen s ep, Rezaei and Masad [
95
] p esen ed an IFI p edic ion model based on
a ic olume ins ead o polishing cycles, showing again he exponen ial dec ease o an
asymp o ical alue, as shown in Figu e 1.
A u he challenge in his ield is o p edic he a ailable minimum skid esis ance in a
eal oad as a unc ion o da a om eal pa emen s. One o he i s models was de eloped
by Sza kowski and Hosking [
73
], whe e he mean SCRIM coe icien measu ed in summe
was p edic ed as a unc ion o he Polished S one Value (PSV) and he daily olume o
comme cial ehicles ( hose wi h a mass o e 1500 kg). This model was conside ed as a majo
achie emen in he ield o skid esis ance a ha ime [
72
]. In New Zealand, a model was
p esen ed wi h he same a iables (PSV and a e age daily olume o comme cial ehicles)
bu achie ed e y low accu acy (R
2
= 0.28); howe e , i could be inc eased o
R2= 0.43
i
he chip size was included [
96
]. Ano he s udy in New Zealand de eloped a model ha
added he a e age leas dimension o he sealing chip o he p e ious a iables [
97
]. La e ,
an inc emen al model was also p oposed, in which he ic ion depended on he cumula ed
ligh ehicles, he ype o asphal , and local condi ions [
98
]. Using da a ob ained in win e
om 23 oad segmen s, Pé ez-Acebo e al. [
36
] de eloped a model o wo-lane oads
p edic ing he minimum ic ion in summe based on he a e age annual daily a ic o
hea y ehicles ( hose weighing mo e han 3500 kg) and he equi ed PSV acco ding o he
s anda ds, a e assuming a dec ease om win e o summe . La e , a mo e comple e model
o any ype o oad was p esen ed [
57
], including he AADT, he numbe o lanes in each
di ec ion, he ma e ial on he su ace laye , and he equi ed PSV. San os e al. [
99
] showed
some models o lexible pa emen s as a unc ion o a ic, clima e condi ions, and o he
oad cha ac e is ics. A mo e ecen s udy p esen ed wo models o mo o ways in Ba a ia
based on he AADT o all ehicles, he AADT o hea y ehicles, and he numbe o lanes
in he ca iageway and, i i was a ailable, he ype o ma e ial a he su ace laye [
60
]. All
hese models ha e shown ha he numbe o ehicles (hea y, ligh , o bo h) has a di ec
impac on a ailable skid esis ance as i ac s as an agg ega e polishe . E o s ha e been
conduc ed o de elop an equi alence ac o ha could co ela e he polishing e ec o
hea y and ligh ehicles [56,100,101].
As seen, apa om a ic olumes, which di ec ly a ec s he polishing a e, clima e
ac o s also in luence a ailable skid esis ance, wi h minimum alues in summe and
maximum in win e . None heless, he e a e ce ain sec ions whe e seasonal a ia ions
do no occu : inside he unnels [
102
]. As unnel segmen s a e no exposed o he we
pe iods o win e , hey a e no subjec ed o seasonal oscilla ions and hence he agg ega es
canno eco e hei mac o- ex u e. Addi ionally, di is accumula ed and is no washed
away by ain as in open ai spaces. As a esul , lowe ic ion alues a e obse ed in
unnels [
103
]. No ably, segmen s in unnels exhibi highe c ash equency han segmen s
ou side he unnels [
104
]. Ding e al. [
78
] showed he di ec ela ionship be ween he lowe
skid esis ance in unnels and he highe a io o acciden s in unnels.
Unlike asphal pa emen , conc e e pa emen is comple ely non lammable and non-
oxic in he case o a i e acciden in a unnel and hence conc e e pa emen has become a
usual solu ion o pa emen s in unnels [
76
,
102
]. Howe e , as o bi uminous pa emen s,
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 7 o 19
ic ion in unnels is lowe in cemen conc e e pa emen s han ou side [
105
,
106
] due o
he closed en i onmen , ca exhaus being p one o accumula e, and highe b aking e-
quency [
102
,
107
]. Hence, a e 3–5 yea s in se ice, he skid esis ance is unde he equi ed
minimum, c ea ing a haza d o oad sa e y [
78
]. Consequen ly, a ious echniques mus be
applied o gua an ee minimum ic ion in conc e e unnels. Cleaning egula ly wi h wa e
may be a solu ion bu he mos e ec i e me hods a e emaking he an i-skid s uc u e and
he asphal o e lay [
108
]. Coa sening echniques include g oo ing [
108
–
110
], milling [
111
],
ine milling, b ooming [
110
], exposed conc e e pa emen and polyme -modi ied cemen
conc e e [
102
], and po ous conc e e [
106
]. Some asphal o e lay echniques include mic o-
su acing [
89
], laying sealing laye [
112
], and asphal conc e e ul a- hin o e lay [
113
–
115
].
In asphal pa emen s in unnels, he dec ease in skid esis ance has also been ce i ied.
Mau e e al. [
103
] conduc ed an analysis in Aus ian unnels. Measu emen s a e new
laye s we e ex ended and one yea la e we e aken and i was shown ha skid esis ance
was nea ly cons an . Howe e , i was obse ed ha alues inside he da a we e lowe , e en
wi h he same pa emen ype and cons uc ed by he same con ac o , g adually dec easing
wi h he leng h o he unnel. F ic ion alues in he en i e Aus ian oad ne wo k and alues
in he unnels we e compa ed, ep esen ing he cumula i e equency o he skid esis ance
da a. A high pe cen age o he sec ions inside he unnels we e below he es ablished
minimum ic ion alue in Aus ia. Addi ionally, a end o ob ain lowe alues in longe
unnels was obse ed. F om he p ojec , i was seen ha , in gene al, lowe alues we e
measu ed in unnels han ou side o conc e e and asphal pa emen , and some me hods
we e p oposed o imp o e he ic ion: cleaning wi h wa e , high p essu e wa e (je ing,
bulle , sand blas ing), blas ing, and suc ion o he emo ed b ushed ine su ace. O he
echniques ha e also been in es iga ed in asphal pa emen unnels, such as wa e p essu e
and sweeping, o main ain he hyd oblas ing p ocedu e conduc ed be o e [75].
As shown in his li e a u e e iew, he lowe ic ion in unnels is ce i ied in bo h
conc e e and asphal pa emen s. Howe e , he usual dec ease ha we can expec inside he
unnels is no clea . I is necessa y o know he di e ence in SC poin s ha can be expec ed in
he SC poin s be ween bo h zones, and he expec ed a e age ic ion dec ease in pe cen age.
Mo eo e , he e a e s ill some ques ions needing o be answe ed. Fo example, as we know
ha he e is seasonal a ia ion ou side he unnel, is he ic ion di e ence be ween he
ou side and inside o he unnel highe in win e o in summe ? Fu he mo e, is he e a
di ec ela ionship be ween he leng h o he unnel and he measu ed ic ion? In o he
wo ds, a e lowe alues ob ained in longe unnels? Addi ionally, since he hea y ehicle
a ic olume is said o be co ela ed wi h lowe ic ion alues, is he skid esis ance
di e ence highe wi h highe hea y ehicle olumes? The pape aims o answe hese
ques ions a e analyzing 73 unnels in he p o ince o Gipuzkoa, in Spain, compa ing
alues inside and ou side unnels in mo o ways wi h asphal pa emen s. Speci ically, o
mo o ways in Gipuzkoa, a BBTM (bé on bi umineux ès mince) mix u e is es ablished as
he unique possible solu ion. Obse ed di e ences be ween he da a inside and ou side he
unnels a e analyzed.
3. Analyzed Sec ions and Me hodology
3.1. Analyzed Sec ions
The da a o conduc his s udy on he dec ease in he skid esis ance in unnels we e
ob ained om he Regional Go e nmen o Gipuzkoa (RGG). Due o he special poli ical
s a us o he Au onomous Communi y o he Basque Coun y, each o he egional go e n-
men s o he h ee p o inces ha compose he egion (Bizkaia, Gipuzkoa, and Ala a/A aba)
has exclusi e compe ence o e he exis ing oads wi hin i s e i o y, excep o municipal
oads [
116
]. Thus, nei he he Spanish Go e nmen ( h ough he co esponding Minis y)
no he Basque Go e nmen has any compe ence o e oads, and he RGG is esponsible
o managing e en hose oads belonging o i ine a ies, which un h ough mo e han one
egion o which belong o c oss-bo de i ine a ies.
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 8 o 19
The da a p o ided indica e he exac KP o hei measu emen and he leng h o
he measu emen sec ion (10 o 20 m). The collec ing da a campaigns we e ca ied ou in
di e en yea s (2005, 2007, 2010, 2015, 2018, 2021, and 2022), al hough no he en i e ne wo k
was su eyed in each o hese yea s. The measu emen s we e conduc ed in di e en mon hs
o he yea , bo h in win e (Janua y) and summe (June, July, and Sep embe ), as well
as in Oc obe and No embe . Mos o he da a we e ob ained using SCRIM [
117
], as
desc ibed in he p e ious sec ion. Addi ionally, some da a collec ions we e pe o med
using he G ipTes e , which is a de ice equipped wi h a pa ially locked longi udinal
measu ing wheel (15%), wi h a ixed sliding deg ee, ollowing he UNE-CEN/TS 15901-
7:2010 IN s anda d [
118
]. The G ip Numbe (GN) ob ained om hese measu emen s can
be co ela ed wi h he SC using Equa ion (1), p oposed by he T anspo a ion Resea ch
Labo a o y (TRL) o he Uni ed Kingdom ( o me TRRL), wi h a co ela ion coe icien
o 0.9701.
SCSCRIM(%)=0.89·GN
0.78 (1)
whe e SC
SCRIM
is he SC alue ob ained using he SCRIM uck, exp essed as a pe cen age,
i.e., om 0 o 100; and GN is he G ip Numbe ob ained using he G ip es e .
As he e a e only wo sho unnels in single ca iageway oads in Gipuzkoa, i was
decided o only analysis he unnels in mo o ways, whe e he e a e mo e han o y. The
high-capaci y ne wo k in Gipuzkoa has a bi uminous su ace. Due o he high pe o mance
equi ed o hese oads, he usual bi uminous mixes a e d aining mixes ( ype PA) and
discon inuous mixes ( ype BBTM). Gi en ha d aining mixes can pose an addi ional isk
in unnels, since he high pe meabili y o he ma e ial would allow a lammable liquid o
sp ead apidly ac oss a la ge su ace a ea, only discon inuous BBTM mixes a e employed in
dual-ca iageway unnels in Gipuzkoa, as speci ied in Basque Coun y’s pa emen design
s anda d [
119
]. In addi ion, Gipuzkoa is a small p o ince wi h a homogeneous clima e, he
oceanic clima e. Hence, all he da a a e analyzed o a unique clima e a ea.
3.2. Me hodology
Wi h he da a desc ibed abo e, he ollowing alues we e calcula ed:
•SC unnel: The a e age o he eco ded SC alues wi hin he unnel’s leng h.
•
SC
be o e
: The a e age o he eco ded SC alues in he 500 m be o e he s a o he
unnel.
•
SC
a e
: The a e age o he eco ded SC alues in he 500 m ollowing he end o he
unnel.
•
SC
ex
: This is he a e age o he SC
be o e
and SC
a e
alues and indica es he a e age
alue in he su oundings o he unnel, conside ing he alues be o e and a e he
unnel (a he same dis ance o 500 m in each case).
•
Absolu e Di e ence, Di (ABS): This is he algeb aic di e ence be ween SC
unnel
and
SC
ex
, which will ha e a nega i e alue (due o he highe alue o SC
ex
), acco ding o
Equa ion (2), and ep esen s he di e ence in e ms o CRT be ween inside and ou side
he unnel.
Di (ABS)=SC unnel −SCex (2)
•
Pe cen age Di e ence, Di (%): This is he pe cen age o he absolu e di e ence in
he SC alue ou side he unnel (SC
ex
), acco ding o Equa ion (3), and ep esen s
he pe cen age dec ease in he ic ion alue in he unnel compa ed o ha ou side
he unnel.
Di (%) = Di (ABS)
SCex
=SC unnel −SCex
SCex (3)
A leng h o 500 m be o e and a e he unnel was conside ed as a alid leng h o
assessing he ic ion condi ions ou side he unnel. Sho e dis ances may in luence he
alue due o local pa icula i ies, while longe leng hs may con ain di e en ma e ials in
he wea ing cou se, which would in oduce e o s in he compa ison.
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 9 o 19
Addi ionally, be o e da a e alua ion, cases whe e ehabili a ion o main enance ac i i-
ies ha e been ca ied ou on he unnel sec ion and i s ou e pa s we w excluded. All he
sec ions conside ed in he s udy a e su icien ly aged o be ega ded as being in a seasonal
s a e, wi h he only luc ua ions in skid esis ance a ibu ed o seasonal a ia ions. Sec ions
wi h younge pa emen s a e s ill in he phase o inc easing ic ion o accele a ed polishing
(Figu e 1a), so hei alues should no be used. Usually, i he pa emen is in one o hese
phases, he SC
unnel
and SC
ex
alues a e simila , and in some cases, he SC alues inside
he unnel may e en be highe han hose ou side. These in alid da a we e emo ed om
he analysis.
In addi ion o he p e iously men ioned da a, he ollowing in o ma ion abou he
unnel was also included:
•The name o he unnel.
•
Di ec ion o he ca iageway, indica ed as ascending o descending, acco ding o he
Kilome e Poin s (KP).
•The leng h o he unnel.
•The Annual A e age Daily T a ic (ADDT) o he segmen .
•
The Annual A e age Daily T a ic o hea y ehicles in he p ojec lane, he lane wi h
he highes numbe o hea y ehicles (ADDT-HV). In Spain, a ehicle is conside ed
hea y when i s mass exceeds 3500 kg [120].
•The a ic ca ego y acco ding o he Spanish s anda d 6.1-IC [120].
•The mon h o he da a collec ion.
Using he ob ained alues and g ouping he unnels acco ding o a ious cha ac e is-
ics ( unnel leng h, a ic ca ego ies, and he season in which he measu emen was aken),
he ollowing a e age alues ha e been calcula ed:
•
A e age SC in he unnel,
SC unel
: The a e age o he SC
unnel
alues o he unnels
conside ed in ha ca ego y.
•
A e age ou doo SC,
SCex
: This is he a e age o he SC
ex
alues o he unnels
conside ed in ha ca ego y.
•
Mean Absolu e Di e ence,
Di (ABS)
: This is he a e age o he Di (ABS) alues o
he unnels conside ed in ha ca ego y.
•
A e age o Pe cen age Di e ences,
Di (%)
: This is he a e age o he pe cen age
di e ences, Di (%) o he unnels conside ed in ha ca ego y.
•
Di e ence in A e ages, in Pe cen ages, Di (AVER): This is he a io be ween he
mean o he absolu e di e ences and he mean o he SC alues ou side o he unnels
conside ed in ha ca ego y, exp essed acco ding o Equa ion (4).
Di (AVER) = Di (ABS)
CRTex
=
∑n
i=1(CRT uni−CRTex i)
n
CRTex
(4)
Al hough hese las wo alues,
Di (ABS)
and Di (AVER), a e simila , hey a e no
he same, and i was conside ed con enien o calcula e bo h in o de o ob ain a clea e
pic u e o he a ia ions be ween he SC alues inside and ou side a unnel.
In addi ion, he mean di e ences o
Di (ABS)
be ween he es ablished ca ego ies
we e es ed o e alua e he signi icance o he di e ence o independen samples. In he
case o compa ing wo ca ego ies, a wo independen sample - es was ca ied ou , using
ei he pooled a iance (in he case o equal a iance) o sepa a e a iance (in he case
o unequal a iance), as ollowed in o he simila a e –be o e analysis [
121
,
122
]. When
compa ing h ee ca ego ies, an Analysis o Va iance (ANOVA) was made o es he mean
di e ence be ween he ca ego ies, as in o he esea ch [
123
,
124
]. P e iously, a Le ene
es was conduc ed o check o a iance equali y. In he case o equal a iance, he DMS
s a is ic was used o check he mean di e ence be ween he wo ca ego ies indi idually.
I he a iance was unequal, he Tamhane’s s a is ic es was employed o e i ying he
signi icance o he mean be ween he wo ca ego ies.
Buildings 2024,14, 3963 16 o 19
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